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ADVANCED    AGRICULTURE 


ADVANCED  SCIENCE  MANUALS 

Written  specially  to  meet  the  requirements  c/ Stage  II. 

OF  Science  Subjects  as  laid  dozvn  in  the 

Syllabus  of  the  Directory  of  the  Board 

OF  Education. 


BUILDING  CONSTRUCTION.  By  the  Author  of  "  Rivington's 
Notes  on  Building  Construction."  With  385  Illustrations  and  an 
Appendix  of  Examination  Questions.     Crown  8vo.     4J.  fxl. 

HEAT.  By  Mark  R.  Wright,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Education, 
Armstrong  College,  Newcastle-on-Tyne.  With  136  Illustrations, 
arid  numerous  Examples  and  Examination  Papers.  Crown  8vo. 
4fi.td. 

LIGHT.     By  W.   J.  A.   Emtagb,   M.A.     With    132   Illastrations. 

Crown  8vo.    6*. 
MAGNETISM   AND  ELECTRICITY.    By  Arthur  William 

POYSER,  M.A.     With  317  Illustrations.     Crown  Svo.     41.  fid. 

INORGANIC  CHEMISTRY,  THEORETICAL  AND 
PRACTICAL.  A  Manual  for  Students  in  Advanced  Classes  of 
the  Science  and  Art  Department.  By  William  Jago,  F.C.S., 
F.I.C.  With  Plate  of  Spectra  and  78  Illustrations.  Crown  Svo. 
^.td. 

GEOLOGY.  A  Manual  for  Students  in  Advanced  Classes  and  for 
General  Readers.  By  Charlks  Bird,  B.A.  Lond.,  F.G.S.  With 
300  Illustrations  and  Geological  Map  of  British  Isles  (coloured), 
ftcd  a  set  of  Questions  for  Examination.     Crown  8vo.    71.  td. 

PHYSIOGRAPHY.  By  John  Thornton,  M.A.  With  11  Maps. 
255  Illustrations,  and  Coloured  Map  of  Ocean  Deposits.  Crown 
Evo.    4^.  fid. 

HUMAN  PHYSIOLOGY  (Stage  II.)-  By  Johk  Thornton, 
M.A.  With  284  Illusuations,  some  of  which  are  coloured,  and  a 
Set  of  Questions  for  Examination.     Crown  8vo.     ts. 

THEORETICAL  MECHANICS-SOLIDS.  Including  Kine- 
matics.  Statics,  and  Kinetics.  By  Arthur  Thornton.  M.A^ 
F  R.A.S.  With  220  Illustrations,  130  Worked  Examples,  and  over 
900  Examples  from  Examination  Papers,  etc     Crown  8vo.     4^.  6^ 

AfiVICULTURE.  By  Henrv  J.  Wbbb,  Ph.D.,  B.Sc.  Lond., 
late  Principal  of  the  Agricultural  College,  Aspatria.  With  100 
Illustrations.     Crown  8vo.     7^-  ^-  °et- 

LONGMANS,   GREEN,    AND    CO. 

LONDON,  NEW  YORK,  BOMBAY,  AND  CALCUTTA 


ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE 


HENRY    J.   WEBB,    Ph.D.,   B.Sc.    (Lond.) 

LATE   PRINCIPAL   OF   THE   AGRICULTURAL   COLLEGE,   ASP  ATRIA 

FIRST   IN   THE   FIRST  CLASS   AT   THE   NATIONAL   COMPETITION   OF   TEACHERS 

OF   AGRICULTURAL   SCIENCE,     1887.      FIRST   CLASS   HONOURS   LONDON   UNIVERSITY 

GOLD   MEDALLIST,   AND   HONOURS  IN  AGRICULTURE  SCIENCE  AND  ART  DEPARTMENT 


NEW  IMPRESSION 

LONGMANS,     GREEN,     AND     CO. 

39   PATERNOSTER   ROW,   LONDON 

NEW    YORK,    BOMBAY,    AND   CALCUTTA 

1908 

All  rights  reserved 


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PREFACE 

The  success  attending  his  Elementary  Text-book  on 
Agriculture,  induced  the  late  Dr.  Webb  to  continue  the 
subject  in  a  more  advanced  manner  in  the  present  volume. 
This  work,  though  primarily  intended  for  the  Advanced 
Stage  of  the  Science  and  Art  Department's  Examination 
in  "  Principles  of  Agriculture,"  will  also  cover  the  greater 
part  of  the  syllabus  of  the  Honours  Stage. 

Care  has,  however,  been  taken  not  to  adhere  too  rigidly 
to  the  syllabus  in  question,  and  I  trust  that  it  may  be 
found  equally  serviceable  for  the  examination  for  the 
Diploma  in  Agriculture  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural 
Society  of  Scotland,  and  the  Senior  Examination  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England. 

I  presume  that  every  student  reading  for  the 
Advanced  Stage  will  have  first  perused  the  Elementary 
Text-book,  and  on  this  account  little  has  been  said  in  the 
present  volume  about  "  Foods "  (except  their  practical 
usage),  "  Ensilage,"  the  theoretical  properties  of  tillage 
operations,  and  one  or  two  other  subjects.  In  order  to 
render  the  book  more  suitable  for  the  examination  of  the 
Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland,  and  of 
greater  value  to  the  general  agricultural  student,  a  special 
chapter  on  "  Veterinary  Science  "  has  been  inserted.  This 
is  not  required  in  the  Advanced  Stage  of  "  Principles  of 
Agriculture,"  but  will,  to  some  extent,  bear  upon  the 
"  Agricultural  Hygiene  "  of  the  Honours. 

280284 


VI  PREFACE. 

Unfortunately  for  the  cause  of  agriculture  and  for  the 
scientific  world  in  general,  Dr.  Webb  was  never  able  to 
complete  the  work  he  had  begun.  Struck  down  in  the 
midst  of  a  successful  and  splendid  career,  his  plans  had 
to  be  carried  out  by  other  hands.  He  was  known  through- 
out the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land  as  one  of  the  first 
agricultural  teachers  of  his  day — a  position  he  had  attained 
by  indomitable  perseverance,  extensive  knowledge  of  the 
subject,  and  remarkable  ability  for  imparting  instruction 
to  others.  His  keen  foresight  has  done  much  to  perfect 
agricultural  education  in  this  country,  and  by  his  death 
a  vacancy  has  been  left  in  the  leading  ranks  of  agricul- 
turists which  it  will  be  difficult  to  fill. 

I  have  to  thank  numerous  agricultural  writers  for 
information  upon  various  subjects.  To  Professor  A.  N. 
Mc Alpine,  B.Sc.  (Lond.),  I  am  indebted  for  the  sections 
on  •*  Farm  Crops  "  and  "  Seeds  "  in  the  chapter  on  "  Agri- 
cultural Botany."  Mr.  H.  Thompson,  M.R.C.V.S.,  kindly 
contributed  the  chapter  on  "Veterinary  Science."  I 
must  also  thank  Mr.  David  Young,  of  the  North  British 
Agriculturist,  for  his  revision  of  the  proofs  ;  Mr.  J.  Simpson, 
for  correcting  the  chapter  on  "  Forestry ; "  and  the  Editor 
of  the  Mark  Lane  Express,  for  courteously  supplying  me 
with  many  of  the  illustrations  of  Live  Stock.  In  the 
supervision  of  the  work  while  passing  through  the  press, 
I  have  been  assisted  by  Messrs.  H.  F.  Hill  and  C.  J.  R. 
Tipper,  of  the  Aspatria  Agricultural  College. 

J.    LISTER. 

The  Agricultural  College, 
Aspatria. 


CONTENTS 

PART  I.— AGRICULTURAL   SCIENCE. 

CHAPTER  ,AGB 

I.    Agricultural  Geology         i 

Agricultural  Physics 14 

II.    Agricultural  Engineering 18 

III.  Agricultural  Chemistry — 

A.  Chemistry  of  the  Soil 54 

B.  Chemistry  of  Manures 68 

C.  Chemistry  of  the  Plant        98 

D.  Chemistry  of  the  Animal  Body 114 

IV.  Agricultural  Botany — 

A.  Structure  and  Physiology  of  the  Plant 124 

B.  Farm  Crops 132 

C.  Seeds 175 

D.  Weeds 189 

E.  Fungoid  Diseases 202 

V.    Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  Farm  Animals   .     .     .     .210 

VI.    Veterinary  Science 221 

VII.    Agricultural  Entomology 267 

PART  XL— AGRICULTURAL  PRACTICE. 

I.    Mechanical  Improvements  of  the  Soil 280 

II.    Farm  Crops  and  their  Cultivation — 

A.  Rotations  of  Crops 297 

B.  Cultivation  of  Crops — 

1.  Preparatory  Culture 308 

2.  Seeding  and  After-Culture 317 

3.  Harvesting 337 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

III.  Manures— Application  and  Management 349 

IV.  Drainage 364 

V.     Irrigation 391 

VI.    Permanent  Pastures 398 

VII.  Live  Stock — 

A.  Horses 410 

B.  Cattle 437 

C.  Sheep         513 

D.  Pigs 566 

E.  Poultry 581 

F.  Bees 597 

VIII.  Dairying 608 

IX.    Woods  and  Plantations 621 

X.    Fruit  Culture 637 

XI.    Meteorology 648 

XII.    Agricultural  Experiments 655 

Questions 659 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


PART    I.— AGRICULTURAL    SCIENCE. 

CHAPTER   I. 

AGRICULTURAL    GEOLOGY. 

The  primary  object  of  the  science  of  Agriculture  is  the  cultivation 
and  improvement  of  the  soil,  as  it  is  from  its  wealth  of  food- 
constituents,  built  up  into  appropriate  forms  by  the  members  of 
the  vegetable  kingdom,  that  animals  derive  the  materials  neces- 
saj^  for  their  development.  In  order  that  an  agriculturist  may 
acquire  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  management  of  the  various 
crops  and  domestic  animals,  he  should  commence  with  the  study 
of  the  soil,  or  Agricultural  Geology,  and  in  the  present  chapter 
we  will,  in  as  brief  and  simple  a  manner  as  possible,  endeavour 
to  lay  before  him  the  chief  points  in  this  subject  to  which  his 
attention  may  be  profitably  directed. 

Geology  tells  us  that  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  composed  of  two 
classes  of  rocks,  stratified  .and  unstratified. 

Stratified  rocks,  which  are  found  in  layers  one  above  the 
other,  or  side  by  side,  constitute  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
earth's  crust.  But  the  unstratified  rocks,  which  are  mostly 
crystalline,  and  therefore  in  structure  like  granite,  are  very 
important,  because  it  is  from  the  decomposition  of  these  rocks 
and  rearrangement  of  their  constituent  particles  by  the  agency 
of  water,  that  the  stratified  rocks  have  been  formed. 

Definition  of  a  Rock. — In  its  ordinary  sense,  the  word  rock 
is  applied  to  a  mass  of  hard  stone ;  but,  geologically  speaking, 
a  rock  is  any  mass  of  material  forming  part  of  the  earth's  crust, 

B 


?5  .'„  o^  ,*^.»^  .,     ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

so  that  clay,  sand,  or  gravel  are  spoken  of  as  rocks,  quite  as  much 
as  granite  and  sandstone. 

If  a  piece  of  granite  be  examined,  it  will  be  found  to  be  made 
up  of  several  different  substances,  called  minerals.  The  glassy- 
looking  grains  which  cannot  be  scratched  with  a  knife  are  quartz 
crystals.  The  opaque  white  or  pink  crystals,  with  smooth  surfaces 
of  a  pearly  lustre,  are  called  felspar^  and  the  little  black  masses 
that  split  up  into  a  number  of  glittering  plates  are  mica. 

Each  of  these  substances  possesses  properties  peculiar  to  itself, 
such  as  a  definite  chemical  composition,  specific  gravity,  crystal- 
line form,  and  hardness.  Such  substances  are  called  minerals, 
and,  before  we  proceed  further,  it  will  be  desirable  for  the  student 
to  make  the  acquaintance  of  the  chief  minerals  which  enter  into 
the  composition  of  rocks,  and  which  ars  known  as  the  rock-forming 
minerals. 

The  Rock-forming  Minerals. 

Quartz— Silica,  or  silicon  dioxide  (SiOg) — is  a  compound  of 
Silicon  and  Oxygen  —the  most  abundant  mineral  on  the  earth's 
surface. 

It  is  found  crystalline  in  six-sided  prisms  with  pyramidal  ends, 
very  hard  and  glassy ;  or  irregular  masses  of  quartz-rock ;  or  in 
small  loose  grains  of  sand. 

Felspar  is  a  silicate  of  alumina  combined  with  soda,  potash, 
or  lime.  When  the  potash  prevails,  it  is  called  orthoclase^  or 
potash  felspar ;  albite^  or  oUgoclase^  when  soda  predominates; 
labradorite^  when  lime  is  the  chief  substance  in  combination. 

Clay  is  formed  from  the  decomposition  of  felspar. 

Mica — of  which  there  are  several  varieties — consists  of  silicate 
of  alumina  combined  with  potash,  magnesia,  lime,  oxide  of  iron, 
and  manganese.  It  readily  splits  into  thin  plates,  which  have  a 
brilliant  lustre,  and  is  found  in  many  crystalline  rocks,  as  well 
as  in  slates,  shales,  and  micaceous  sands  and  sandstones. 

Amphibole,  the  chief  variety  of  which  is  hornhleiide^  consists 
of  silicate  of  magnesia  and  lime,  combined  with  oxides  of  iron 
and  manganese,  in  the  form  of  black  or  dark-green  crystals  widely 
distributed,  especially  in  trap  rocks. 

Augite  resembles  hornblende  in  composition  and  physical 

properties. 

Magnetite — Magnetic  Iron  (Fe304). — Found  in  large  masses 
or  distributed  in  small  grains  through  the  basaltic  rocks. 

Pyrites — Sulphide  of  Iron  (FeSo). — When  in  large  quantities, 
exercises  a  poisonous  effect  on  vegetation. 

Kaolin. — Pure  clay,  a  hydrated  silicate  of  alumina.     Formed 


ROCK-FORMING  MINERALS.  3 

from  the  decomposition  of  felspar  under  the  combined  action  of 
carbonic  acid  and  water. 

Olivine,  or  Peridote. — A  silicate  of  magnesia  and  iron,  chiefly 
found  in  basaltic  rocks  in  the  shape  of  green  crystals. 

Serpentine. — Hydrated  siHcate  of  magnesia.  A  compact 
mineral  found  in  large  masses  and  possessing  a  mottled  purple, 
dark  green,  or  blackish  colour,  with  a  greasy  feel.  Formed  either 
from  the  partial  decomposition  of  olivine,  or  from  the  meta- 
morphism  of  some  sedimentary  rocks  composed  of  silicate  of 
magnesia. 

Zeolites. — Hydrated  silicates  of  alumina  or  lime.  Readily 
decomposed  by  weak  acid.  Found  in  the  soil  in  a  state  of 
minute  subdivision,  w^here  they  are  supposed  to  take  a  share  in 
important  chemical  processes. 

Carbonate  of  Lime  (CaCOs). — Found  as  chalk  and  Hmestone 
in  very  large  masses  or  formations,  and  also  universally  distributed 
through  the  soil.  In  the  crystalline  form  it  is  known  as  Calcite, 
of  which  *'  Iceland  Spar,"  "  Dogtooth  Spar,"  "  Nailhead  Spar," 
etc.,  are  varieties. 

Dolomite. — Magnesian  limestone,  consists  of  a  mixture  of 
carbonate  of  lime  and  carbonate  of  magnesia,  in  the  proportion 
of  two  of  the  former  to  one  of  the  latter. 

Apatite  (CagPsOg). — Crystalline  phosphate  of  lime.  Found  in 
beautiful  green  transparent  crystals  in  Canada  and  the  United 
States ;  in  red  opaque  crystals  in  Norway. 

The  non-crystalline  form  of  phosphate  of  lime  is  called  phos- 
phorite. It  is  found  in  America,  Spain,  France,  and  most  parts 
of  the  world,  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  superphosphate 
of  lime. 

Gypsum  (CaS04  +  2 HoO).— Hydrated  sulphate  of  Hme  is  a 
very  widely  distributed  mineral  Plaster  of  Paris  is  formed  from 
it  by  driving  off  the  water  by  heat. 

Specimens  of  these  minerals  should  be  examined,  and  the 
student  should  learn  to  identify  them  separately,  and  also  to  pick 
them  out  from  other  minerals  when  forming  part  of  some  crystal- 
line rock. 

We  next  proceed  to  gain  a  general  knowledge  of  the  different 
kinds  of  rocks. 

It  has  been  stated  before  that  rocks  are  divided  primarily  into 
two  groups — the  unstratified  or  igneous,  and  the  stratified  or 
aqueous  rocks.  The  unstratified  have  also  been  called  the  primary 
rocks,  from  the  fact  that  they  must  have  preceded  the  stratified, 
which  have  been  formed  from  their  decomposed  and  disintegrated 
fragments. 


4  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Classification  of  Unstratified  Rocks. 

The  unstratified  rocks  are  generally  classified  in  the  following 
manner  : — 

Example. 

(  Plutonic  . .  . .  . .  Granite. 

Igneous  4    Volcanic  I  f^^^  ••  '•  ^™f- 

^^  (^  lava  . .  . .  Basalt. 

Metamorphic  . .  . .  . .  . .  Gneiss. 

Both  plutoni.c  and  volcanic  rocks  have  at  some  time  been  in 
a  molten  condition.  Volcanic  rocks  have  been  thrown  out  of 
volcanoes  in  the  form  of  ash,  or  have  been  poured  out  as  lava ; 
the  result  being  that  they  have  cooled  rapidly  in  contact  with  air. 
Pumice-stone  is  an  example  of  volcanic  ash.  It  is  porous  on 
account  of  the  small  bubbles  of  steam  formerly  contained  in  it. 

The  rocks  formed  of  lava  are  chiefly — 

Basalt,  a  dense,  heavy,  dark-coloured  rock,  consisting  of  felspar 
and  augite. 

Trachite,  consisting  of  felspar  and  hornblende,  generally  of  a 
grey  colour  and  rough  to  the  touch. 

Plutonic  Rocks  have  been  formed  beneath  the  surface  out  of 
contact  with  air,  and  subject  to  great  pressure.  They  have  cooled 
very  slowly,  and  the  crystals  are  much  larger  than  those  in  volcanic 
rocks. 

The  best-known  plutonic  rock  is  granite,  composed,  as  we 
have  before  seen,  of  quartz,  mica,  and  felspar.  The  Highlands  of 
Scotland,  and  the  mountains  of  Devon  and  Cornwall  are  chiefly 
formed  of  this  rock. 

Syenite  is  a  variety  of  granite  in  which  the  mica  is  replaced 
by  hornblende,  and  the  quartz  is  present  only  in  small  quantities. 

Felstone  is  a  close-grained  rock,  consisting  of  quartz  and 
felspar. 

Diorite  consists  of  plagioclase  and  hornblende.  It  only 
occurs  in  dykes  and  thick  masses  which  have  cooled  at  great 
depths. 

Metamorphic  Rocks. — These  are  stratified  sedimentary  rocks 
which  have  become  metamorphosed  or  altered  by  heat  or  pressure, 
and  whose  structure  has  become  more  or  less  crystalline. 

Examples  of  these  rocks  are  crystalline  limestones^  or  marble, 
and  quartzite,  a  sandstone,  the  grains  of  which  have  been  partly 
fused  and  run  together. 

Slate  is  shale  which  has  been  hardened  by  intense  lateral 
pressure.  The  shale  was  originally  deposited  in  layers,  and 
compressed  from  above. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF   ROCKS.  5 

Gneiss  is  composed  of  quartz,  mica,  and  felspar,  the  same 
minerals  as  are  found  in  granite,  but  they  are  arranged  in  layers. 


Stratified  Rocks. 

These  rocks  may  be  divided  into  three  different  classes. 

(i)  Sedimentary  Rocks,  such  as  clay  and  sandstone,  formed 
from  sediment  deposited  at  the  mouths  of  rivers,  at  the  bottom 
of  the  sea,  or  large  lakes.  These  will  be  dealt  with  later  on, 
when  considering  the  distribution  of  soils. 

(2)  Organic  Rocks  include  rocks  formed  through  the  agency 
of  animal  and  vegetable  life,  such  as  chalk,  flint,  limestone, 
phosphate,  peat,  and  coal. 

(3)  Chemically  formed  Rocks.— These  include  rocks  which 
have  been  precipitated  from  water  by  the  gradual  drying  up  of 
inland  seas  and  rivers.  In  this  way  we  get  beds  of  sodium 
chloride,  potassium  sulphate,  as  well  as  gypsum,  or  sulphate  of 
lime.     Oolitic  limestone  is  a  chemically  formed  rock. 

Stratified  or  aqueous  rocks  differ  from  igneous  rocJzs  in  the 
following  points : — 

{a)  They  are  arranged  in  regular  layers,  which  have  been 
deposited  one  above  the  other. 

((^)  Are  formed  of  minerals  which  are  generally  non-crystal- 
line. 

(e)  Are  derived  from  the  remains  of  previous  rocks. 

(d)  Contain  the  fossil  remains  of  animals  and  plants  which 
existed  at  the  time  the  rocks  were  deposited. 


Formation  of  Soils. 

The  natural  agents  at  work,  causing  the  formation  of  soils 
from  the  crystalline  and  other  rocks,  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes. 

1.  Those  which  cause  decomposition  and  disintegration,  an 
effect  known  as  weathering^  which  is  followed  up  and  completed 
by  the  action  of  vegetation  and  animal  life. 

2.  Those  which  may  be  called  transporting  agencies. 
Weathering",  and  its  causes,  will  be  first  considered. 


C  Physical    /  ^••°^^-  , 

Agents  concerned  )  )  w?^    ' 

T..  M^„w. ........     <  i  Water. 

i    Chemical  -j  Carbonic  acid. 

V  V  Oxygen. 


Weatherin<:. 


6  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

All  rocks  have  crevices  in  them  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
and  when  these  become  filled  with  water  a  frost  will  cause  the 
rocks  to  split  by  converting  the  water  into  ice.  This  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  one  volume  of  water  forms  1*09  volumes  of  ice. 
The  force  of  the  expansion  being  irresistible,  large  pieces  of  rock 
are  separated. 

From  the  same  cause  also  minute  crystals  are  separated  from 
one  another,  and  the  crystalline  rocks  disintegrated. 

All  changes  of  temperature  cause  alternate  contraction  and 
expansion,  loosening  the  particles  which  make  up  the  rock,  so 
that  the  more  changeable  the  climate  the  more  rapidly  does  the 
decay  of  rocks  take  place.  In  a  warm  dry  country  like  Egypt  we 
see  monuments  which  have  stood  for  thousands  of  years  without 
much  alteration,  whilst  in  a  climate  like  England  a  hundred  years 
or  so  will  make  the  carving  on  a  tombstone  illegible.  In  the 
Arctic  regions,  where  there  is  continued  frost,  little  action  can 
take  place. 

Chemical  Action  of  Water. — Water  acts  chemically  on  rocks 
in  two  ways  : — 

1.  By  uniting  with  one  of  the  constituent  minerals  forming 
hydrated  compoimds^  as,  for  instance,  clay,  which  is  hydrated  siHcate 
of  alumina.  These  hydrated  compounds  are  softer  than  the 
original  rock,  and  more  readily  worn  away. 

2.  By  solution.  There  is  scarcely  a  mineral  which  is  not, 
to  a  slight  extent,  soluble  in  water. 

All  the  constituents  of  crystalline  rocks  are  perceptibly 
soluble  in  pure  water,  this  being  especially  the  case  when  they  are 
reduced  to  a  state  of  fine  subdivision.  As  an  experiment  to  show 
this,  powder  some  felspar  crystals,  and  moisten  with  pure  water. 
On  testing  with  red  litmus  paper  the  colour  will  change  to  blue, 
showing  that  some  of  the  alkali  contained  in  the  mineral  has 
been  dissolved. 

Carbonic  Acid. — Water,  in  passing  through  the  air  and  soil, 
absorbs  various  gases,  especially  carbonic  acid  gas  and  oxygen. 

The  potash,  soda,  magnesia  and  lime  contained  in  the 
silicious  rocks  are  seized  upon,  and  slowly  converted  into  car- 
bonates. Thus,  in  the  case  of  felspar,  carbonate  of  potash,  soda,  or 
lime  is  formed,  and  the  molecule  is  split  up.  The  carbonate  is 
readily  washed  out  by  rain,  and  the  remaining  silicate  of  alumina 
becomes  hydrated,  forming  clay. 

When  water  contains  carbonic  acid  gas  (CO2),  its  solvent 
powers  are  greatly  increased.  Carbonate  of  lime,  carbonate  of 
magnesia,  and  protoxide  of  iron,  which  are  almost  insoluble  in 
pure  water,  are  then  readily  dissolved. 

Water,  containing  much  carbonate  of  lime,  is  called  hard ; 


WEATHERING  OF   ROCKS.  / 

when  the  carbonic  acid  gas  is  removed  by  boiling,  the  carbonate 
of  lime  will  be  precipitated.  It  is  found  as  a  crust  inside 
kettles. 

Another  method  of  rendering  hard  water  soft,  is  by  the 
addition  of  lime-water;  the  carbonic  acid  combines  with  the 
lime  to  form  carbonate,  and  this  is  precipitated  together  with  the 
carbonate  of  lime  in  solution,  which  now  falls  because  it  has  lost 
the  carbonic  acid  which  dissolved  it. 

Carbonate  of  iron  is  held  in  solution  in  the  same  way. 

Oxygen. — This  gas  is  found  in  considerable  quantities  in  rain 
water,  and  is  always  ready  to  form  oxides  with  the  metals  it  finds 
uncombined,  or  to  still  further  oxidize  those  substances  which  are 
only  partially  oxidized. 

Nearly  all  minerals  contain  a  large  proportion  of  protoxide 
of  iron  cr  manganese,  and  by  exposure  to  oxygen  they  become 
converted  into  higher  oxides,  and  thus  assist  in  the  disintegration 
of  the  rock.  We  find  stiff  blue  clay,  which  contains  lower  oxide 
of  iron  (ferrous  oxide,  FeO),  converted  into  crumbling  red  earth, 
containing  ferric  oxide  (FcgOs)  by  exposure  to  air.  Iron  pyrites 
(sulphide,  FeSo)  becomes  converted  into  ferric  oxide  and  sulphate 
through  the  action  of  oxygen. 

Plant  Life. — Lichens  and  mosses  grow  upon  the  bare  surfaces 
of  rocks,  and  by  their  decay  furnish  a  thin  film  of  soil  which 
gradually  increases,  so  that  after  many  generations  the  higher 
plants  are  enabled  to  grow. 

These  still  further  aid  in  dissolving  the  rock  by  their  roots,  and 
the  carbonic  acid  set  free  by  the  decomposition  of  vegetable 
matter. 

Animal  Life. — The  assistance  given  by  earth-worms,  ants,  and 
other  small  animals  in  the  completion  of  the  work  of  thoroughly 
pulverizing  and  reducing  the  soil  to  a  fine  state  of  division,  must 
not  be  overlooked. 

The  earth-worm  swallows  the  earth  for  the  purpose  of  making 
its  burrows,  and  for  nourishment.  The  earth  swallowed  is  after- 
wards brought  to  the  surface  and  ejected,  forming  the  numerous 
worm-casts.  The  importance  of  the  action  of  the  earthworm  was 
first  recognized  by  Charles  Darwin.  He  calculated  that  about 
ten  tons  of  dry  earth  per  acre  is  passed  through  the  bodies  of 
earth-worms,  and  brought  to  the  surface  in  the  year. 

Ants,  by  their  work,  also  assist  in  riddling  the  hedge-banks,  etc. 

Transporting  Agencies. — These  are  rain,  streams,  rivers,  tides, 
ocean-currents,  avalanches,  and  glaciers. 

Rain  exerts  a  considerable  effect  by  continually  beating  on  the 
face  of  rocks,  and  by  dissolving  those  soluble  constituents  which 
have  been  formed  by  the  decay  of  the  rock.     The  small  crystals 


8  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

and  particles  of  rock  are  gradually  washed  away,  till  at  last  they 
reach  the  streams  and  rivers. 

After  a  heavy  shower  of  rain  the  streams  and  rivers  will  be 
found  thick  and  muddy,  from  the  large  amount  of  materials 
washed  into  them  by  the  rain.  The  more  rapid  the  stream  or 
river,  the  greater  will  be  the  transporting  power.  If  the  rate  at 
which  a  stream  flows  be  doubled,  it  will  move  a  particle  of  sand 
sixty-four  times  heavier  than  it  could  before ;  or,  if  it  were  able 
to  move  a  pebble  weighing  one  ounce,  with  doubled  velocity 
it  could  move  a  stone  weighing  four  pounds. 

The  rivers  carry  the  sand  and  clay  out  into  the  ocean, 
wearing  away  their  banks  and  beds  as  they  flow,  and  grinding  up 
the  particles  of  rock  and  sand  together.  As  the  current  becomes 
slower,  deposition  of  the  large  particles  of  sand  takes  place,  then 
the  smaller  particles,  and  lastly  the  mud. 

All  sands,  sandstones,  and  clays  have  been  formed  in  this 
way  by  deposition  from  water;  consequently  we  find  them 
stratified  in  layers. 

The  dissolved  salts,  chiefly  carbonate  of  lime  and  magnesia, 
silicates,  chlorides,  phosphates,  and  nitrates  of  potash,  soda, 
magnesia,  lime,  or  iron,  are  carried  out  to  increase  the  saltness  of 
the  ocean. 

The  coral  polype,  the  calcareous  sponges,  and  the  foramini- 
feroe  abstract  carbonate  of  lime  from  sea-water,  and  build  up  their 
skeletons,  which  form  coral  reefs  and  calcareous  ooze  at  the 
bottom  of  the  ocean.  Chalk  is  formed  chiefly  from  the  remains 
of  foraminifer^,  and  limestone  formations  from  fossil  corals,  and 
other  marine  forms  of  animal  life. 

The  amount  of  denudation  caused  by  the  action  of  rain  is 
equal  to  removing  one  foot  of  the  surface  of  the  land  in  the 
valleys  in  about  a  thousand  years;  and  this  is  nine  times  as 
rapid  as  the  waste  on  the  table-lands.  This  does  not  seem  very 
much,  but  when  we  consider  the  thousands  and  thousands  of  years 
that  it  has  been  going  on,  the  amount  of  work  done  is  more 
surprising. 

Snow  has  its  effect  in  removing  rocks  and  soil  from  the  sides 
of  mountains  during  avalanches;  but  the  greatest  change  has 
been  produced  by  glaciers,  vast  rivers  of  ice,  which  at  one  time 
filled  up  the  valleys  between  the  mountains  of  Great  Britain, 
resembling  those  which  can  now  be  seen  in  Switzerland  and 
Norway.  These  moving  masses  of  ice  travel  very  slowly  down 
the  valleys,  carrying  with  them  blocks  of  stone  of  all  sizes, 
grinding  and  scooping  out  the  rocks  beneath  by  their  enormous 
weight. 

According  to  their  mode  of  formation,  soils  are  divided  into 


FORMATION   OF  SOILS.  9 

sedentary  and  tra7isported  soils.  The  last  class  is  subdivided  into 
alluvial  and  drift  soils. 

Sedentary  soils  are  those  which  have  been  formed  in  the  place 
where  they  are  now  found.  Such  soils  are  found  on  the  Chalk 
formation,  the  Lias  Clay,  and  Old  and  New  Red  Sandstone. 

These  soils  are  seldom  of  great  depth,  and  their  quality 
can  often  be  judged  by  examining  the  nature  of  the  rock 
beneath. 

Alluvial  soils  consist  of  materials  which  have  been  removed 
by  the  agency  of  running  water,  and  deposited  in  valleys,  along 
the  banks  of  rivers  which  overflow,  and  at  the  mouths  of  all 
large  rivers. 

The  deltas  of  the  Nile,  the  Rhine,  the  Mississippi,  etc.,  are 
examples  of  large  tracts  of  land  made  up  of  materials  brought 
down  and  deposited  by  rivers. 

The  Holderness,  in  Yorkshire,  has  been  formed  from  the 
alluvium  brought  down  by  the  Humber,  and  the  Wash  is  being 
quickly  filled  up  by  the  vast  quantity  of  debris  poured  into  it  by 
the  various  rivers  emptying  themselves  there. 

Alluvium  consists  of  worn  rounded  materials,  which  are 
more  or  less  stratified.  Alluvial  soils  are  often  deep,  sometimes 
twenty  feet ;  and  are  generally  rich  in  plant  food,  being  a  mixture 
of  decomposing  fragments  from  difi"erent  geological  formations. 

Drift  Soils  have  been  formed  by  glacial  action ;  they  consist 
of  fragments  of  rock  of  all  sizes,  from  grains  of  sand  to  enormous 
boulders  of  granite.  The  material  is  generally  deposited  without 
stratification.  The  stones  are  often  marked  on  their  surface  by 
parallel  scratches,  which  were  formed  as  they  moved  along  with 
the  glacier. 

Drift  material  is  often  found  covering  the  soil  of  other  forma- 
tions ;  for  example,  the  New  Red  Sandstone  north  of  the  Tees  is 
in  some  parts  completely  covered  with  glacial  drift. 

Geological  Distribution. 

Stratified  rocks  have  been  formed  from  materials  derived  from 
more  ancient  rocks,  that  have  been  removed  and  deposited  in 
layers  by  the  action  of  water. 

If  we  examine  the  geological  map  of  Great  Britain  we  shall 
find  that  all  the  older  rocks  are  situated  in  the  north  and  west, 
and  that,  as  we  proceed  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  we  meet 
with  a  succession  of  strata  coming  to  the  surface  (cropping  out), 
each  succeeding  formation  being  of  more  recent  origin  than  the 
one  preceding  it. 

These  strata  were  originally  deposited  one  above  the  other, 


lO  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

SO  that  the  oldest  were  below;  but,  owing  to  causes  dependent 
on  the  contraction  of  the  earth's  crust,  the  rocks  have  been  tilted 
up  towards  the  north-west  and  depressed  towards  the  south-east, 
so  that  the  edges  of  the  formations  come  to  the  surface. 

As  a  proof  of  this,  we  have  the  fact  that  a  boring  for  an 
artesian  well,  made  by  Meux  and  Co.,  in  Tottenham  Court  Road, 
passes  through  the  same  succession  of  strata  as  are  met  in 
travelHng  from  London  towards  Manchester.  This  has  also  been 
confirmed  by  the  recent  boring  for  coal  at  Dover,  where,  after 
passing  through  the  remainder  of  the  chalk,  the  gault,  greensand, 
and  oolite,  coal  has  been  reached  at  a  depth  of  1204  feet  below 
the  base  of  Shakespeare's  Cliff. 

The  fact  that  we  always  find  strata  arranged  in  the  same 
definite  order,  is  of  great  importance  to  agriculturalists.  We 
always  find  the  New  Red  Sandstone  above  the  carboniferous 
coal,  ivhen  it  is  present,  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  forma- 
tions are  often  absent  in  certain  districts.  The  subject  of  dis- 
tribution of  soils  is  very  important  and  interesting,  but  cannot  be 
properly  understood  without  a  knowledge  of  geology. 

The  most  recent  soils  are  alluvial  and  peaty  soils.  The 
only  alluvial  deposits  of  any  extent  occur  in  the  Holderness  of 
Yorkshire  and  north  Lincolnshire,  having  been  formed  by  the 
Humber.  Another  extensive  tract  of  land  around  the  Wash, 
including  the  fens  and  marshes  of  south  Lincolnshire,  Huntingdon, 
and  Cambridge,  owes  its  formation  to  the  numerous  sluggish 
rivers  flowing  through  it. 

Character. — Generally  fertile  and  flat,  except  the  fen  land. 
The  soil  around  the  Wash  is  divided  into  the  marsh  land  and  fen 
land.  The  former  is  nearest  the  sea,  and  consists  of  finely 
laminated  blue  marine  clays  of  great  fertility.  The  other  class  is 
of  black  peaty  nature,  of  not  very  good  quality,  but  has  been 
much  improved  by  bringing  up  the  Oxford  clay  from  below,  and 
spreading  it  on  the  surface. 

Peaty  Soils  are  also  found  widely  distributed  in  Lincolnshire, 
Cambridge,  Bedfordshire,  Cumberland,  and  various  parts  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland,  occurring  chiefly  in  low,  flat,  undrained 
districts.  Such  soils  are  of  little  use  till  drained,  and  treated  with 
lime  and  clay. 

Glacial  Drift. — Found  in  many  parts  of  Scotland,  Wales,  and 
the  north  of  England ;  often  masks  the  underlying  rocks,  changing 
the  character  of  the  soil. 

Tertiary  Strata. — The  Crag  forms  a  narrow  strip  of  fertile 
land  on  the  east  of  Norfolk  and  south-east  of  Suffolk.  Ha7np- 
siead  beds  of  shelly  marl  and  clays  are  found  only  in  the  north  of 
the  Isle  of  Wight. 


DISTRIBUTION   OF   SOILS.  II 

London  Clay. — Found  in  Middlesex,  Essex,  and  part  of  Surrey, 
Berkshire,  Hampshire,  and  Wiltshire. 

Character: — Stiff,  almost  impervious,  tenacious,  brown  or  blue 
clay,  expensive  to  work,  except  where  interrupted  by  the  Bagshot 
Sands.  It  is  much  improved  where  it  meets  the  upper  chalk. 
Owing  to  the  difficulty  in  working,  much  has  been  laid  down  to 
pasture,  especially  since  wheat  (which  it  grows  very  well)  has 
fallen  so  low  in  price.  In  Hampshire  it  is  covered  with  the 
Bagshot  sands,  a  thin,  hungry  sand. 

Secondary  Strata. —  Chalk  forms  an  extensive  area  in  the 
south-east  of  England.  Starting  from  Salisbury  Plain  as  a  centre, 
it  stretches  out  in  several  directions.  One  broad  band  extends 
towards  the  north-east,  passing  through  the  counties  of  Berkshire, 
Oxford,  Bucks,  Hertford,  to  Suffolk  and  Norfolk;  turning  in  a 
north-easterly  direction,  it  passes  under  the  Wash  to  Lincolnshire 
and  the  south-east  of  Yorkshire,  where  it  is  covered  to  some 
extent  by  alluvial  deposit.  A  second  arm  proceeds  due  east  into 
Sussex  and  Kent,  forming  the  North  Downs.  A  third  process 
stretches  south-east  into  Sussex,  forming  the  South  Downs ;  whilst 
a  last  extension  takes  place  in  a  south-westerly  direction  into 
Dorset. 

Character. — Soils  formed  from  the  upper  chalk  are  mixed  with 
flints  ;  they  produce  a  short  but  sweet  natural  herbage,  very 
suitable  for  sheep.     They  often  suffer  from  drought. 

The  lower  chalk  produces  excellent  soils,  especially  when 
mixed  with  the  upper  greensand  from  below.  It  is  suitable 
for  barley  and  leguminous  crops.  In  some  parts  the  lime 
has  been  washed  away,  leaving  a  stiff,  brown  clay,  of  poorer 
quality  than  the  original.  Many  of  these  soils  are  difficult  to 
work. 

The  Upper  Greensand  forms  a  narrow  strip  of  land  fringing 
the  chalk. 

Character, — Soil  very  fertile,  easily  worked,  full  of  fossils  con- 
taining a  large  amount  of  phosphate  of  lime. 

The  Gault,  of  small  extent  in  Mid  Kent,  Cambridge,  and 
Huntingdon,  produces  a  blue,  tenacious  clay,  very  expensive  to 
work. 

The  Lower  Greensand  forms  unproductive  sands  in  Kent, 
Surrey,  and  Sussex,  but  its  area  is  small. 

The  Oolite. — Found  in  the  north-west  of  Yorkshire,  whence 
it  extends  in  a  south-easterly  direction  towards  the  Wash,  and 
passes  underneath  the  Fens.  From  the  Wash  it  stretches  across 
towards  the  mouth  of  the  Severn,  sending  a  branch  down  to  the 
island  of  Portland.  It  is  divided  into  Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower 
Oolite ;  and  these  are  subdivided  .thus  : — 


12  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Upper  :  Purbeck  beds,  Portland  beds,  Kimmeridge  clay. 

Middle  :  Upper  calcareous  grit,  coralline  rag,  lower  calcareous 
grit,  Oxford  clay. 

Lower  :  Cornbrash,  Bradford  clay,  Kelloway  Rock,  Greater 
Oolite,  Fullers'  earth.  Inferior  Oolite. 

Character. —  Upper  Oolite.  Purbeck  and  Portland  beds  of  light 
character,  and  only  moderate  fertility.  The  Kimmeridge  clay  is 
a  tough,  greyish  soil,  difficult  to  work.  The  pastures  on  all  are 
fairly  good. 

Middle  Oolite.  The  Oxford  clay  is  difficult  to  work,  and 
gives  only  poor  soils.  The  other  beds  are  of  a  loamy  nature  of 
fair  quality. 

Lower  Oolite.  The  Cornbrash  is  very  fertile,  and  grows  good 
corn  crops.  The  Bradford  clay  gives  heavy  soils  of  moderate 
fertility.  The  others  are  of  only  medium  quality,  the  Inferior 
Oolite  being  often  very  poor. 

The  Lias  Clay  extends  in  a  south-westerly  direction  from  the 
north  of  Yorkshire,  to  Lyme  Regis  in  Dorset. 

Character. — Consists  of  a  blue  clay,  more  or  less  mixed  with 
sand  or  lime.  When  it  is  combined  with  sand,  it  forms  a  good 
loam,  but  where  the  clay  prevails  it  is  often  poor  and  wet. 

There  are  four  extensive  vales  in  this  formation  running  in 
a  north-westerly  direction,  which  are  very  fertile ;  these  are  the 
vales  of  Cleveland,  Evesham,  Gloucester,  Berkeley. 

New  Red  Sandstone  extends  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tees  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Severn ;  it  occupies  a  large  portion  of  the  centre 
of  England. 

Character. — This  rock  produces  a  deep  red  soil,  generally 
very  fertile,  readily  worked,  and  rich.  It  is  chiefly  arable,  but 
produces  good  pastures  around  Warwick,  called  the  heart  of 
England.     It  forms  good  soils  in  Cumberland. 

Magnesian  Limestone  extends  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne 
due  south  to  Nottingham,  a  narrow  strip  widest  in  Durham. 

Character. — Poor  thin  soil  when  resting  on  native  rock,  but 
the  character  is  much  altered  in  places  by  the  presence  of  trans- 
ported material. 

Coal  Measures. — Occupy  large  areas  in  Northumberland, 
Durham,  Cumberland,  Yorkshire,  Staffordshire,  Warwickshire, 
Somerset,  and  South  Wales. 

Character. — Soils  formed  are  invariably  poor. 

Millstone  Grit  extends  through  Northumberland,  Durham, 
Yorkshire,  and  Lancashire,  flanking  the  coal  measures  to  the 
north  and  west. 

Character. — Poor  and  sterile,  except  where  covered  by  trans- 
ported material. 


DISTRIBUTION   OF  SOILS.  1 3 

Mountain  Limestone  forms  the  greater  part  of  the  counties  of 
Northumberland  and  Derbyshire,  and  extends  into  Durham, 
Yorkshire,  and  Lancashire,  forming  the  Pennine  range  of  hills. 

Charader. — Light  and  poor.     Gives  good  pasture  for  sheep. 

Old  Red  Sandstone. — Divided  into  upper,  middle,  and  lower. 
The  upper  division  forms  poor  soils,  in  Sutherland ;  the  middle 
division  runs  in  a  broad  band  across  Scotland,  from  the  Clyde 
to  the  Tay,  forming  very  fertile  lands  in  Perthshire.  The  Lothians 
are  famous  for  their  rich  corn-lands.  Hops  and  fruit  in  Hereford, 
Devon,  and  Cornwall,  grow  well  on  the  soils  derived  from  the 
middle  series  of  rocks.  The  tilestones  of  the  lower  division  give 
very  barren  soils  in  Caithness,  Ayreshire,  and  Lanarkshire. 

Primary  Rocks  (Silurian,  Cambrian,  Laurentian)  occupy  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland,  Cumberland,  and  Wales.  They  consist 
of  slates,  limestones,  and  shales.  From  their  elevated  positions 
they  are  not  much  cultivated,  and  are  chiefly  used  for  sheep 
farming. 

Old  Lava  and  Trap  Rocks  are  found  in  Scotland  and  the 
north  of  Ireland.    They  readily  decompose,  and  yield  fertile  soils. 

G-ranite  is  found  in  Scotland,  north  of  the  Grampians,  in 
Cumberland,  Mid  Devon,  and  Cornwall :  it  gives  poor  and 
unproductive  soils. 

General  Remarks  on  Distribution. 

Long  experience  shows  that  local  influences  often  interfere 
with  the  character  of  the  soils  which,  from  geological  considera- 
tions, we  expect  to  find  on  certain  formations.  We  should  there- 
fore be  very  cautious  before  applying  the  general  information 
contained  in  the  preceding  pages  to  special  cases. 

One  very  important  fact,  well  worth  remembering,  is,  that 
where  tivo  formations  ineet^  we  have  always  an  improved  soil,  owing 
to  the  mingling  of  the  various  constituents.  The  more  mixed  the 
constituents  of  the  soil  the  better ;  hence  the  fertility  of  alluvial  soils, 
which  are  derived  from  various  strata. 

There  is  always  a  strong  family  likeness  between  soils  of  the 
same  formation. 

Formations  Characterised  by — 

Heavy  Land.  Li^ht  Land. 

London  clay.  Upper  chalk. 

Gault.    ^  Lower  oolite. 

Kimmeridge  clay,  Magnesian  limestone. 

Oxford  clay.  Yoredale  rocks. 

Lias.  Millstone  grit. 


14                             ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Rich  Soils.  Poor  Soils, 

Alluvial  deposits.  Upper  chalk. 

Mixed  soils  at  edges  of  formations.  Gault. 

Lower  chalk.  Lower  greensand. 

Upper  greensand.  Oxford  clay. 

Corn-brash  of  lower  oolite.  Magnesian  limestone. 

Part  of  Lias  clay.  Coal  measures. 

Marls  of  New  Red  Sandstone.  Mountain  limestone. 

Marls     and     cornstones    of    middle  Cambrian,  Silurian,  and  Laurentian. 

division  of  Old  Red  Sandstone.  Granite. 
Soils  formed  from  the  decomposition 

of  basaltic  and  lava  rocks. 


AGRICULTURAL  PHYSICS. 

Physical  Properties  of  Soils. 

The  physical  properties  of  soils  depend  upon  the  proportions  in 
which  their  proximate  constituents,  sand,  clay,  lime,  and  vegetable 
matter,  enter  into  their  composition ;  so  that  if  we  learn  the  chief 
physical  properties  of  these  substances,  we  can  then  have  some 
idea  of  the  nature  of  the  soil  which  they  compose.  The  properties 
which  we  will  consider  are  weight,  texture,  capillarity,  absorbing 
power,  evaporative  power,  and  specific  heat,  or  power  of  absorbing 
heat. 

Weight. — It  is  important  to  compare  the  weight  of  different 
soils.  A  heavy  soil  might  contain  absolutely  double  the  amount 
of  phosphoric  acid  that  a  light  soil  did,  although  it  would  show 
only  the  same  percentage  if  it  were  twice  as  heavy. 

Table  showing  Comparative  Weight  of  Soils. 

I  cubic  foot  of  sand  weighs  about  120  lbs. 
I  „  loam  ,,  100  ,, 

I  „  clay  „  80  „ 

I  ,,  peat  „  60  „ 

This  shows  that  a  certain  percentage  of  nitrogen  or  phosphoric 
acid  in  a  sandy  soil  indicates  a  much  greater  richness  than  the 
same  percentage  in  a  clay  or  peaty  soil. 

The  terms  lighl  and  heavy ^  as  applied  to  soils  by  farmers,  have 
a  different  meaning  to  what  is  generally  understood  by  these 
terms.  They  do  not  refer  to  the  weight,  but  to  the  tenacity  and 
resistance  they  offer  to  cultivation. 

Clay  soils  are  called  *'  heavy  "  soils  because  they  are  stiff  and 
difficult  to  work.  Sandy  soils  are  called  "  light "  because  they  have 
very  little  tenacity,  and  are  easily  worked.  But  sandy  soils  as 
regards  weight,  are  the  heaviest  soils  there  are,  and  clay  soils  are 
comparatively  light.  Peat  soils  are  light,  both  in  actual  weight, 
and  as  regards  their  texture. 


PHYSICAL  PROPERTIES  OF  SOILS.  1 5 

Texture. — The  texture  of  a  soil  depends  upon  the  state  of 
division  of  its  particles.  This  varies  from  large  stones,  to  the 
microscopic  particles  found  in  clay  and  vegetable  soils.  Clay  is 
remarkable  for  the  closeness  of  its  texture,  or  stickiness  when 
wet  j  and  its  hardness  when  dry  is  caused  by  the  small  particles 
cohering  firmly. 

Sand  does  not  cohere  when  dry.  Therefore  the  more  sand  a 
soil  contains  the  easier  it  is  to  work.  Soils  adhere  to  the  plough 
as  it  passes  through,  especially  when  wet.  Wet  sand  offers  a 
resistance  of  four  pounds  to  the  square  foot  j  clays  offer  a  resistance 
varying  from  eight  to  twenty  pounds. 

Porosity. — The  porosity  of  a  soil  is  a  measure  of  the  fineness 
of  its  particles ;  the  larger  the  number  of  particles,  the  larger  the 
number  of  surfaces  presented  between  which  water  can  be  retained 
or  condensed  together  with  valuable  plant  food.  Clays  are  there- 
fore especially  of  a  porous  nature,  and  consequently  retentive  of 
water  and  plant  food.  Sands  are  not  so  porous  as  clays,  and 
their  open  texture  allows  water  to  percolate  rapidly,  under  the 
influence  of  gravity.  The  combined  surfaces  of  the  particles 
being  less  in  area  and  further  apart,  the  attraction  or  adhesive 
force  is  much  less  than  in  clay  soils.  The  influence  of  porosity 
on  fertility  of  soils  is  very  important.  Clays  have  a  chemical  as 
well  as  a  physical  attraction  for  substances  dissolved  in  the  water 
passing  through,  and  these  substances  are  to  a  great  extent 
retained  among  the  interstices  of  the  soil,  from  whence  only  the 
young  roots  of  plants  are  able  to  remove  them. 

Power  of  absorbing  Moisture  from  the  Atmosphere. — Certain 
substances,  if  dried  and  then  exposed  to  a  moist  atmosphere,  have 
the  power  of  absorbing  moisture  to  some  extent.  Common  salt 
and  magnesium  chloride  especially  possess  this  power,  in  different 
degrees.  From  the  results  of  a  series  of  experiments  carried  out 
by  Schiibler,  the  following  table  has  been  arranged  : — 

looo  lbs.  of  quartz  sand  will  absorb  in  24  hours      o  lbs.  of  water. 


calcareous  sand        ,, 

4          > 

clay  soil  (60  per  cent.) 
heavy  clay  (80  per  cent.) 

28 
41 

pure  clay 
,  garden  mould 
lumus 

» 

50 

55 
120         , 

The  above  table  shows  that  sandy  soils  are  naturally  dry,  and 
have  a  tendency  to  keep  so.  In  order  to  improve  them  in  this 
respect,  they  should  be  mixed  with  clay  where  possible,  or  with 
vegetable  matter.  Green-crop  manuring  is  very  beneficial  for 
this  purpose. 

Capillarity. — When  a  piece   of  lump  sugar  is  dipped  into 


1 6  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

water,  the  liquid  quickly  rises  through  the  sugar  between  the 
crystals.  In  the  same  way,  if  small  capillary  tubes  are  placed  in 
water,  the  water  rises,  and  the  finer  the  tube  the  higher  it  ascends. 
Water  rises  very  rapidly  through  sandy  soils,  but  to  a  height 
not  much  more  than  twenty  inches. 

In  sandy  soil  water  rises  by  capillarity  20  inches. 

In  loamy  ,,  ,,  30      ,, 

In  clay  „  ,,  301036      „ 

In  vegetable  matter   ,,  ,,  over  60      ,, 

The  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  land,  and  the  tran- 
spiration from  the  leaves  of  trees,  cause  a  continued  upward  flow 
of  water ;  and  as  this  water  contains  salts  in  solution,  there  is  a 
constant  tendency  for  soluble  salts  to  accumulate  in  the  upper 
stratum  of  the  soil  during  dry  weather.  This  occurs  to  such  an 
extent  that  in  some  countries  an  incrustation  of  salts  occurs 
during  the  dry  season.  The  nitrate  of  potash  of  India,  and  the 
nitrate  of  soda  in  Peru,  have  accumulated  to  some  extent  in  this 
manner. 

Evaporative  Power. — Sandy  soils  are  not  only  deficient  in 
absorptive  power,  but  what  moisture  they  possess  they  readily 
part  with  by  evaporation  from  the  surface. 

They  also  allow  water  to  pass  so  readily  downwards  that  it  is 
soon  beyond  the  reach  of  their  limited  powers  of  capillarity. 

Vegetation  increases  the  amount  of  evaporation  very  much. 
In  summer  time,  during  the  period  of  plant  growth,  three  times  as 
much  evaporation  takes  place  as  in  winter ;  and  it  has  been  found 
that  with  a  bare  sandy  soil,  nineteen  parts  out  of  twenty  of  the 
rainfall  passed  through  into  the  drains ;  but  when .  the  same  soil 
was  covered  with  turf,  only  one-third  of  the  rainfall  passed  through 
into  the  drains,  the  remaining  two-thirds  being  evaporated,  or 
transpired. 

Capacity  for  Heat. — Soils  derive  most  of  their  heat  directly 
from  the  sun's  rays. 

The  radiant  heat  passes  through  the  atmosphere  without 
affecting  it,  and  is  absorbed  by  the  soil;  consequently  we  find 
the  soil  much  warmer  during  the  day  than  the  atmosphere.  The 
atmosphere,  in  fact,  derives  its  heat  from  the  soil. 

In  a  series  of  experiments  conducted  by  Malakuri  and 
Durocher,  it  was  found  that  when  the  temperature  of  the  air 
was  90°,  a  thermometer  placed  an  inch  below  the  surface  gave 
the  following  temperatures  in  soils  exposed  to  the  direct  sunlight 
of  a  July  day  : — 

Quartz  sand         126" 

Garden  soil  114° 

Chalk  soil  S;** 


PHYSICAL   PROPERTIES   OF   SOILS.  1 7 

The  following  may  be  taken  as  a  summary  of  the  knowledge 
gained  by  experiments  in  Europe  and  America,  and  this  receives 
proof  from  the  everyday  experience  of  the  farmer  : — 

1.  The  more  sand  a  soil  contains,  the  more  rapidly  will  it 
absorb  heat,  and  the  longer  will  it  retain  its  heat.  Hence  sandy 
and  gravelly  soils  are  the  warmest. 

2.  The  dark-coloured  soils  absorb  more  heat  than  those  that 
are  light-coloured.     Hence  peats  are  warmer  than  chalky  soils. 

3.  The  more  water  a  soil  contains  the  more  slowly  will  it  rise 
in  temperature  (because  of  the  high  specific  heat  of  water),  and 
the  more  rapidly  will  it  part  with  its  heat  (due  to  heat  being 
absorbed  during  evaporation). 

4.  The  amount  of  heat  received  by  the  soil  will  be  affected  by 
its  inclination  or  aspect. 

In  England  land  facing  the  south,  and  inclined  at  an  angle 
of  25°  to  30°,  receives  the  greatest  amount  of  heat  and  light. 

Subsoil. — By  the  subsoil  is  generally  meant  that  soil  imme- 
diately below  the  cultivated  portion,  and  which  is  not  disturbed 
by  agricultural  operations,  except  in  subsoil  ploughing. 

It  is  very  important  that  land  should  have  a  suitable  subsoil. 

In  alluvial  soils  the  subsoil  is  generally  of  the  same  character 
as  the  soil.  Light  sandy  soils  are  advantageously  placed  upon 
impervious  clay  soils,  and  a  clay  soil  resting  upon  a  bed  of  sand 
or  gravel,  is  a  good  arrangement.  In  both  such  cases  the  subsoil 
may  be  brought  up  and  spread  on  the  surface  with  good  results. 

Open  subsoils  of  gravel  are  generally  disadvantageous,  as  they 
allow  the  escape  of  fertile  matter  beyond  the  reach  of  the  roots. 
A  rocky  subsoil  is  disadvantageous  for  tillage  operations. 

For  the  physical  properties  of  the  atmosphere  and  water,  see 
the  Chapter  on  "  Meteorology." 

Indications  of  (a)  Barrenness  and  (b)  Fertility. 

(A)  (B) 

Rocky,  picturesque  scenery,  or  sandy  Undulating  plains  and  valleys. 

plains. 

Scarce  and  ill-grown  weeds.  Luxuriance  of  weeds. 

Light  colour.  Dark-red  or  brown  colour. 

Sandy  and  dry  to  touch.  Soft  and  friable  to  touch. 

Thin  soil.  Deep  soil. 

Aspect  north  or  north-east.  Aspect  south  or  south-west. 

Absence  of  humus.  Presence  of  humus  in  good  quantity. 

Stunted,  badly-grown  timber,  and  the  Well-grown  trees,  such  as  oak,  elm, 

presence  of  heath,  sedges,  rushes,  hawlhorne,  etc. 

etc. 


I 


1 8  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER    II. 

on  agricultural  engineering. 
Elementary  Mechanics. 

Before    describing   any   machines,   we    will   first  consider   the 
mechanical  principles  relating  to  them. 

Centre  of  Gravity. — The  centre  of  gravity  of  a  body  is  that 
point  through  which  passes  the  resultant  of  all  those  forces 
which,  in  consequence  of  gravity,  act  upon  the  body.  With  simple 
geometrical  bodies  the  centre  of  gravity  coincides  with  their 
centres. 

Equilibrium. — A  body  at  rest  is  said  to  be  in  unstable  equili- 
brium if,  after  the  slightest  possible  disturbance,  it  moves  away  from 
its  former  position;  in  j/^^/^  equilibrium,  if  it  returns  to  its  former 
position ;  in  neutral  equiUbrium,  if  it  does  neither,  but  remains  at 
rest  in  the  new  position  into  which  it  has  been  brought  by  the 
disturbances.  A  cone  (i)  on  its  apex,  (2)  on  its  base,  and  (3)  on 
its  side  illustrates  the  three  cases. 

When  the  vertical  line  through  the  centre  of  gravity  of  a  body 
falls  without  the  base  the  body  will  lose  its  equilibrium  and  topple 
over. 

The  Levers. — The  lever  is  an  inflexible  bar  capable  of  free 

motion    about    a    fixed 
I'T  ^F        T^\  1 P     axis,  called  its  fiilcnwi, 

^  '^       There  are  three  kinds  of 

levers  :  (i)  those  in  which 
the  fulcrum    (F)  is   be- 


W 


> 


I W     .  .  tween  the  power  (P)  and 

^       ^'  weight  (W);   (2)  weight 


1 


between  the  power  and 
_  the  fulcrum ;  (3)  those 
IW  in  which  the  power  is  be- 
tween  the  fulcrum  and 
the  weight.  Power  x  its 
distance  from  the  fulcrum  =  weight  X  its  distance  from  the 
fulcrum. 

Toothed  Wheels.~-A  toothed  wheel  is  a  circular  plate  whose 


(3) 

Fig.  1. 


MECHANICAL  PRINCIPLES.  Ip 

edge  is  cut  into  equal  teeth  all  the  way  round.  When  two  such 
wheels  are  placed  so  that  the  teeth  of  the  one  fit  into  the  spaces 
of  the  other,  then  if  motion  be  appHed,  any  one  of  them  will  turn 
the  other.  The  weight  is  suspended  from  the  axle  of  the  larger 
wheel  j  the  power  is  applied  to  the  other ;  then,  the  axles  being 
supposed  to  be  of  equal  radius — 

Power       number  of  teeth  in  P's  wheel 
P  Weight      number  of  teeth  in  W's  wheel. 

Pulleys. — A  pulley  is  a  small  wheel,  moving  freely  about  an 
axis,  and  allowing  a  cord  to  pass  over  any  part  of  its  circumference. 
Pulleys  are  generally  arranged  in  one  of  the  three  following 
systems :  (i)  That  in  which  each  pulley  hangs  by  a  separate 
cord,  one  end  of  which  is  fastened  to  a  fixed  beam,  and  the  other 
to  the  pulley  above  it. 

W  =  2"P  -  2^-^w^  -  2^-"w^  -  2^-^w^,  etc., 

where  n  is  the  number  of  movable  pulleys ;  W,  weight  to  be 
raised ;  P,  the  power  to  be  used  in  doing  this ;  w^  weight  of 
highest  pulley ;  ze^o,  weight  of  next. 

(2)  The  same  cord  passes  around  all  the  pulleys,  which  are 
arranged  in  two  blocks,  one  of  which  is  fixed  while  the  other  bears 
the  weight.  This  is  the  most  usual  arrangement,  the  others  being 
seldom  or  never  used  in  practice. 

W  +  ^  =  //  P  j  7^  =  weight  of  movable  block. 
;/  -  number  of  portions  of  cord  in  contact  with  the  lower  block. 

(3)  Each  cord  is  attached  to  the  weight. 

W  =  (2«-  i)P  +  (2"-'  -  i)z£'i  +  (2"-'  -  i)iv^  +  (2»-3  -  i)Wi,  etc. 
Zi'i  =  lowest  pulley ;  n  =  total  number  of  pulleys. 

Work. — Work  is  the  act  of  producing  a  change  either  as 
regards  size,  shape,  or  position  of  a  body  in  opposition  to  a  force 
which  resists  that  change. 

Work  is  measured  by  means  of  two  units. 

A  Foot-pound  is  the  amount  of  work  done  in  overcoming  the 
resistance  due  to  i  lb.  moving  through  a  space  equal  to  i  foot. 
Called  the  gravitation  unit. 

A  Foot-poundal  is  that  force  which  will  generate  in  a  unit  of 
time  (i  second)  a  unit  of  velocity  (i  foot  per  second)  in  a  unit  of 
mass  (i  lb.).     Called  the  absolute  unit. 

A  Horse-power  is  a  unit  commonly  used  with  regard  to  work. 
It  equals  33,000  foot-pounds. 

A  horse  exerts  on  the  average  about  21,000  foot-pounds,  an 
ox  12,000,  a  mule  10,000,  an  ass  5000,  a  man  3000. 


20  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Friction. — When  a  plane  on  which  a  body  is  resting  is 
gradually  inclined  to  the  horizon,  it  will  be  found  that  there  is  a 
resistance  to  the  motion  of  the  body  down  the  plane.  This 
adhesive  force  is  called  friction.  If  R  be  the  normal  pressure 
between  two  surfaces  in  contact,  F  the   maximum  friction  the 

F 
substances  can  exercise,  the  ratio   -  is  called  the  Coefficient  of 

K. 
Friction.     This  ratio  varies  greatly,  as  shown  by  the  table. 


\^'ood  upon  wood  (without  oil)     . . 

„        „         „     (with  oil)          ..      , 

••      I-' 

"Wood  upon  metal  (without  oil)     . . 

R 

„        ,,         ,,     (with  oil) 

..      I  =  0-I2. 

K 

Leather  upon  wood  (without  oil)  .. 

..  1  =  0-63. 

K 
,,        ,,         „        (wetted  with  water)    f^  —  O'Sy. 

R 
Metal  upon  metal  (without  oil)     ..      ..      F  =  o'i8. 

R 
„         ,,         ,,     (with  oil) F=o*i2. 

R 

Air. 

Pressure. — The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  varies  from  about 
i3f  lbs.  to  15-I  lbs.  per  square  inch.  This  pressure  supports  on 
an  average  about  30  inches  of  mercury  or  34  feet  of  water. 

The  Barometer  is  an  instrument  for  estimating  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere.  It  consists  of  a  delicate  graduated  tube,  of 
narrow  bore,  and  closed  at  one  end.  In  the  simplest  form  it  is 
filled  with  mercury,  and  inverted  in  a  small  cistern  containing 
mercury,  care  being  taken  to  prevent  any  air  getting  into  the  tube. 
The  atmosphere  presses  upon  the  surface  of  the  mercury  in  the 
cistern,  and  supports  a  greater  or  less  column  in  the  tube,  accord- 
ing to  its  pressure. 

The  weight  of  one  cubic  inch  of  air  at  a  temperature  of  60°  F., 
barometer  at  30  inches,  is  0*31  grains. 

Windmills. — In  order  to  get  the  greatest  motive  power  the 
windmill  must  be  in  an  exposed  condition ;  the  sails  should  face 
the  wind  ;  and  as  the  ends  of  the  sails  sweep  around  through  a 
greater  distance  and  faster,  they  should  present  a  flatter  surface 
than  the  parts  nearer  the  centre.  The  sails  ought,  therefore,  to 
have  a  twist  to  give  them  the  most  perfect  form,  so  that  the  parts 


MECHANICAL  PRINCIPLES.  21 

nearest  the  centre  may  form  an  angle  of  about  68°  with  the  wind, 
the  middle  about  72°,  and  the  tips  about  83°. 

Horse-power  of  windmill  = 

1080000 

a  =  area  of  sails  in  square  feet ;  v  =  velocity  of  wind  in  feet 
per  second. 

Heat. 

Thermometers, — A  thermometer  is  a  graduated  glass  tube,  with 
a  bulb  at  one  end,  and  both  ends  closed.  It  contains  mercury, 
or  some  other  convenient  substance.  The  three  chief  forms  are 
the  Fahrenheit,  Centigrade,  and  Reaumer.  The  former  has  its 
freezing-point  32°  above  zero,  and  boiling-point  212°.  In  the  two 
latter  the  freezing-point  is  zero,  and  boiling  points  100°  and  80° 
respectively. 

In  changing  Fahrenheit  into  Centigrade,  32  is  first  subtracted. 
\  X  =  any  number  of  degrees,  then  F  :  C  :  R  : :  9(^v  --32) 
:  5  •  4. 

WATER. 

Weight. — One  cubic  foot  of  water  at  60°  F.  and  760  millimetres 
pressure  weighs    1000  ozs.      The   pressure   of   the   atmosphere 
supports  a  column  of  water  from  32  feet  to  35  feet  high.     On 
gallon  of  water  weighs  10  lbs.,  roughly. 

Flow  of  Water. — With  a  straight  channel  of  equal  size  through- 
out, the  velocity  acquired  is  equal  to  0*9  iVT^  where  /  is  the 
fall  in  two  miles  in  inches,  and  d  the  hydraulic  mean  depth  ;  the 
velocity  being  measured  in  inches  per  second. 

Horse-power  of  Water. — 

H.P.  =  0-00189  W  X  h. 

H.P.  =  horse-power.  W=  number  of  cubic  feet  of  water  per 
minute,     h  =  head  of  water  from  the  tail-race,  in  feet. 

Gauging  Water. — Make  the  water,  if  possible,  pass  through  a 
rectangular  aperture.  Then  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  water 
discharged  over  each  foot  width^  of  sill  per  minute  is  equal  to 
2i4VH^  +  o-o35z;-H^,  where  v  is  the  velocity  of  the  water  in 
feet  per  second,  and  H  is  the  height  of  the  surface  of  the  water 
above  the  sill  in  feet. 

Another  method  is  to  take  the  area  of  a  section  of  the  channel 
in  feet,  and  multiply  this  by  the  velocity  in  feet  per  minute. 
This  gives  the  number  of  cubic  feet  of  water  passing  through  the 
section  per  minute.     If  this  sum  be  brought  to  cubic  inches,  and 


22 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


One 


divided  by  277-274  it  will  give  the  flow  of  water  in  gallons, 
cubic  foot  of  water  also  weighs  1000  ozs. 

Means  of  getting  Motive  Power  from  Water.— On  farms  where 


Fig.  2.— External  view  and  section  of  a  turbine.  I,  inlet  pipe  ;  B,  guides  ;  A,  movable  wheel 
keyed  on  the  shaft  C  ;  B,  one  of  the  guide-blades  ;  D,  the  bell-cranks  and  shafts  connect- 
ing the  guide-blades  with  the  outside  bell-cranks  and  coupling-rods,  E  ;  H,  wheel-covor. 

it  can  be  obtained  in  sufficient  quantities,  water  is  often  employed 
as  a  cheap  and  useful  motive  power.  For  this  purpose,  the  power 
is  obtained  by  means  of  either  water-wheels  or  turbines. 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE.  23 

Water-wheels  are  of  three  kinds,  viz.  overshot,  breast,  and 
undershot.  In  each  case,  the  machine  consists  of  a  large  broad 
vertical  wheel,  to  the  outer  rim  of  which  are  attached  buckets  to 
catch  the  water.  The  overshot  wheel  is  the  best.  With  it,  the 
water  is  laid  on  near  the  crown,  and  by  its  weight  and  descending 
velocity  the  wheel  is  turned  round.  When  the  fall  is  not  great, 
breast  wheels  are  most  applicable ;  while  for  making  tidal  force 
available,  the  undershot  is  used.  From  each  wheel  there  passes 
an  axle  which,  by  means  of  suitable  spindles  and  bevelled  wheels, 
conveys  the  force  to  the  desired  machine.  Owing  to  the 
machinery  being  essentially  heavy  and  cumbrous,  much  of  the 
power  of  the  water  is  lost.  Thus,  if  the  theoretical  horse-power 
of  water  be  taken  as  i,  then  the  H.P.  ot  an  overshot  wheel  is 
o'68,  of  breast  wheels  0*55,  of  undershot  wheels  0*35. 

Turbines  (Fig.  2)  are  a  great  advance  upon  the  old  water-wheels. 
They  consist  of  an  annular  case,  with  inlet  and  outlet  pipes,  laid 
in  a  horizontal  position  under  water  with  its  axis  vertical.  Within 
the  case  the  water  is  conveyed  by  means  of  guide-passages 
towards  the  centre  of  the  wheel.  Here  it  comes  in  contact  with 
a  movable  wheel,  which  it  causes  to  revolve.  This  force  is 
transmitted  by  means  of  a  vertical  spindle  to  the  machine.  The 
water  after  doing  its  work  escapes,  as  a  rule,  by  an  opening  near 
the  centre.  The  advantages  of  the  turbine  are — (i)  less  primary 
cost ;  (2)  less  cost  for  erection ;  (3)  gives  a  greater  amount  of  force 
than  the  water-wheel ;  (4)  can  be  put  in  places  where  it  would  be 
impossible  to  erect  a  water-wheel ;  (5)  revolves  at  such  a  speed 
that  it  can  be  applied  directly  to  the  machine.  By  means  of  a 
turbine  70  per  cent,  of  the  force  of  the  water  is  rendered  available 


Steam-Engine. 

Before  considering  the  construction  of  the  engine  itself  it  will 
De  as  well  to  briefly  describe  the  boiler. 

Boilers. — The  boiler  may  either  be  intimately  connected  with 
the  engine,  or  may  be  at  some  distance  from  it.  As  a  rule  the 
boiler  is  of  cylindrical  form,  with  one  or  more  flues  passing  through 
its  whole  length.  About  twenty  square  feet  of  heating  surface 
are  required  per  horse-power  of  the  engine.  The  chief  forms  of 
boilers  are  the  Cornish,  Lancashire,  and  the  ordinary  portable- 
engine  boiler. 

The  Corfiish  Boiler  is  a  long  cylindrical  one,  having  a  peculiarity 
with  regard  to  the  arrangement  of  the  flue.  This  consists  of  a 
pipe,  which  passes  through  the  boiler,  the  flues  come  back  on 
the  left  and  right  sides,  return  underneath,  and  then  pass  into  the 


24 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


chimney.     It  all  the  time  keeps  in  contact  with  the  boiler,  and  is 
closely  covered  by  brickwork. 

The  Lancashire  Boiler  resembles  the  former  very  much,  but 
has  two  flue-pipes  running  through  its  centre  instead  of  one  as 
in  the  preceding  form. 

The  Portable-engine  Boiler. — In  this  form  of  boiler  the  fire  can 
only  be  applied  at  one  end,  and,  to  recompense  for  the  small 
amount  of  heating  surface,  numerous  narrow  tubes  pass  through 
the  water  from  the  fire  to  the  chimney.  The  hot  air  and  smoke 
which  pass  along  raise  the  temperature  of  the  water  considerably. 
The  Parts  of  an  Engine. — These  are  very  similar  in  all  engines. 
The  steam  travels  from  the  boiler  to  the  engine  by  means  of  the 
steam-pipe.     It  passes  into  the  cylinder  through  the  steam-port. 

The  Cylinder  consists  of  a  cylindrical  chamber  bored  out 
perfectly  true,  and  of  the  slide-jacket,  or  valve-box.     This  chamber 

is  made  of  cast-iron,  and  is 
connected  at  each  end  with 
the  slide-jacket  by  means  ot 
steam-ports,  through  which  the 
steam  passes  to  and  from  the 
cylinder.  The  passage  be- 
tween the  two  steamports  leads 
to  the  air  or  to  a  condenser, 
and  is  called  the  exhaust  port. 
The  ends  of  the  cylinder  are 
closed  by  covers  bolted  to  the 
flanged  ends.  The  passage  is 
put  in  communication  with 
either  end  of  the  cylinder  as 
required  by  means  of  a  slide- 
valve. 

The  Piston  is  the  movable 
plug  which  works  from  end  to 
end  of  the  cylinder  under  the 
pressure  of  the  steam,  and 
through  which  the  energy  of 
the  steam  is  converted  into 
the  motion  of  the  mechanism. 
It  is  absolutely  necessary  that 
the  piston-head  must  form  a 
steam-tight  division  betv/een 
the  two  ends  of  the  cylinder,  and  in  order  to  insure  this,  spring- 
rings  are  fitted  tightly  around  it. 

Crosshead  and  Guide-blocks. — The  crosshead  is  at  the  outer  end 
of  the  piston-rod,  and  it  is  to  this  that  the  connecting-rod  is 


3- — Parts  of  cylinder.   A,  piston  ;  B,  piston- 
rod  ;  C,  D,  steam-ports  ;  E,  exhaust. 


THE  STEAM-ENGINE.  25 

attached  by  means  of  a  pin  passing  through  the  crosshead. 
Guide-blocks  are  sometimes  attached  to  each  side  of  the  crosshead 
in  order  to  prevent  the  oblique  thrust  or  pull  of  the  connecting- 
rod  from  bending  the  piston-rod. 

The  Connecting-rod  connects  the  crosshead  with  the  crank-pin, 
and  by  its  means  the  to-and-fro  motion  of  the  piston-rod  is 
transformed  into  the  rotatory  motion  of  the  crank-pin.  The 
length  of  the  connecting-rod  varies  from  two  to  four  times  the 
length  of  the  "stroke"  of  the  engine,  that  is,  the  distance 
travelled  by  the  piston-head  from  one  end  of  the  cylinder  to  the 
other.  The  longer  the  connecting-rod,  within  certain  limits,  the 
better,  as  the  rotatory  motion  will  be  effected  with  less  strain  upon 
the  piston. 

T/ie  Crank, — The  crank  consists  of  an  arm  with  a  boss  at  each 
end,  one  to  take  the  main  shaft  and  the  other  the  crank-pin. 
The  crank  is  moved  in  a  circular  manner  by  the  connecting-rod, 
and  in  its  turn  causes  the  main  shaft  to  revolve. 

The  Fly-wheel  is  a  large  wheel  fixed  to  the  main  shaft,  and 
having  an  outer  rim  of  heavy  metal.  By  its  weight  and  con- 
sequent momentum  it  tends  to  prevent  sudden  fluctuations  of 
speed.  The  driving-wheel  of  locomotives  answers  the  same 
purpose. 

The  Eccentric  consists  of  a  circular  disc  generally  rotating 
about  the  main  shaft,  which  does  not,  however,  pass  through  its 
centre.  The  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  disc  to  the  centre 
of  the  shaft  is  called  the  "  eccentricity  "  of  the  eccentric.  This 
mechanism  consists  of  the  disc  called  the  "sheave,"  surrounded 
loosely  by  a  thin  metal  hoop,  the  "  strap,"  to  which  is  attached 
a  connecting-rod.  The  parts  are  so  arranged  that,  while  the 
sheave  revolves  in  a  swinging  manner,  the  strap,  and  consequently 
the  connecting-rod,  have  a  motion  resembling  greatly  that  of  the 
main  connecting-rod. 

Slide-valves. — In  the  cylinder  there  are  three  openings — two 
outside  ones,  called  steam-ports,  which  conduct  the  steam  to  or 
from  the  cylinder  and  the  steam- pipe ;  and  a  middle  one,  larger 
than  the  rest,  called  the  exhaust-port.  The  latter  allows  the 
spent  steam  to  escape  into  the  air  or  be  conducted  to  a  condenser. 
These  ports  are  covered  by  the  slide-valve,  which  is  shaped  some- 
what like  a  hollow  rectangular  inverted  dish.  The  edges  of  the 
dish,  constituting  the  face  of  the  valve,  are  planed  and  scraped 
to  a  perfectly  true  plane  surface,  and  this  works  on  a  similarly 
prepared  part  of  the  cylinder  face.  The  amount  by  which  the 
valve  overlaps  the  steam-ports  when  at  the  middle  of  its  stroke 
is  called  the  lap  ;  this  may  be  outside  or  inside.  By  the  motion 
of  the  connecting-rod  the  slide-valve  is  pulled   backwards  and 


26 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


forwards,  closing  and  opening  the  valves  in  turn.  Thus,  while 
steam  is  getting  into  the  cylinder  by  one  steam-port,  the  waste 
steam  is  escaping  by  the  port  into  the  exhaust-port  on  the  other. 

T/ie  Governor  is  fitted  to  an  engine  to  secure  as  far  as  possible 
a  uniform  rate  of  speed.     It  consists  of  a  central  spindle,  to 

which  are  attached  a  couple  of 
heavy  balls  by  means  of  two 
elbow  joints.  The  spindle  is 
made  to  rotate  by  a  small 
shaft,  driven  from  the  engine- 
shaft,  which  has  a  bevelled 
wheel  communicating  with 
another  at  the  bottom  of  the 
spindle.  A  belt  may  be  used 
instead  to  give  the  motive- 
power.  When  the  central 
spindle  revolves  rapidly  the 
balls  fly  out  more  and  more 
by  centrifugal  force,  and,  by 
pulling  outwards  and  upwards 
the  arms,  raises  or  lowers  a 
collar.  To  this  collar  a  sys- 
tem of  bent  levers  pass  to  the 
throttle  valve.  When  the  balls 
Fig.  4.  are  far  out  the  connecting-rod 

partly  shuts  the  throttle-valve, 
and  thus  allows  less  steam  to  get  into  the  cylinder. 

The  Throttle-valve  is  a  circular  disc,  working  in  the  steam-pipe 
close  to  the  cylinder,  and  capable  of  turning  on  its  diameter  as  an 
axis,  thus  admitting  or  shutting  off  steam  as  required. 


COLLAR 


COLLAR 


it 


i.     , ,    THROTTLE 

J     I—: 1      VALVE 


THROTTLE 
VALVE 


Fig.  5. 


Safety-valves  provide  for  the  safety  of  the  boiler  by  allowing 
the  steam  to  escape  when  its  pressure  exceeds  a  certain  limit. 
There  are  three  principal  forms  : — 

(i)  Dead-weight  safely-valves,  kept  in  their  places  by  a  dead 
weight  immediately  over  the  valve. 


THE   STEAM-ENGINE.  2/ 

(2)  Where  the  valve  is  kept  in  its  place  by  a  weight  at  the  end 
of  a  lever. 

(3)  Spring-loaded  safety-valves,  kept  in  their  places  by  means 
of  powerful  springs. 

Condensers. — The  condenser  is  a  box  or  chamber  into  which 
the  steam,  after  doing  its  work  in  the  cylinder,  is  passed  and 
condensed  instead  of  being  exhausted  into  the  air.  The  object  of 
the  condenser  is  (i)  to  remove  as  far  as  possible  the  effect  of 
atmospheric  pressure  from  the  back  of  the  piston  by  receiving  the 
exhaust  steam  and  condensing  it  to  water,  thus  creating  a  partial 
vacuum,  and  (2)  to  enable  the  steam  which  acts  on  the  piston  to 
be  expanded  down  to  a  lower  pressure  than  can  profitably  be 
done  when  the  steam  exhausts  into  the  air.  There  are  "  jet " 
and  "  surface  "  condensers.  In  the  former,  the  steam,  on  coming 
out  of  the  cylinder,  is  met  by  a  spray  of  cold  water.  In  the  latter, 
the  condensation  is  performed  by  means  of  a  cold  metallic  surface. 

Beam-engines. — In  this  form  the  piston  raises  and  lowers  a 
large  beam,  forming  a  lever  of  the  first  class.  From  the  other  end 
a  rod  descends  which  rotates  the  crank. 

Compound  Ejighies. — These  have  two  cylinders,  a  high-pressure 
and  low-pressure.  The  steam  is  admitted  first  into  the  former,  which 
is  the  least.  After  doing  its  work  here  it  passes  into  the  other 
side  of  the  low-pressure  cylinder.  The  piston-head  is  pushed 
back,  and  as  fresh  steam  is  admitted  into  the  small  cylinder  at 
the  same  time  there  are  thus  two  forces  assisting  each  movement. 

Horse-power  of  Steam-engines.— 

HP  _^  X  Lx A  X  N 

33,000 

P  =  Mean  effective  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch  on 
the  piston.  L  =  Length  of  stroke  in  feet.  A  =  Area  of  the 
piston-head  in  square  inches.  N  =  Number  of  strokes  per  minute, 
or  twice  the  number  of  revolutions  per  minute. 

A  good  engine  uses  about  2  lbs.  of  coal  per  horse-power,  but 
this  amount  is  often  exceeded. 

Oil-Engines. 

These  engines  are  designed  for  using  the  common  oils,  such 
as  petroleum  and  the  ordinary  lamp-oils,  but  creosote  and  the 
heavier  oils  can  be  employed. 

The  following  description  applies  chiefly  to  the  "  Trusty " 
oil-engine  of  Weyman  and  Co.,  but  they  are  all  on  much  the 
same  principles. 

It  is  an  engine   upon  the  four-cycle  principle — that   is,  an 


2S 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


impulse  is  obtained  every  other  revolution ;  no  other  principle 
will  give  as  good  results.  There  is  the  engine  proper,  a  small 
oil-pump  and  a  vaporizer,  the  latter  being  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
cylinder. 

The  oil  is  poured  into  a  small  tank,  which  is  separate  from 
the  engine,  and  can  be  placed  in  any  convenient  position  in  the 
engine-house ;  this  is  connected  by  a  small  pipe  to  the  pump, 
which  is  actuated  by  the  governor  of  the  engine. 

As  the  engine  requires  it,  a  drop  of  oil  is  pumped  auto- 
matically into  the  vaporizer,  where  it  is  vaporized,  and  as  the 
engine  draws  it  into  the  cylinder,  air  in  excess  is  also  drawn  in 
through  a  separate  valve.  Upon  the  charge  being  compressed, 
it  is  fired  by  an  ordinary  ignition  tube,  which  is  kept  hot  by 
means  of  a  small  blowpipe. 

To  start  the  engine  the  vaporizer  is  first  heated,  which  takes 


Fig.  6. 


about  ten  minutes,  a  few  drops  are  pumped  into  the  vaporizer, 
and  by  turning  the  fly-wheel  once  or  twice  the  engine  starts. 
After  this,  little  attention  is  needed,  as  the  amount  of  oil  in  the 
tank  is  enough  to  last  for  a  long  time.  About  three-quarters  of 
a  pint  per  horse-power  per  hour  is  consumed. 

The  principle   is   simple.     The   compressed   mixture   of  oil 


THE  GAS-ENGINE.  29 

vapour  and  air  is  ignited,  and  by  the  expansion  thus  produced 
the  piston  is  forced  forward. 

The  only  objection  to  these  engines  is  the  cost 

Gas-Engines. 

Gas-  and  petroleum-engines  are  somewhat  alike  in  their  action. 
The  "Otto"  gas-engine,  by  Messrs.  Crossley,  is  undoubtedly 
the  best  of  its  class,  and  is  now  brought  to  a  great  state  of  per- 
fection. The  action  of  this  engine  is  as  follows.  Gas  and  air 
are  drawn  into  the  cylinder  by  the  forward  stroke  of  the  piston, 
it  is  then  compressed  by  the  return  stroke,  and  the  gas  is  fired  at 
the  end  of  the  second  stroke,  or  first  revolution.  The  air  and 
gases  not  used  up  in  combustion  at  once  expand  with  the  heat, 
press  upon  the  piston,  and  drive  it  forward,  whilst  the  products 
of  combustion,  etc.,  are  exhausted  by  the  return  stroke  of  the 
piston,  at  the  end  of  the  second  revolution.  Thus  gas  and  air 
are  admitted  and  fired  every  second  revolution.  The  gases  are 
also  exhausted  every  alternate  revolution,  the  firing-valve  being 
opened  at  the  end  of  the  first  and  third,  and  the  exhaust  at 
the  end  of  the  second  and  fourth. 

Connected  with  the  cylinder  are  three  valves.  The  first 
(a  double  one)  admits  gas  and  air ;  the  second  is  the  firing-valve, 
and  the  third  the  exhaust.  These  valves  are  all  opened  by  the 
action  of  a  cam  fixed  on  to  a  shaft,  which  is  revolved  at  half  the 
speed  of  the  crank  shaft,  from  which  it  is  driven  and  regulated 
by  means  of  bevelled  wheels. 

The  firing  takes  place  by  means  of  a  small  gas  jet  which  is 
always  burning  just  outside  the  firing-valve.  The  cylinder  is 
kept  cool  by  means  of  a  water-jacket.  The  valves  are  all  fitted 
with  strong  springs,  so  that  they  close  immediately  they  are  slipped 
by  the  cam. 

These  engines  are  made  in  almost  all  sizes,  from  half-horse 
power  upwards,  and  may  be  used  for  almost  all  purposes. 
They  are  considered  to  be  preferable  to  oil-engines  when  the 
gas  can  be  taken  from  the  main  at  a  reasonable  price,  but  for 
portable  purposes  the  oil-engines  are  more  suitable. 


Agricultural  Implements. 

Horse-cultivating  Implements. — By  the  use  of  these  imple- 
ments the  farmer  is  able  to  procure  a  state  of  tikh  which  will 
be  most  suitable  for  the  growth  of  his  crops.  They  include 
ploughs,  grubbers  or  cultivators,  harrows,  and  rollers. 


30  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Ploughs. — There  are  very  many  kinds  of  ploughs,  but  the 
most  common  are  those  ploughing  one  furrow  at  a  time.  These 
often,  but  not  always,  have  wheels. 

The  parts  of  a  plough,  as  seen  in  Fig.  7,  consist  of: — 
(i)  The  handles.  These  are  made  of  either  iron  or  wood, 
and  are  so  constructed  that  the  ploughman  has  the  greatest 
possible  control  over  the  implement  when  ploughing.  They  are 
held  together  by  light  rods,  which  generally  cross  each  other  in  a 
diagonal  manner. 

(2)  The  frame.  This  carries  the  working  parts  of  the 
plough. 

(3)  The  beam  is  a  strong  iron  bar,  to  which  the  horses 
are  yoked. 

(4)  The  bridle,  or  hake.  The  depth  and  breadth  of  the 
furrow-slice  are  regulated  by  this  part  of  the  plough.  The  hake 
has  notches,  by  means  of  which  the  chain,  which  is  also  attached 
to  the  whipple-trees,  can  be  moved  up  or  down,  in  the  former 


Fig.  7. — Parts  of  single-furrow  plough.  A,  handles  or  stilts  ;  B,  mouldboard  ;  C,  share,  or 
sock  ;  D,  beam  ;  E,  coulter  ;  F,  skin-coulter  ;  G,  wheel  running  at  bottom  of  furrow  ;  H, 
bridle  with  hook  ;  1,  wheel  running  on  top  of  ground. 

case  causing  the  plough  to  go  deeper  into  the  soil,  in  the  latter 
reversing  this  action.  The  hake  can  also  be  moved  laterally.  If 
a  wider  furrow-slice  is  required,  it  is  moved  to  the  right;  if  it 
is  already  too  large,  it  is  moved  to  the  left. 

(5)  The  wheels.  These  are  not  always  present,  as  can  be 
seen  in  the  Scotch  swing  ploughs.  They  come  after  the  bridle, 
and  are  generally  two  in  number,  i.e.  a  large  furrow-wheel  on 
the  right,  and  a  smaller  land-wheel  on  the  other  side.  The 
former  runs  in  the  furrow  and,  to  a  great  extent,  regulates  its 
depth.  Thus,  when  a  deep  furrow  is  desired,  the  wheel  is  set 
higher.  The  wheels  are  fastened  to  the  beam  by  means  of  an 
upright  bar  and  a  cross  bar  going  horizontally.  There  is  also 
a  beam-clasp  fastening  the  parts  together.  By  keeping  the 
furrow- wheel  farther  from  the  beam  a  wider  furrow  is  obtained. 

(6)  The  coulter.  This  is  a  large  knife,  making  the  vertical  cut 
in  ploughing.  Its  upper  part  is  often  cyhndrical,  and  is  fastened 
to  the  beam  by  two  clasps,  one  above  and  the  other  below  the 


AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS.  31 

beam.  Its  lower  part  broadens  out,  the  landside  being  kept 
flat,  and  the  other  sloping  away.  The  point  should  come  near 
the  share. 

(7)  The  skim  coulter  works  in  advance  of  the  last,  and  acts 
in  a  similar  manner  to  a  small  plough,  turning  over  and  burying 
the  first  inch  or  two  of  the  soil. 

(8)  The  share  cuts  the  furrow-slice  in  the  bottom,  and  is  fixed 
to  the  sole  of  the  plough.  The  best  kind  is  the  chilled  share, 
in  which  the  edge  is  always  kept  sharp  by  the  upper  part  alone 
wearing  away. 

(9)  The  mouldboard  is  a  large  cast-iron  plate  fastened  firmly 
to  the  plough  frame.  It  is  elongated,  and  so  constructed  that 
it  causes  the  furrow- slice  to  move  through  a  spiral  curve,  and  thus 
turns  it  upside  down. 

(10)  The  slade  is  a  smooth  flat  bar  attached  to  the  under 
part  of  the  body,  so  that  the  plough  runs  smoothly  upon  it. 

The  above  applies  chiefly  to  the  single-furrow  plough,  but 
the  same  parts  are  found  in  nearly  all  ploughs. 

Turn-wrest  Ploughs. — These  are  also  called  one-way  ploughs, 
from  the  fact  that  they  always  turn  the  furrow-slice  on  one  side, 
thus  doing  away  with  the  wide  open  furrows  between  the  ridges. 
They  are  of  various  designs.  Thus,  in  one  kind,  the  mouldboard 
can  be  turned  over  from  one  side  to  the  other ;  in  another  form 
two  mouldboards  are  used,  one  standing  vertically  upwards  while 
the  other  does  the  work  for  the  time.  Again  others  are  arranged 
on  the  balance  system,  similar  to  steam  ploughs,  or  have  two 
mouldboards  placed  back  to  back.  In  the  last  plan,  one  mould- 
board  works  one  way,  and  then  the  parts  are  swung  round,  so  that 
the  other  has  to  turn  the  furrow. 

Digging  Ploughs. — These  have  a  short  concave  mouldboard, 
and  thus  break  up  the  furrow-slice  when  turning  it  over.  The 
land  is  left  in  a  friable  state. 

Double-furrow  Ploughs. — Turn  two  furrows  at  once,  and  as 
they  only  require  three  horses  and  one  man,  the  cost  of  a  horse 
and  a  man  is  saved.  The  work  is  more  quickly  done,  and  pans 
do  not  readily  form  in  the  soil. 

Multiple-furrow  Ploughs. — Take  three  or  four  furrows  at 
a  time.  The  work  is  done  more  quickly,  but  it  is  best  for  these 
ploughs  to  be  drawn  by  steam-power. 

Douhle-mouldboard  Ploughs  are  chiefly  used  for  making  up 
ridges,  as  for  turnips  and  potatoes.  They  have  a  mouldboard 
on  each  side,  and  thus  an  equal  amount  of  soil  is  thrown  up  to 
both  right  and  left. 

Subsoil  Ploughs. — These  consist  of  an  ordinary  plough  frame, 
with  no  mouldboard,  and  with  a  subsoil  body,  which  simply  cuts 


32 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


through  the  soil  but  does  not  raise  it.   (Fig.  8.)   (See  "  Subsoiling/' 
p.  290.) 

Cultivators,  or  Grubbers. — These  consist  of  a  framework, 
resting  on  wheels,  and  carrying  tines  which  point  forward  in  an 
oblique  manner.  These  tines  either  have  chisel  points  or  are 
broadened  out  like  shares.  (Fig.  9.)  The  advantages  of  the 
cultivator  are :  first,  it  opens  up  the  land  well,  but  does  not  bury 


Fis.  8.— Subsoil  plough. 


the  fine   surface  mould ;  and,  secondly,  it  draws   out   the  long 
underground  stems  of  couch  unbroken. 


Fig.  9.— Parts  of  cultivator,  or  grubber.  A,  draught  hook;  B,  beam  ;  C,  frame ;  D,  lever 
for  raising  tines  ;  E,  arm  connected  to  lever;  F,  catch  for  lever  to  hold  tines  into  work  ; 
G,  handle  of  lever;  N,  hind  wheels;  J,,  front  wheel  ;  MM,  tines  or  teeth. 

Harrows. — The  harrow  consists  in  its  general  form  of  an  iron 
frame  carrying  teeth,  usually  descending  perpendicularly.  They 
do  not  rest  at  all  on  wheels.  The  best  harrows  are  made  of  iron, 
and  are  very  often  of  zigzag  form.  Ransome  and  Co.  have 
a  patent  jointed  harrow  which  follows  all  the  inequalities  of  the 
ground,  but  as  a  rule  the  frame  is  rigid. 

Harrows  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  two  classes — heavy 
and  light.     The  former,  also  called  drag-harrows,  are  used  for 


HARROWS, 


33 


breaking  down  clods  and  exposing  fresh  surfaces  to  the  atmosphere. 
The  teeth  of  this  kind  are  often  curved.  The  light  harrows  only 
require  one  horse.  Varieties  are  used  for  brushing  in  the  seed 
of  cereals  or  grass  and  clovers,  and  for  levelling  the  surface.^ 

Chain  harrows  are  made  up  of  chain  links  in  some  particular 
form,  and  are  perfectly  flexible.     They  are  used  chiefly  on  arable 


Fig.  io. — Secular's  diagonal  harrow. 

land  for  collecting  weeds,  and  also  on  pastures  for  spreading 
manures. 

Rollers. — These  implements  are  generally  of  iron  (stone  rollers 
are  sometimes  used),  from  about  fourteen  to  twenty-six  inches 
in  diameter  and  five  to  eight  feet  long.  They  consist  of  one  or 
more  cylinders  strung  end  to  end  upon  a  common  axis.  The 
roller  should  be  in  at  least  two  sections,  to  facilitate  turning. 
When  properly  made,  one  section  moves  forward  and  the  other 
backward  whilst  turning,  and  thus  no  injury  through  scrubbing 
the  soil  results. 

Croskill  Roller,  or  Clod-crusher. — This  consists  of  numerous 
discs,  having  projecting  teeth,  all  placed  upon  the  same  axle. 
The  discs  are  of  two  sizes,  and  large  and  small  are  strung  alter- 
nately. The  larger  discs  also  have  large  holes  for  the  axle,  and 
thus  revolve  in  a  swinging  manner.  The  advantage  of  this  is, 
that  if  any  clod  of  earth  get  into  the  roller  it  is  speedily  worked 
out  by  the  larger  sections.  This  roller  weighs  about  one  and  a 
quarter  tons,  and  requires  three  or  four  horses.  The  ordinary 
rollers  for  heavy  land  weigh  about  i8  cwt,  for  light  land  12  cwt. 

Cultivating  Implements  actuated  by  Steam-power. 

For  the  systems  of  steam-cultivation,  viz.  the  single-  and 
double-engine  methods,  see  the  chapter  on  "  Tillage,"  p.  280. 

D 


34 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


Ploughs. — Steam-ploughs  are  mostly  made  so  as  to  balance 
about  a  couple  of  wheels.  They  consist  of  two  rigid  iron  frames, 
to  which  are  fixed  from  two  to  six  plough  bodies.     These  two 


parts  are  so  arranged  that,  while  one  is  working,  the  other  is 
elevated,  and  is  let  down  at  the  headlands.  To  each  half  is 
fixed  a  seat  and  steering-wheel.     Instead  of  the  ordinary  mould- 


STEAM   IMPLEMENTS.  35 

board,  digging-breasts  can  be  placed,  and  thus  the  soil  is  com- 
pletely pulverized. 

Subsoil  ploughs  can  be  very  well  worked  by  steam-power. 
Besides  the  ordinary  ploughs,  they  have  strong  tines  attached' 
which  follow  in  each  furrow,  and  break  up  the  subsoil  to  any 
required  depth.  Three  or  four  plough  bodies  and  tines  are 
usually  attached  to  each  part. 

Cultivators.— These  are  made  either  to  balance,  or  to  turn 
round  at  each  headland.  The  former  are  somewhat  similar  to 
the  plough  j  except  that,  in  the  place  of  the  mouldboard  and 
coulter,  strong  tines  are  substituted,  capable  of  working  to  a  depth 
of  two  or  three  feet.  In  the  other  form  three  wheels  are  used 
one  in  advance  of  the  other  two.  These  support  a  strong  iron 
frame,  carrying  from  five  to  thirteen  teeth.  By  means  of  a  special 
turnmg-lever  the  tines  are  lifted,  and  held  out  of  the  ground 
when  at  the  headland;  the  machine  is  pulled  round,  the  tines 
released,  and  the  backward  journey  commenced. 

Harrows.— The    chief    steam-harrows   are   like   the   turning 
cultivator  with  a  harrow  frame  and  teeth,  in  the  place  of  those  of 
the  grubber.     In  some  forms  the  teeth  have  a  slight  forward  slope 
instead  of  descending  perpendicularly.     They  also  are  sometimes 
double-pointed. 
I        Steam-diggers.— Some  very  effective  machines  of  this  form 
r  have  been  brought  out  lately.     In  one  form  the  engine  travels 
across  the  land,  and  has  the  digging-apparatus  connected  to  the 
back  of  It.     This  consists  of  very  strong  oscillating  arms,  with 
steel  prongs.     The  advantages  claimed  for  it  are  :  (i)  It  breaks 
up   the   land   well,    and   leaves   it   in  a   better   condition   than 
ordinary  ploughing  and  harrowing.     (2)  It  is  cheaper,  as  it  does 
as  much  work  per  day  as  ten  horses  and  five  men,  only  requirincr 
one  man  in  attendance.    (3)  It  breaks  up  pan  subsoils.    (4)  The 
engine  can  be  used  for  other  purposes  besides  digging,  the  forks 
being  easily  taken  off.     The  Darby  digger  is  not  so. simple  in 
form,   and   travels   sideways   when  digging.     It  has  six   stron<^ 
digging-forks,  and  cultivates  a  width  of  twenty-one  feet  at  a  time*" 
to  a  depth  of  not  greater  than  fourteen  inches.  ' 

Harrows  and  Drills.— As  a  drill  in  itself  is  very  light,  it  is 
usual  to  fix  one  or  two  harrows  on  the  frame  as  well.     A  heavy 
harrow,  before  the  drill,  renders  the  soil  fine;  while  a  light  one 
coming  after,  covers  in  the  seed.    By  this  means,  all  the  operations 
are  performed  at  once. 

Discers.— These  machines  consist  of  a  frame,  supported  by 
about  four  wheels,  and  carrying  two  or  three  rows  of  thin  discs 
which  cut  up  the  surface  soil.  ' 


36  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Sowing  Implements. 

Drills. — By  means  of  these  machines,  the  farmer  is  enabled 
to  sow  his  seed  in  a  more  regular  manner,  both  as  regards  the 
amount  sown,  and  the  depth  and  distance  apart  of  the  seed 
tracks.  Drills  vary  greatly,  and  need  to  be  of  somewhat  different 
form  for  various  soils  and  various  seeds.  Thus  small  heavy 
seed,  like  clover,  would  generally  be  run  out  of  the  drill  more 
quickly  than  light  grass  seeds,  if  some  adjustment  were  not  made. 

Cup-drills. — In  these  the  two  large  wheels  support  a  frame 
on  which  rests  a  long  box.  This  box  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
the  upper  called  the  hopper,  and  the  lower  containing  the  cups. 
In  the  lower  chamber  an  axle  runs  the  whole  length,  and  to  this 
axle  are  fixed  numerous  discs  to  which  the  cups  are  attached  at 
right  angles  by  small  stalks.  When  the  drill  is  in  motion,  the 
seed  trickles  down  from  the  hopper  into  the  cup-barrel.  The 
axle,  supporting  the  discs  and  cups,  is  made  to  revolve  by  means 
of  either  cogged  wheels  or  a  small  belt  working  from  the  main 
axle.  Each  cup,  when  passing  through  the  seed,  takes  up  its 
share ;  and  then,  when  nearly  in  the  highest  position  of  the  disc, 
empties  it  into  the  funnels.  The  seed  then  falls  down  the  spouts, 
and  is  deposited  just  behind  the  coulter,  in  the  track  made  by 
that  body.  The  above  principle  holds  good  for  many  kinds  of 
drills.  To  several  of  these  implements  there  is  a  lever  attached 
by  means  of  which  the  distance  between  the  drills  is  easily 
regulated. 

Chain-drills. — In  these  the  seed  falls  from  the  hopper  on  to 
an  endless  chain,  which  conveys  it  to  the  funnel. 

Force-feed  Drills  have  the  discs  and  cups  replaced  by  a  small 
roller  with  spiral  groovings,  which  carries  the  seed  to  the  funnels, 
exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  an  endless  screw. 

Tooth  and  Brush  Pinion  Drills,  and  Disc  Drills  have  numerous 
holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  seed-box,  covered  in  the  first  case  with 
a  revolving  pinion  bearing  teeth  alternating  with  brushes,  and 
in  the  latter  kind  by  a  disc  with  wavy  edges.  By  these  means 
the  seed  holes  are  first  closed,  and  then  opened,  and  the  seed  is 
also  worked  out. 

Manure-  and  Water- drills.  — There  are  many  forms  of  the  dry- 
manure  drills.  In  some,  the  fertilizers  are  deposited  by  means 
of  cups,  the  hopper  being  in  this  case  large,  and  provided  with 
a  stirrer.  When  seed  and  manure  are  both  to  be  drilled,  the 
operation  is  usually  done  at  once,  by  having  two  hoppers,  etc., 
and  depositing  the  artificials  a  little  in  advance  of  the  seed-coulter. 
But  it  is  not  always  desired  to  drill  the  seed,  and  here  the 
manure-drills   come   into   play.      These   consist   of  a  cylinder. 


DRILLS. 


37 


formed  of  a  number  of  rings,  each  having  projections  coming  in 
contact  with  scrapers  beneath  the  box.  A  stirrer  is  used  to  mix 
the  substances  up  thoroughly.    The  manure  is  distributed  broad- 


cast. In  another  form  the  barrel  itself  revolves,  and  allows  the 
artificials  to  fall  upon  a  rotatory  distributor  which  spreads  it  evenly 
over  the  land.     Again,  in  another  manure-drill  the  substances  are 


38  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

carried  to  the  funnels  by  means  of  an  endless  chain,  worked  from 
a  shaft  at  the  back  of  the  machine. 

In  liquid  manure  drills,  the  fluid  is  placed  in  a  large  tank, 
which  occupies  the  place  of  the  hopper.  By  means  of  cups  on 
discs  the  liquid  is  poured  into  the  funnels  and  down  the  spouts. 

The  Broadcast  Barrow  consists  of  a  long  box,  of  nearly 
triangular  section,  set  across  a  barrow  frame.  The  bottom  of  the 
box  is  pierced  by  numerous  holes  through  which  the  seeds  drop. 
From  end  to  end  of  the  hopper  runs  a  brush  spindle,  deriving  its 
motion  from  the  travelling-wheels.  The  machine  is  wheeled 
along  by  a  man,  and  the  seed,  which  is  placed  in  the  box  or 
hopper,  is  swept  out  by  the  brushes.  A  width  of  about  twelve  feet 
is  sown  at  once. 

Broadcasters. — The  seed  is  passed  into  the  funnels  as  in  the 
ordinary  cup-  or  disc-drills.  The  spouts  are  short,  and  flattened 
out  at  their  lower  end,  which  rests  upon  the  distributing-board. 
On  the  distributing-board  are  numerous  rows  of  pegs,  arranged  in 
triangular  form;  the  apex  of  each  triangle  being  very  near  a 
spout  end.  The  seed,  therefore,  on  coming  out  of  the  spout  is 
spread  out,  and  is  scattered  evenly  over  the  ground. 

Potato-planters, — These  vary  greatly  from  the  other  forms  of 
seed-drills.  They  have  a  large  open  hopper  for  the  potatoes, 
through  which  passes  an  endless  chain,  revolving  on  a  drum,  or 
else  a  disc.  Attached  to  the  chain  are  either  cups  or  steel  needles, 
which  take  a  potato  each  during  the  revolution  through  the 
hopper.  The  sets  they  let  fall  down  a  wide  spout,  and  finally 
drop  into  the  bottom  of  the  furrow.  The  cup-planters  seem  to 
be  the  best.  Some  potato-planters  cover  over  the  sets,  and  thus 
finish  the  work. 

Strawsonizer. — The  body  of  this  machine  rests  upon  a  couple 
of  iron  wheels,  three  or  four  feet  in  diameter,  and  three  inches 
wide.  It  is  drawn  by  one  horse  attached  to  the  pair  of  shafts. 
The  machine  is  used  for  distributing  seeds,  manures,  insecticides, 
etc.  This  is  done  very  efl"ectively  by  means  of  a  strong  blast 
from  a  fan,  secured  to  the  body.  A  spur-wheel,  eighteen  inches  in 
diameter,  is  keyed  on  to  the  road-wheel  axle,  and  works  a  pinion 
fitted  to  a  second  motion-shaft.  This  consists  of  a  spur-wheel, 
actuating  a  pinion,  keyed  on  to  a  third  motion-shaft.  The  latter 
carries  a  pulley,  fourteen  inches  in  diameter  and  two  inches  wide, 
which,  by  means  of  a  small  belt,  works  a  pulley  on  the  fan.  The 
fan  is  about  nine  inches  in  diameter,  and  has  close  sides.  The 
inlets  are  four  and  a  half  inches  in  diameter,  and  the  delivery 
pipe  is  three  inches  wide,  and  discharges  to  the  rear.  The  seed 
or  manure  is  placed  in  a  large  wooden  hopper,  arranged  over 
the  delivery-pipe  of  the  fan,  and  fed  down  by  means  of  a  stirrer 


THE    STRAWS0NI2ER. 


39 


and  one  roller.  For  seeds  the  roller  is  smooth,  but  for  manures 
and  similar  substances  the  roller  is  serrated.  The  seeds,  as 
they  fall  into  the  blast,  strike  against  an  adjustable  fan-shaped 
plate  of  eleven  inches  radius,  fitted  with  six  radiating  distributing 
partitions,  one  inch  high.  The  seeds  are  thus  spread  out  in 
fan-like  form. 


For  liquid  manures,  a  tin  cistern  is  put  inside  the  hopper, 
and  the  blast  goes  into  a  pipe  which  divides  into  two  branches, 
having  five  terminations  each.  A  flexible  hose  leads  from  these 
up  into  the  cistern.  The  pipes  in  each  case  have  a  slight  upward 
turn,  so  that  the  seeds  or  manure  are  spread  out  much  further. 


40  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

Hoeing  Implements. 

Horse-hoes. — The  multiple  horse-hoe  takes  two  or  more  rows, 
and  is  supported  by  two  large  wheels,  to  the  axle  of  which  is  fixed 
a  horizontal  bar,  from  which  the  shares  descend.  These  consist  of 
an  upright  stem  with  a  sharp  flat  blade,  which  works  in  the  soil 
and  cuts  through  any  weeds.  The  blades  are  of  dififerent  shapes, 
and  can  be  put  at  varying  distances  apart  by  means  of  a  lever. 
The  hoe-blades  cut  in  parallel  lines,  leaving  the  young  plants,  and 
destroying  the  weeds  between  the  drills.  The  machine  is  usually 
governed  by  means  of  a  lever,  enabling  the  driver  to  keep  it  in 
the  proper  lines. 


Fig.  14.— One-row  horse-hoe. 

Scufflers  and  one-row  hoes  are  very  much  like  cultivators. 
They  have  from  one  to  three  wheels,  and  a  frame  of  triangular 
shape,  from  which  descend  the  tines.  These  vary  in  number, 
but  in  the  one-row  hoes  are  generally  three,  in  which  case  the 
back  tines  have  long  feet. 

Implements  employed  in  securing  Crops. 

Mowing-machines  are  used  for  cutting  grass,  intended  for 
hay.  They  are  generally  drawn  by  two  horses,  attached  to  a  long 
pole  coming  between  them.  The  frame,  to  which  this  shaft  is 
fastened,  is  supported  by  two  broad  wheels.  From  these  wheels 
the  motion  for  the  cutting  apparatus  is  derived  in  two  ways.  In 
the  first  case,  a  pinion  wheel  is  worked  by  the  travelling-wheel, 
which  has  teeth  on  its  inner  rim.  The  pinion  is  carried  on  a 
first-motion  shaft,  fitted  with  ratchet-boxes  and  pawls,  which  only 
revolves  as  the  machine  goes  forward.     On  this  shaft  is  a  bevel 


REAPERS.  41 

wheel  communicating  with  another  attached  to  a  long  shaft  passing 
to  the  front.  This  shaft  turns  a  crank  disc,  to  which  is  attached  a 
connecting  rod,  running  across  the  front  of  the  machine.  In  the 
second  method  the  travelling-wheels  communicate  their  forward 
motion  to  the  main  axle  itself,  through  ratchet-boxes  and  pawls. 
From  the  main  axle  the  motion  is  transmitted  to  the  front  in  a 
similar  manner  to  the  action  of  the  other  machine.  To  the  con- 
necting-rod the  knife  is  fastened.  It  consists  of  a  steel  bar  with 
sharp  triangular  projections  in  front,  so  that  it  acts  somewhat 
like  a  horse-clipper.  The  knife  works  in  a  flat  bar  called  the 
finger-beam.  To  this  bar  are  attached  a  number  of  finger-like 
projections,  having  a  space  cut  out  towards  their  back  in  which 
the  knife  works.  At  the  outer  end  of  the  beam  is  a  small  wheel, 
and  a  dividing-board. 

Reapers,  used  for  cutting  corn,  are  chiefly  of  three  kinds, 
viz.  manual-delivery  reapers,  self-delivery  reapers,  self-binders. 

Manual-delivery  Reapers. — This  differs  little  from  the  ordinary 
mowers,  except  that  at  the  back  of  the  finger-beam  is  a  rack  which 
is  held  up  in  an  inclined  position  by  means  of  a  lever.     This 


Fig.  15. — Manual  delivery  reaper.  A,  track  board ;  B,  offside  shoe  with  wheel ;  C,  fingers  ; 
D,  rack  ;  E,  connecting  rod  ;  G,  lift-lever ;  H,  gear-lever  ;  KK,  seats ;  LL,  swingle-trees  ; 
M,  pole. . 

ever  is  controlled  by  the  foot  of  the  person  on  the  machine.  The 
divider  at  the  extremity  of  the  finger-bar  towards  the  standing 
corn  is  also  slightly  different.  The  corn,  when  cut,  is  packed 
upon  the  rack,  until  enough  has  been  accumulated  to  make  a 
sheaf.  The  rack  is  then  lowered,  and  the  corn  pushed  off  behind 
by  a  rake,  after  which  it  is  raised.  Two  persons  generally  go 
with  this  machine,  one  driving,  and  one  "  putting  off"  with  the  rake. 
Self-delivery  Reapers  are  of  two  kinds,  viz.  those  with  back 
delivery,  and  those  with  side  delivery.  The  principle  of  each  is, 
however,  very  similar.  Besides  the  ordinary  cutting  apparatus, 
they  have  an  upright  shaft  carrying  four  revolving  rakes.  By 
means  of  these,  the  cut  corn  is  gathered  upon  a  platform  behind 


42 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


the  knife.    One  of  the  rakes  then  sweeps  the  corn  off  the  platform, 
which  in  the  side-deUvery  reaper  is   shaped  somewhat   like  a 


Fig.  i6.— Self-delivery  reaper.     A,  main-road  wheel;    B,   platform;  CCC.  rakes  or  sails; 
D,  divider-board;  F,  pole  ;  G,  swingle-trees  ;  H,  seat ;  I,  tilting-lever ;  K,  gear-lever. 

quarter  circle.  On  some  machines  each  rake  sweeps  off  part  of 
the  corn,  which  is  thus  left  on  the  ground  in  the  form  of  a  swathe. 
Self-binders  are  much  more  complicated  machines  than  the 
preceding.  The  grain,  as  it  is  cut,  falls  across  an  endless  web, 
which  conveys  it  over  the  top  of  the  driving-wheel,  and  then 
down  an  incline  until  its  progress  is  stopped  by  the  packers. 


Fig.  17. — Self-binder. 


These  consist  of  a  couple  of  curved  levers,  which  hold  the  grain 
until  a  certain  previously  determined  weight,  enough  for  a  sheaf, 
has  accumulated.  Then  the  needle,  which  is  of  nearly  semi- 
circular form,  rises  from  below  with  the  twine,  and  passes  in  front 


HAY-MAKING  MACHINES. 


43 


and  then  over  the  sheaf.  The  band  is  then  caught  hold  of  by 
the  knotter,  which  ties  a  very  secure  knot.  This  is  done  by  the 
string  being  wound  once  round 
the  jaws  of  the  knotting  appa- 
ratus, and  then  part  is  pulled 
through  this  ring,  and  the  knot 
pulled  tight.  The  string  is  then 
cut,  and  the  sheaf  ejected  from 
the  machine  in  a  horizontal 
l)osition  by  a  pair  of  levers  pro-  fig.  ib. 

vided  for  the  purpose. 

Hay-makers  are  also  known  as  tedders.  They  consist  of  a 
number  of  steel  prongs  attached  to  heads,  which  are  fixed  by  shafts 
to  the  main  axle,  or  to  another  axle  worked  by  cogged  wheels  from 
the  travelling-wheel.  Usually  a  guard  is  placed  in  front,  to  keep 
the  hay  from  being  tossed  forward.  Tedders  have  two  actions — 
one  in  which  the  hay  is  lifted  by  the  prongs,  brought  round 
in  front,  and  then  thrown  out  behind  with  some  force.  In  the 
other  method,  the  arms  revolve  in  a  contrary  manner,  and,  coming 
down  in  front,  take  the  hay  off  the  ground  and  gently  throw  it 
out  behind.  In  the  latter  way  the  material  is  simply  turned  over, 
and  is  much  in  favour  where  there  is  any  quantity  of  clover,  as 
it  suffers  very  much  from  severe  tedding. 


Fig.  19.— Hay-maker.   A,  road-wheels  ;  B,  forks;  C,  hood  ;  D,  shafts;  E, cover  of  gear-box  ; 
F,  guard  ;  G,  seat. 


Horse-rake.— These  machines  consist  of  a  light  frame  resting 
on  two  wheels,  and  drawn  by  one  horse.  To  a  bar,  running 
from  side  to  side  just  above  the  axle,  are  attached  a  number  of 
long  curved  teeth,  skimming  the  ground.     The  machines  are  now 


44 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


generally  provided  with  a  seat  for  the  driver.     When  sufficient 
material  has  been  collected  by  the  teeth,  the  driver  puts  in  action 


Fig.  20.— Self-acting  horse-rake.    A,  road-wheels  ;  B,  teeth  ;  C,  hand-lever  (front) ;  D,  back 
hand-lever  ;  E,  foot-lever  ;  F,  back  frame ;  G,  clearing-rods  ;  H,  seat ;  K,  shafts. 

a  lever  which  raises  the  teeth,  and  leaves  the  hay  lying  in  a  row. 
When  riding,  this  lever  is  usually  worked  by  the  foot ;  but  when 
the  attendant  has  to  walk  behind  the  machine,  the  lever  is 
lengthened  and  worked  by  hand. 

Rick  Lifters. — For  removing  ricks  up  to  twenty  hundred- 
weights in  weight.  They  consist  of  a  sparred  or  boarded  platform, 
set  on  low  wheels,  and  to  the  front  of  which  shafts  are  attached, 
after  the  manner  of  a  tip-cart.  At  the  front  of  the  platform  a  simple 
windlass  is  fixed,  connected  with  a  wheel  on  which  a  rope  is  coiled. 
When  it  is  desired  to  remove  a  rick,  the  machine  is  backed  up  to 
it,  and  the  clutch  which  holds  the  platform  to  the  shafts  is  un- 
locked, when  the  hind  part  falls.  The  edge  of  the  platform  is  then 
pressed  under  the  hay,  and  two  ropes  from  the  windlass  are 
fastened  round  the  rick.  A  horse  is  then  attached  to  the  rope  on 
the  wheel,  and,  by  moving  foi*ward,  gradually  pulls  the  rick  on 
the  platform.  When  well  on,  the  front  of  the  platform  drops 
down,  and  is  automatically  clutched  to  the  shafts.  The  load  is 
then  drawn  away. 

Mr.  John  Spiers,  of  Newton,  near  Glasgow,  was  the  first  person 
to  construct  machines  of  this  type,  that  were  at  all  satisfactory. 

Horse  Porks. — These  machines  are  constructed  on  two  prin- 
ciples ;  (i)  as  in  the  mason's  shears  for  lifting  stone,  but,  instead 


ELEVATORS. 


45 


of  only  one  prong  on  each  side,  there  are  two  or  three ;  (2)  the 
fork  is  similar  to  a  harpoon,  with  a  controllable  barb  on  the  end. 

In  building  an  oblong  or  circular  rick,  a  pole  is  erected  close 
to  its  base,  and  on  this  are  fastened  guy  ropes  to  keep  it  in 
position.  A  light  jib  or  gaff  moves  up  and  down  or  around  the 
pole,  and  from  its  peak  hang  down  the  hoisting  rope  and  fork. 
The  rope  is  conveyed  over  pulleys  down  the  pole  to  near  the  base, 
where  it  is  attached  to  a  horse.  The  fork  having  been  loaded, 
the  horse  moves  forward,  and  by  so  doing  raises  the  load,  which 
is  dropped  by  the  person  in  charge  on  any  part  of  the  rick.  In 
a  shed  the  rope,  etc.,  are  attached  to  a  small  carriage,  running  along 
a  rod  stretched  close  under  the  ridge. 

Elevators  are  generally  used  for  stacking  straw  or  hay,  although 
the  same  principle  is  very  often  used  in  raising  other  materials. 
The  elevator  consists  of  a  long  trough,  mounted  on  a  frame 


Fig.  21.— Elevator.  AA,  travelling-wheels  :  B,  frame;  C,  cogwheel  for  raising  the  lifting- 
rods,  D  ;  E,  trough  in  which  material  travels  ;  G,  endless  chain,  with  forks  for  carrying  the 
material  up  E  ;  H,  hopper  for  receiving  material;  L,  connecting-rod  from  horse-gear,  M. 

supported  by  wheels.  An  endless  chain  passes  up  this,  and  returns 
over  pulleys  on  the  outside.  Attached  to  this  chain  are  steel 
prongs,  which  carry  up  the  materials. 

Potato-raisers. — The  working  parts  of  these  are  usually 
attached  to  the  back  of  the  machine,  and  consist  of  a  broad  blade, 
which  cuts  through  the  bottom  of  the  ridge,  and  several  revolving 


46  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

arms  which  knock  out  the  potatoes.     The  tubers  usually  strike 


Fiz,  22.— Allan's  potato-raiser. 

against  a  hanging  vertical  screen  and  drop  in  a  row.     The  arms 
derive  their  motion  in  a  simple  manner  from  the  main  axle. 

Carriages. 

Carts. — The  single-horse  Scotch  cart  is  one  of  the  best 
agricultural  vehicles.  It  is  drawn  by  means  of  two  shafts  attached 
to  the  rectangular  body.  This  rests  upon  a  strong  axle  joining 
the  two  wheels,  which  are  about  four  and  a  half  feet  in  diameter. 
They  carry  about  a  ton  weight.  At  the  back  of  the  cart  is  a 
movable  "endboard." 

The  wheel  requires  special  notice.  It  will  be  noticed  that  a 
cart-wheel  is  dished  toward  the  centre,  and  the  end  of  the  axle- 
arm  is  bent,  so  that,  while  the  lower  part  of  the  wheel  is  vertical, 
the  top  slopes  outward.  The  centre  part  of  the  wheel  is  called 
the  "  nave,"  or  "  hub  "  when  metal.     Through  a  slot  in  the  end 


Fig.  23.— Cart. 

of  the  axle  there  passes  a  linch-pin,  which  prevents  the  wheel  from 
slipping  off.  A  "  bush  "  or  "  box,"  usually  of  cast-iron,  is  fitted 
tightly  into  the  centre  of  the  nave — of  such  a  size  as  to  work 


THRASHING-MACHINES.  47 

round  the  axle  without  friction.  In  the  nave  regular  holes  are 
cut,  into  which  are  fitted  the  *'  spokes,"  generally  twelve  in  number. 
At  their  outer  end  the  spokes  are  morticed  into  the  felloes,  six  in 
number.  The  felloes,  again,  have  projections  fitting  into  each 
other.  Around  the  whole  wheel  an  iron  rim  or  tyre  passes  tightly, 
and  holds  the  parts  together. 

Waggons. — These  are  not  in  general  use.  They  rest  on  four 
wheels,  the  front  pair  of  which  are  made  so  that  they  can  run 
under  the  body  of  the  waggon  when  turning.  They  are  usually 
drawn  by  two  horses. 

It  has  been  proved  that  carts,  as  a  rule,  are  lighter  of  draught 
than  waggons.  This  is  because  in  the  former  case  the  horse 
partly  bears  and  partly  pulls  the  load ;  while  in  the  latter  case  it 
pulls  it  entirely.  For  long  journeys  in  which  frequent  rests  are 
necessary,  the  waggon  would  be  the  better. 

For  increasing  the  area  of  the  cart,  during  hay-time  and  harvest 
especially,  a  sparred  wooden  frame  is  placed  upon  the  cart,  so 
that  it  projects  over  the  sides. 

Implements  for  preparing  Crops  for  Market. 

Thrashing-machines. — In  order  to  understand  the  action  of 
this  important  machine,  the  vertical  section,  shown  in  Fig.  25, 
should  be  studied.  The  corn  is  fed  regularly  into  the  drum- 
mouth  over  the  feeding-board,  and  is  then  caught  by  the  beaters 
of  the  drum.  By  the  action  of  the  beaters  it  is  nearly  all  knocked 
out  of  the  ears,  and  falls  through  the  concave,  while  the  straw  and 
some  of  the  grain  are  carried  on  to  the  shakers,  which  are  worked 
backwards  and  forwards  by  the  cranks.  The  seeds,  etc,  are  thus 
roughly  separated  from  the  straw,  which  passes  out  of  the  machine 
at  the  end  of  the  shakers.  The  grain,  chaff,  etc.,  from  the  concave 
and  shakers  fall  upon  the  inclined  oscillating  receiving-board, 
and  from  thence  on  to  the  caving-riddle.  The  seeds  and  chaff 
drop  through  this,  but  the  cavings  are  carried  to  the  back,  and 
drop  over  a  tail-board  to  the  ground,  just  behind  the  straw.  The 
remainder,  by  means  of  the  riddles,  are  divided  up  into  proper 
grain,  seeds  of  weeds,  and  chaff.  The  second  mentioned  fall 
through  a  fine  riddle  and  down  a  spout.  By  means  of  blasts  of 
air  from  the  fan,  the  chaff  is  blown  out  from  among  the  rest  of 
the  grain,  and  passes  through  a  suitable  exit.  The  grain  falls 
through  another  riddle  or  two,  receiving  blasts  from  the  fan,  and 
then  passes  down  the  inclined  plane  to  the  bottom  of  the  elevator. 
The  latter  consists  of  dredging-cups  attached  to  an  endless  chain 
or  belt  working  round  the  two  pulleys.  These  empty  the  corn  into 
the  hummeler,  or  awner,  which  separates  the  awns  of  barley  and 


48 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


all  adhering  chaff.  The  corn,  chaff,  etc.,  all  fall  upon  the  riddles, 
where  they  receive  an  air-blast,  by  means  of  which  the  light  im- 
purities are  blow  out  to  the  receiving-table.  The  grain  next  drops 
into  the  rotatory  wire  screen,  which  is  divided  up  into  three  or 
four  sections,  having  the  wires  at  different  distances  apart.  The 
use  of  the  screen  is  to  divide  up  the  corn  into  different  qualities. 


Fig.  24. — Thrashing  machine. 

Thus,  to  begin  with,  the  wires  are  near  together,  and  consequently 
only  the  thinner  and  poorer  seeds  can  drop  through.  The  best 
corn  passes  out  at  the  other  end  of  the  screen,  without  going 
through  the  wires.  The  corn,  as  it  passes  through,  falls  down 
suitably  placed  spouts  into  the  bags. 

To  most  machines  there  is  now  attached  apparatus  for  binding 
the  straw.  When  this  material  comes  out  from  the  shakers  it  is 
caught  by  two  revolving  canvas  aprons,  and  carried  to  the  inclined 
binding-table.  Here  it  is  bound  in  two  places,  fifteen  or  eighteen 
inches  apart,  in  the  same  manner  as  done  by  the  self-binding 
reapers. 

Winnowing-machines. — These  are  used  when  the  thrashing- 
machines  belong  to  the  single-blast  kind — that  is,  when  they  do  not 
finish  the  cleaning  of  the  grain.     The  corn  is  fed  from  a  hopper, 


so 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


and  falls  upon  several  oscillating  riddles.  By  the  aid  of  a  strong 
fan-blast  the  chaff  and  very  light  seeds  are  blown  out  by  a  special 
opening  ;  the  good  grain  falls  on  an  inclined  screen,  and  comes  out 
at  one  end.  In  some  cases  the  grain  is  then  taken  upwards  by  the 
cups  of  an  endless  chain,  and  run  into  a  sack. 


Fig,  26.— Corbett's  winnowing-machine. 

Corn-screens. — Corn-screens  are  not  provided  with  fan-blasts. 
The  seed  falls  from  a  hopper  upon  a  wire  screen,  which  may  be  of 
various  forms.  Sometimes  it  is  flat,  sometimes  cylindrical  as  in 
the  "  rotary "  screens.  In  the  former  kind  the  screen  is  either 
made  to  oscillate,  or  is  struck  by  some  small  hammer.  In  any 
case  it  is  endeavoured  to  separate  the  impurities  by  having  the 
wires  at  special  distances  apart.  These  machines  are  usually 
turned  by  hand. 

Hummelers. — These  are  often  attached  to  the  thrashing, 
machines,  as  before  shown.  They  consist  of  a  cylindrical  barrel, 
in  which  revolves  an  iron  shaft  with  knives  and  beaters  attached, 


AGRICULTURAL  MACHINERY. 


51 


The  barley  falls  in  from  a  hopper  above,  and  is  then  subjected  to 
the  action  of  the  knives  and  beaters,  which  deprive  each  grain  .of 
awn.  The  grain  afterwards  passes  down  an  inclined  spout,  generally 
constructed  so  as  to  act  as  a  kind  of  screen  and  get  rid  of  the  awns. 
Hay-  and  Straw-presses. — Hay  and  straw  are  very  bulky, 
and  hence  dear  for  carriage. 
Various  steam,  horse,  and 
hand-presses  have  been  in- 
vented to  reduce  the  bulk  of 
these  materials.  The  steam- 
power  press  which  gained  first 
prize  at  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society's  Show  in  1888,  re- 
sembled a  square  pipe  in 
which  the  material  was  plugged, 
and  pressed  in  well  by  six 
lateral  latches.  These  were 
worked  by  a  connecting-rod. 
In  other  machines  various  ap- 
plications of  levers,  screws,  etc. ,  are  employed  to  give  the  necessary 
pressure. 


Fig.  27.— iiay-pres5. 


ImplExMents  for  Preparing  Crops  for  Home  Consumptiox. 

Corn-mills. — It  is  well  known  that  crushed  grain  is  more 
economical  as  food  for  stock  than  whole.  The  grinding  is  done 
by  means  of  one  or  two  fluted 
rollers,  mounted  upon  a  frame. 
In  some  mills  the  roller  is  of 
conical  form,  and  works  in  a 
corresponding  fluted  concave. 
The  grain  falls  in  at  the  narrow 
end  of  the  roller,  and  is  worked 
onwards  by  means  of  spiral 
blades  on  the  axle  bearing  the 
roller.  The  crushed  corn  drops 
out  by  a  spout  at  the  broad  end 
of  the  roller.  In  other  mills  the 
roller  is  cylindrical,  and  works 
within  a  fluted  concave.  Again, 
there  are  often  two  rollers  to 
each  mill,  working  against  one 
another,  and  turning  in  opposite 
directions. 

Chaff-cutters  vary  in  size  from  small  hand-machines  up   to 


>i|^ 


Fig.  28.— Corn-milL 


52 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


those  driven  by  steam-power.  They  consist  essentially  of  a  large 
wheel  carrying  knives  upon  its  arms.  In  the  smaller  kinds  there 
are  only  two  knives,  but  others  bear  as  many  as  six.  The 
material  to  be  cut  is  placed  in  a  long  trough,  and  is  drawn 
forward  by  means  of  toothed  rollers.  The  knives  revolve  rapidly 
past  the  mouth  of  the  feeding-trough,  and  cut  up  the  straw  or 
other  material  into  lengths  of  about  an  inch.  The  chaff  then 
drops  down  into  some  receptacle  placed  on  the  ground.  With 
the  larger  kinds  of  chaff-cutters  there  is  often  a  bagging  apparatus 
attached,  especially  when  worked  in  connection  with  the  thrashing- 
machine.  The  chaff  is  taken  by  means  of  an  endless  chain  to 
a  sufficient  height,  and  then  drops  into  the  bags. 

To  all  the  latest  chaff-cutters  there  is  a  reverse  lever  attached. 
Should  the  attendant  get  one  or  both  of  his  hands  in  the  machine, 
he  has  simply  to  push  the  lever  to  one  side  with  his  shoulder  and 
the  action  of  the  rollers  is  reversed. 

Turnip- cutters  are  of  two  kinds— the  barrel  and  the  disc 
patterns,  the  former  being  the  most  common.     They  consist  of 

a  cyhndrical  barrel,  turned 
by  a  handle,  and  having  rows 
of  knives  arranged  in  V  form. 
This  is  placed  upon  a  proper 
frame,  and  has  above  it  a 
large  hopper  for  the  turnips. 
On  the  disc  principle,  the 
knives  are  fitted  on  an  iron 
disc  so  that  they  radiate  from 
the  centre.  They  have  chisel- 
pointed  or  curved  teeth. 

Pulpers  are  used  to  cut 
the  roots  into  much  finer 
shreds  than  cutters.  Like 
the  latter  they  are  of  both 
barrel  and  disc  kinds,  but 
the  disc  patterns  are  much 
the  better.  They  have  from  four  to  six  knives  fitting  radiately 
upon  the  disc,  each  divided  up  into  a  great  many  cutting  points. 

Cake-breakers. — The  cake  is  broken  by  means  of  a  pair  of 
rollers,  carrying  teeth.  The  machine  is  usually  turned  by  a 
handle  on  a  large  fly-wheel.  The  axle  of  this  turns  one  roller, 
and  the  other  is  worked  by  cog-wheels  from  it.  The  broken 
cake  slides  down  a  perforated  plate,  through  which  the  dust 
passes  into  a  box. 

Gorse-mills. — The  working  parts  consist  of  two  revolving 
cylinders,  made  up  of  saw-like  discs,  separated  by  washers.    The 


Fig.  29. — Turnip-cutter. 


AGRICULTURAL  MACHINERY. 


53 


discs  work  in  between  each  other  closely,  and  thus  the  gorse 
prickles  get  very  well  crushed. 

Root-washers  consist  of  an  open  cylinder,  partly  immersed 
in  water,  contained  by  a  trough-like  part  of  the  body.  Into  the 
cylinder  the  roots  are  put,  sometimes  by  means  of  a  hopper,  and 
sometimes  by  raising  part  of  the  frame. 
It  is  then  revolved  by  a  handle,  and 
when  the  washing  is  sufficient,  the 
cylinder  is  raised  out  of  the  water, 
and  the  potatoes  or  roots  taken 
out.  One  root-washer  has  an  archi- 
median  screw  in  the  cylinder  to  hold 
the  potatoes.  While  turning  one 
way  the  roots  are  well  washed,  but  on 
reversal  they  are  worked  out  at  the 
side. 

Cooking  Apparatus. — Where  an 
engine  belongs  to  the  farm  it  is 
often  advisable  to  employ  the  waste 
steam  in  cooking  food,  especially 
roots  and  chaff,  for  the  stock.  All 
that  is  required  is  a  large  rectangular  or  cylindrical  steamer,  into 
which  the  steam  from  the  boiler  is  conducted  by  a  pipe.  The 
apparatus  is  filled  with  the  food  material  and  covered  over  with 
a  lid,  and  then  the  operation  can  be  commenced.  On  many 
farms,  however,  there  is  no  engine,  and  here  specially  constructed 
boilers  and  steamers  are  used. 


Fig.  30. — Cak«-breaker. 


54  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  III. 

AGRICULTURAL   CHEMISTRY. 

A. — Chemistry  of  the  Soil. 

One  of  the  most  important,  if  not  the  most  important,  of  the  sub- 
jects to  be  studied  by  the  agriculturalist,  is  that  of  the  Chemistry 
of  the  Soil,  under  which  is  included  not  only  the  classification  and 
composition,  but  also  all  the  changes  taking  place  in  the  soil. 

Several  classifications  of  soils  have  been  proposed,  each  having 
various  merits;  but  perhaps  the  best,  or  at  any  rate  the  com- 
monest, is  the  classification  according  to  the  predominance 
of  one  of  what  have  been  called  the  "  proximate  constituents  "  of 
the  soil.  These  proximate  constituents  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  chemical  elements  contained  in  the  soil.  They  are 
components  which  can  be  separated  by  a  comparatively  rough 
analysis,  and  are  themselves  of  a  compound  nature.  They  are 
Mineral  Fragments,  Sand,  Clay,  Carbonate  of  Lime,  and  Organic 
matter. 

Such  an  analysis  could  be  conducted  in  the  following  manner. 

A  sample  of  the  soil  is  taken,  care  being  exercised  that  it  is 
a  representative  one.  In  mentioning  this,  it  might  be  well  to 
call  attention  to  the  rules  of  the  R.A.S.E.  with  reference  to  this. 
They  are — 

"  Have  a  wooden  box  made  six  inches  long  and  wide,  and  from 
nine  to  twelve  deep,  according  to  the  depth  of  the  soil  and 
subsoil  of  the  field.  Mark  out  in  the  field  a  space  of  about  twelve 
inches  square ;  dig  round,  in  a  slanting  direction,  a  trench,  so  as 
to  leave  undisturbed  a  block  of  soil  with  its  subsoil  from  nine  to 
twelve  inches  deep ;  trim  this  block  so  as  to  make  it  fit  into  the 
box ;  invert  the  open  box  over  it,  press  down  firmly,  then  pass 
a  spade  under  the  box,  lift  it  up,  and  gently  turn  it  over. 

"  The  sample  is  thus  in  the  exact  position  it  occupied  in  the 
field." 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  SOIL.  55 

If  a  field  is  uneven  in  character  several  samples  are  required. 

Of  course  these  rules  are  made  for  the  guidance  of  any  one 
sending  samples  of  soil  away  for  analysis ;  but  still  it  is  a  very 
good  method  to  employ  even  when  a  rough  analysis  is  to  be  made. 

From  the  sample  of  soil  the  stones  are  removed  and  weighed. 

Next,  a  representative  portion  of  the  sample  which  has  been 
air-dried  is  vigorously  agitated  with  distilled  water  and  thoroughly 
boiled.  After  cooling,  the  agitation  is  repeated  and  the  muddy 
liquid  poured  or  siphoned  off.  This  is  repeated  until  the  water 
on  being  shaken  up  no  longer  becomes  muddy. 

We  have  now  the  sand  and  gravel  in  one  glass,  and  the 
fine  mud  or  clay  in  the  other.  Both  are  allowed  to  settle,  and 
the  clear  water  in  each  case  decanted  off,  and  placed  on  one  side. 

The  clay  and  sand  are  collected,  dried,  and  weighed,  then 
strongly  ignited  on  a  clean  iron  plate  and  again  weighed.  The 
loss  represents  the  organic  matter.  The  water  which  has  been 
placed  on  one  side  is  then  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  the  residue 
weighed.  This  gives  the  matter  soluble  in  water.  The  car- 
bonate of  lime  is  much  more  difficult  to  estimate,  and  its  exact 
determination  is  beyond  the  scope  of  the  present  volume.  Its 
presence  in  considerable  quantity  can  be  indicated  by  adding 
hydrochloric  acid  to  the  soil,  when  a  brisk  effervescence  will  be 
observed,  and  at  the  same  time  a  gas  will  be  evolved,  which,  if 
collected  and  shaken  up  with  lime-water,  will  turn  it  milky.  This 
gas  is  carbon  dioxide.     We  have  now  obtained — 

Stones  or  mineral  fragments. 
Sand  and  organic  matter  )  total 

Clay  and  organic  matter  )     organic  matter. 
Matters  soluble  in  water. 

Having  thus  obtained  some  idea  of  the  composition  of  the  soil, 
by  reference  to  the  subjoined  table  we  would  be  enabled  to 
classify  the  soil  under  one  of  the  heads. 


Sandy 

under  lo  per  cent.  clay. 

Sandy  loam 

lo  to  20  per  cent.  clay. 

Loam 

20  to  30  per  cent.  clay. 

Clay  loam  . . 

30  to  50  per  cent.  clay. 

Strong  clay 

over  50  per  cent.  clay. 

Marly' 

5  to  20  per  cent,  of  calcic  carbonate. 

Calcareous 

over  20  per  cent,  of  calcic  carbonate 

Humus 

over  5  per  cent,  vegetable  matter. 

By  sa/id,  as  mentioned  above,  is  meant  silica  (SiOa)  or 
quartzose  sand,  but  the  term  has  usually  a  wider  application ;  for 
instance,  we  speak  of  micaceous  sand,  where  the  silica  is  mixed 
with  a  large  quantity  of  mica,  which  can  easily  be  detected,  as 


56  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

it  exists  in  the  form  of  small  shiny  plates,  readily  adhering  to 
the  fingers.  We  also  speak  of  shell  sand,  which,  as  its  name 
implies,  is  the  result  of  the  breaking  down  of  shells  by  the  wearing 
action  of  the  sea,  and  which,  therefore,  consists  chiefly  of 
carbonate  of  lime. 

Clay  is  a  more  complicated  substance  than  the  former,  though 
in  reality,  paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  what  is  called  clay  consists 
mainly  of  fine  sand,  so  fine  that  it  is  no  longer  gritty  to  the  touch, 
and  is  tenacious  and  pasty  when  mixed  with  water.  It,  however, 
contains  also  in  varying  proportions  another  substance,  viz. 
hydrated  silicate  of  alumina,  or  pure  clay,  though  the  proportion 
of  this  compound  even  in  strong  clay  soils  is  comparatively  small. 
Lime  or  carbonate  of  lime  is  met  with  in  nearly  all  soils  to  a  fairly 
large  extent ;  and  some,  as,  for  instance,  those  of  the  chalk  downs, 
consist  almost  entirely  of  it. 

Organic  matter^  or  humus,  is  usually  the  remains  of  previous 
vegetation  or  of  manures,  such  as  farmyard  manure,  which  contain 
considerable  quantities  of  vegetable  matter.  As  this  vegetable 
matter  becomes  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  soil  it  forms 
humus,  and  gives  to  it  the  dark  colour  which  is  so  characteristic 
of  virgin  soils.  Humus  consists  of  various  forms  of  organic 
matter  in  diff"erent  stages  of  oxidation.  Its  composition  is 
consequently  complex,  variable,  and  imperfectly  understood.  As 
would  be  supposed,  it  contains  a  considerable  amount  of  carbon, 
some  of  which  is  supposed  to  be  present  in  the  form  of  various 
organic  acids,  as  ulmic,  geic,  and  humic  acids,  etc. 

In  addition  to  this  it  contains  a  great  deal  of  water,  and 
always  compounds  of  nitrogen. 

The  proportion  of  nitrogen  to  carbon  has  been  given  as  one 
to  twenty-three. 

These  **  proximate  constituents,"  with  the  exception  of  the 
organic  matter,  have  all  resulted  from  the  disintegration  of  rock ; 
indeed  their  origin  can  be  traced  back  to  the  oldest  of  existing 
rocks.  We  do  not,  however,  here  propose  to  trace  the  soil  in 
its  descent,  nor  to  follow  it  through  the  wonderful  metamorphoses 
which  it  has  undergone,  changing  from  rock  to  soil,  and  from 
soil  to  rockj  but  merely  to  show  by  one  or  two  examples 
the  chemical  changes  which  take  place  in  the  breaking  down  of 
rocks,  taking  granite  on  the  one  hand,  and,  among  more  recent 
rocks,  limestone.  Any  one  living  in  a  district  where  granite  is 
abundant  must  have  been  struck  with  the  difference  in  appearance 
between  a  block  of  that  substance  which  has  been  exposed  to 
the  air  for  a  lengthy  period,  and  the  inside  of  that  block  as 
disclosed  by  fracture,  or  the  surface  of  another  piece  which  has 


CHEMISTRY  OF   THE  SOIL.  57 

been  burled  under  the  ground  or  otherwise  protected  from  the 
atmosphere.  Very  often  pieces  of  rock  may  be  found  which  at 
first  sight  appear  to  be  masses  of  quartz  crystals,  and  it  is  only 
on  breaking  them  that  the  presence  of  the  three  minerals  of 
which  granite  is  composed,  viz.  quartz,  mica,  and  felspar,  reveal 
their  true  character;  at  the  surface,  the  felspar  and  the  mica 
have  entirely  disappeared,  leaving  only  the  harder  quartz,  and 
eventually  the  whole  of  the  granite  would  become  dis- 
integrated. 

The  chemical  agencies  which  are  instrumental  in  bringing 
about  these  changes  are  the  same  which  are  responsible  for  the 
greater  portion  of  natural  chemical  actions :  they  are  oxygen, 
which  is  found  in  the  atmosphere  to  the  extent  of  one-fifth  ; 
carbon  dioxide  (COo),  which  exists  as  an  impurity  in  the  air 
to  the  amount  of  four  volumes  in  10,000  ;  and  water. 

It  is  the  felspar  in  the  granite  which  is  first  attacked.  This 
felspar  is  a  complex  substance,  a  compound  silicate  of  alumina, 
potash,  and  iron.  The  iron  is  readily  attacked  by  oxygen  of  the 
air,  and  rust  or  ferric  oxide  (F2O3)  is  formed.  The  carbon  dioxide 
then  acts  upon  the  siHcate  of  potash,  forming  carbonate  of  potash 
and  probably  some  soluble  silica ;  and  these,  being  soluble,  tend 
to  get  washed  away.  The  silicate  of  alumina  remains,  and,  having 
taken  up  water  to  replace  the  potash,  forms  hydrated  silicate 
of  alumina,  which  more  or  less  mixed  with  impurities,  especially 
oxide  of  iron,  forms  clay.  There  is  yet,  however,  mica  and  quartz 
in  the  granite,  but  they  do  not  resist  the  disintegrating 
influences. 

The  mica — which  consists  of  silicate  of  alumina,  and  magnesia 
combined  with  potash,  lime,  and  iron — may,  by  its  decomposition, 
form  further  supplies  of  clay,  and  yield  up  its  other  compounds 
to  enrich  the  newly  formed  soil,  or  it  may  simply  become 
pulverized  by  the  many  agencies,  such  as  frost,  friction,  and  change 
of  temperature,  which  produce  this  effect,  and  go  to  form  a 
micaceous  sand. 

The  quartz,  or  silica,  in  time  becomes  ground  up  by  mechanical 
agencies,  and  forms  sand. 

We  have,  therefore,  from  the  granite  both  clay  and  sand — the 
latter  of  two  kinds, — in  addition  to  compounds  of  potash,  soda,  or 
lime,  etc. 

Of  the  means  Nature  employs  to  separate  and  transport  the 
clay  and  sand  and  pile  them  into  thick  beds,  of  the  innumerable 
mechanical  agencies  she  uses  to  supplement  the  chemical  effects, 
of  the  methods,  organized  and  unorganized,  she  employs  to  once 
more  build  into  rock  the  disintegrated  material,  it  is  not  our 
intention  here   to  treat;  but  should  the  student  care  to  study 


58  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

further  the  interesting  science  of  the  life   history  of  our  soils, 
he  will  find  it  more  fully  dealt  with  in  works  on  geology. ^ 

The  chemical  changes  which  bring  about  the  conversion  of  lime- 
stone (carbonate  of  Hme)  into  soil  are  very  similar,  except  that  in  this 
case  the  change  is  much  more  rapid  and  apparent,  and  is  brought 
about  principally  by  the  agency  of  CO2  dissolved  in  water.  When 
water  contains  this  gas  dissolved  in  it,  it  has  the  power  of  readily 
dissolving  the  limestone,  and  most  fantastic  shapes  are  worn  by 
the  continued  action  of  such  water.  No  one  who  has  crossed  a 
limestone  fell  can  have  failed  to  be  struck  by  the  variety  of  forms 
assumed  by  the  scattered  rocks,  or  by  the  number,  size,  and  depth 
of  the  fissures  worn  in  rock  by  this  agency.  Nowhere  can  thi 
effect  of  weathering  or  disintegration  be  better  seen  than  on  the 
face  of  a  limestone  quarry  which  has  been  out  of  use  for  some 
years.  The  continued  percolation  of  water,  supplemented,  of 
course,  by  mechanical  agencies  such  as  frost,  etc.,  soon  destroys 
the  artificial  appearance,  and  the  sloping  mass  of  debris  at  the 
foot  of  the  cliff,  together  with  the  scattered  blocks,  some  of  which 
are  tons  in  weight,  give  it  altogether  the  appearance  of  a  natural 
precipice. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  "proximate  constituents"  of  soils,  and 
have  to  some  extent  dealt  with  their  origin ;  but  a  knowledge  of 
these  by  no  means  indicates  the  composition  of  the  soil,  nor 
gives  any  clue  to  its  capabilities.  To  understand  these  we  must 
obtain  a  knowledge  of  the  chemical  composition  of  the  soil.  It 
is  often  argued  that  no  information  of  practical  value  to  the 
farmer  can  be  gathered  from  a  chemical  analysis,  and  if  such 
analysis  be  made  by  a  chemist  who  has  no  knowledge  of  agricul- 
tural practice  the  statement  may  be  true;  but  carried  out  by 
one  who  has  made  a  special  study  of  the  subject  it  becomes 
invaluable. 

The  following,  in  the  opinion  of  the  late  Dr.  Voelcker,  are  the 
points  on  which  a  chemical  analysis  will  give  definite  information. 

1.  As  to  whether  or  not  barrenness  is  caused  by  the  presence 
of  some  injurious  substance,  such  as  sulphate  of  iron. 

2.  Whether  soils  contain  common  salt,  nitrates,  or  other 
soluble  salts  that  are  useful  to  vegetation  in  a  highly  diluted 
state,  but  injurious  when  too  abundant. 

3.  Whether  barrenness  is  caused  by  the  absence  or  deficiency 
of  lime,  phosphoric  acid,  or  other  essential  soil  constituents. 

4.  Whether  clays  are  absolutely  barren,  and  not  likely  to  be 
materially  improved  by  cultivation,  or  whether  they  contain  the 
necessary  elements  of  fertility  in  an  unavailable  state,  and  are 

'  Rissler,  "  Geologic  Agricole." 


CHEMISTRY   OF  THE  SOIL.  59 

capable  of  being  made  better  by  ploughing,  exposing  to  atmo- 
sphere, etc. 

5.  Whether  or  not  land  will  be  improved  by  liming. 

6.  Whether  it  is  better  to  apply  lime,  or  marl,  or  clay  to  a 
particular  soil. 

7.  Whether  special  manures,  such  as  superphosphate,  can  be 
used  without  injury  to  a  particular  soil,  or  whether  the  farmer 
should  depend  rather  upon  farmyard  manure. 

8.  What  kinds  of  artificial  manures  are  best  suited  to  certain 
soils. 

A  chemical  analysis  of  the  soil  would  give  the  percentages  of 
the  following  substances  contained  in  it : — 

Potash  (KoO),  soda  (NasO),  magnesia  (MgO),  lime  (CaO), 
alumina  (AUOg),  silica  (SiQ,),  ferric  oxide  (FejOg),  ferrous 
oxide  (FeO),  carbon  dioxide  (COo),  sulphuric  anhydride  (SO3), 
phosphoric  pentoxide  (P2O5),  Nitrogen  (N),  chlorine  (CI),  and 
organic  matter. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  these  substances  exist  in  the 
soil  in  the  state  indicated  above,  or  as  elements.  They  form  in 
the  earth  a  variety  of  combinations.  For  instance,  lime  (CaO) 
might  exist  as — 

Carbonate  CaCOj  =  CaO  +  COj  (carbon  dioxide), 
Or  as  phosphate  CajPgOg  =  3  (CaO)  +  PoOj  (phosphorus  pentoxide), 
Or  as  sulphate  CaS04  =  CaO  +  SO,  (sulphuric  anhydride). 

and  further  instances  involving  other  compounds  might  be 
given. 

It  would,  however,  be  a  difficult,  if  not  altogether  impossible 
matter  to  find  out  the  amount  of  each  compound  existing  in  the 
soil,  and  so  the  difficulty  is  surmounted  by  expressing  the  total 
potash,  lime,  magnesia,  sulphuric  acid,  etc.,  each  separately.  We 
get  so  accustomed  to  read  and  speak  of  the  nitrogen,  the  phos- 
phoric acid,  the  potash,  etc.,  in  the  soil  that,  even  amongst  fairly 
advanced  students,  it  is  not  at  all  an  uncommon  thing  to  find 
som.e  who  still  have  the  idea  that  they  exist  in  the  soil  actually 
in  that  form ;  and  we  have  frequently  come  across  students  who, 
having  read  or  heard  of  nitrogen,  chlorine,  etc.,  being  taken  in  by 
the  roots  of  plants,  and  having  also  read  elsewhere  that  nitrogen 
and  chlorine  were  gases,  held  the  idea  that  these  were  taken  up 
by  the  roots  in  the  gaseous  form. 

Let  it  be  understood  at  the  outset  that,  when  the  nitrogen,  eta, 
of  the  soil  is  spoken  of,  and  when  a  plant  is  spoken  of  as  taking 
up  certain  elements  by  its  roots,  these  are  not  taken  up  in  the 
elementai-y  form. 

Silica  is  a  most  abundant  substance,  existing  in  some  soils, 


60  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

e,g.  sands,  in  very  large  quantities.  By  far  the  greater  proportion, 
in  fact  almost  the  whole,  is  insoluble,  and  it  has  little  use  except 
to  increase  the  bulk  of  the  soil.  It  is  taken  up  in  the  form  of 
silicates  by  cereals  in  considerable  quantities,  and  found  in  the 
straw ;  but  it  has  been  proved  that  it  is  by  no  means  indispensable 
to  these  plants,  and  is  simply  a  waste  product. 

Alumina  is  found  as  hydrated  silicate  of  alumina  (clay),  and  in 
a  variety  of  other  combinations.  It  is  not  in  itself  a  plant-food, 
but  it  has  important  functions  to  perform  in  the  soil,  reference  to 
which  will  be  made  in  a  later  chapter. 

Lime  is  found  in  most  soils,  often  as  carbonate ;  but  also  in 
other  forms,  as  has  already  been  indicated.  Its  percentage  is 
variable,  being  over  fifty  per  cent,  in  some  chalks,  and  less  than 
one  per  cent,  in  some  sands.  In  addition  to  its  value  as  a  plant- 
food,  this  substance,  both  by  its  chemical  and  physical  properties, 
is  of  great  value  in  the  soil. 

hotash  is  one  of  the  most  important  constituents  of  the  soil, 
especially  for  certain  plants,  e.g.  potatoes.  It  is  found  most 
abundantly  in  clays,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  is  contained  in  con- 
siderable quantity  in  the  felspar,  from  which  the  clay  is  derived. 
Sometimes  from  two  to  three  per  cent,  is  found  in  soils,  but  this  is 
exceptional.  A  fair  average  is  about  0*5  per  cent.,  while  poor 
sands  often  contain  no  more  than  o'l  per  cent. 

Soda. — This,  in  its  chemical  properties,  and  in  the  compounds 
which  it  forms,  is  exceedingly  like  potash,  but  it  cannot  take  its 
place  in  the  soil ;  indeed,  as  a  plant-food  it  is  quite  unimportant. 
It  may  exist  as  nitrate  or  sulphate,  but  most  commonly  as  chloride, 
and  where  an  excess  of  the  latter  salt  is  found  it  causes  barrenness. 

Iron  exists  in  the  form  of  ferric  and  ferrous  oxides,  and  also  as 
carbonate  and  sulphate. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  ferrous  compounds  are  injurious  to 
plant  life,  while  ferric  compounds  are  not  merely  harmless,  but 
are  very  valuable  plant-foods. 

The  reason  for  this  difference  is  said  to  be  the  relative  solu- 
bility of  the  two  classes,  the  more  soluble  ferrous  salts  being 
more  injurious  than  the  less  soluble  ferric  salts. 

This,  however,  scarcely  seems  sufficient  reason,  and  it  would 
appear  that  the  lower  oxide,  by  reason  of  its  greater  affinity  for 
other  substances,  interferes  with  the  processes  taking  place  in  the 
plant,  and  thus  acts  as  a  poison.  The  presence  of  a  considerable 
quantity  of  a  ferrous  compound  therefore  causes  barrenness. 

The  late  Dr.  Voelcker  held  the  idea  that,  owing  to  the  affinity 
of  ferrous  compounds  for  oxygen,  a  large  quantity  of  those  com- 
pounds existing  in  the  soil  caused  a  scarcity  of  that  gas,  and 
thus  injured  the  plants. 


CHEMISTRY  OF   THE   SOIL.  6l 

The  colours  of  clay  and  other  soils  are  very  often  due  to  iron ; 
the  lower  oxide  (ferrous)  giving  the  blue  colour,  and  the  higher 
oxide  (ferric)  being  responsible  for  brown  and  red.  This  differ- 
ence in  colour  between  the  two  oxides  is  exemplified  by  the  change 
which  takes  place  when  a  blue-coloured  clay  is  exposed  to  the  air. 
The  exposure  results  in  the  oxidation  of  the  ferrous  oxide  to  ferric 
oxide,  and  the  blue  colour  is  changed  to  red. 

Carbofiic  add  forms  carbonates,  the  chief  of  which,  as  men- 
tioned above,  is  carbonate  of  lime.  Since  plants  get  all  their 
carbon  from  the  air  this  is  of  little  importance. 

Sulphuric  acid  exists  as  sulphates,  such  as  gypsum.  These 
sulphates  are  the  source  of  the  sulphur  of  the  protoplasm  in  the 
plants. 

Phosphoric  acid  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  constituents 
of  the  soil,  as  it  is  indispensable  to  the  growth  of  plants,  and  it  is 
also  usually  found  in  very  small  quantities.  It  exists  as  phos- 
phates, of  which  calcium  phosphate  is  the  commonest. 

The  usual  percentage  of  this  compound  is  about  o*i  to  0*2 
per  cent. 

Chlorine  exists  as  chlorides,  but  is  of  little  importance. 

Nitrogen  is,  perhaps,  the  most  important  of  the  constituents  of 
the  soil,  and  the  one  which  is  most  frequently  added.  It  is  found 
as  nitrates,  as  ammonia  salts,  and  in  organic  matter ;  and  it  is  the 
presence  of  this  substance  in  humus  which  makes  it  valuable 
from  a  chemical  point  of  view.  The  percentage  in  the  soil  is 
small,  but  the  amount  per  acre  is  considerable. 

Much,  however,  of  the  absolute  nitrogen  per  acre  is  in  a  form 
which  precludes  its  use  by  the  plant  until  it  has  undergone 
certain  changes,  which  will  be  referred  to  subsequently. 

Magnesia  is  found  in  most  soils,  and  exists  in  considerable 
quantity  in  those  overlying  the  magnesian  limestone.  It  is  a 
plant-food,  but  not  required  in  large  quantity. 

There  are  other  constituents  of  soils  which  have  not  been 
mentioned,  but  which  are  of  such  little  importance  that  it  is 
hardly  necessary  to  refer  to  them. 

It  may  be  mentioned,  in  talking  about  the  composition  of 
soils,  that  the  absolute  quantity  of  any  constituent  in  a  soil  gives 
no  idea  as  to  how  much  is  directly  available  for  use  by  the  plant. 
Only  those  portions  which  are  soluble  in  water,  or,  perhaps,  very 
dilute  acid,  are  really  at  once  available.  The  presence,  however, 
of  large  quantities  of  plant  food,  even  in  an  insoluble  form,  is 
an  indication  that  the  various  operations  of  tillage  will  have  an 
exceedingly  good  effect  on  the  soil  in  question. 

We  give  three  examples  of  soil  analysis — a  clay,  a  loam,  and  a 
sand — which  should  be  carefully  compared. 


62 


ADVANCED    AGRICULTURE. 


ifi 

T3 

u 

Soil. 

^ 

.3 

i 

s 
< 

0 
in 

1 

1 

J 

a 

i! 

^ 

u 

C/3 

0 

Sandy 

92-52 

0-24 

0-70 

2-69 

0-12 

0-02 

3-12 

trace 

0-07 

trace 

0-49 

Loamy 

81-26 

1-28 

1-12 

3-5a 

o-8o 

1-20 

3"4i 

0*92 

0-09 

0-38 

trace 

rQ6 

Clay 

6344 

0-83 

1-02 

14-04 

2-8 

1-44 

4-87 

0-09 

0-24 

Q-OI 

11-25 

'  Containing  nitrogen. 

Taking  the  weight  of  soil  per  acre  at  about  three  million 
pounds,  the  approximate  amounts  per  acre  of  the  various  con- 
stituents can  be  worked  out. 


The  Absorptive  and  Retentive  Power  of  the  Soil. 

Closely  connected  with  the  composition  of  the  soil  is  its 
absorptive  and  also  retentive  power,  powers  which  are  no 
longer  supposed  to  be  merely  the  result  of  a  certain  mechanical 
state,  such  as  the  spongy  nature  of  humus  and  the  impervious 
nature  of  cla)\ 

The  two  powers  are  very  nearly  allied ;  indeed,  they  depend  in 
a  great  measure  upon  the  same  properties. 

If  a  solution  of  a  soluble  manure,  ^.^.  sulphate  of  ammonia 
or  superphosphate,  be  poured  upon  a  considerable  bulk  of  a  fertile 
soil,  a  great  deal  of  the  manure  will  be  retained,  and  the  water 
altering  through  will  contain  much  less  of  the  salt  than  it  originally 
did,  though  it  may  contain  other  substances  which  were  not 
before  in  it. 

The  reason  of  this  absorption  is  stated  to  be  that  the  substances 
are  precipitated  in  a  more  or  less  insoluble  form  in  the  soil,  and 
thus  retained. 

The  actual  changes  which  do  take  place  are  still,  to  a  great 
extent,  obscure ;  but  the  agencies  taking  part  in  them  are  hydrated 
ferric  and  alumina  oxides,  hydrous  silicate  of  alumina,  carbonate 
of  lime,  and  humus.  The  hydrated  ferric  oxide  is  principally 
engaged  in  fixing  phosphoric  acid,  for  which  it  has  a  great  affinity, 
and  with  which  it  forms  insoluble  basic  ferric  phosphate.  This 
reaction  takes  place  after  the  application  of  any  soluble  phosphate. 

Hydrated  oxide  of  alumina  has  a  similar  action,  but  is  not  so 
powerful  as  the  corresponding  iron  compound.  The  hydrous 
silicate  of  alumina  fixes  potash  and  ammonia,  and  it  was  on  the 
effect  of  these  compounds  that  the  theory  of  double  silicates 
and  their  action  in  the  soil  was  founded.     By  many  now  the 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  SOIL.  63 

theory  is  disbelieved,  but  the  adverse  evidence  is  by  no  means 
conclusive,  and,  though  the  actions  may  not  be  precisely  similar 
to  what  was  stated  by  Professor  Way,  it  is  more  than  probable 
that  interchange  of  bases  takes  place  in  a  somewhat  similar 
manner.  Humus  is  said  to  have  the  faculty  of  absorbing 
ammonia  or  nitrogen  from  the  air,  but  this  is  owing  to  the  action 
of  bacteria.  One  of  the  chief,  however,  of  the  substances  which 
help  to  retain  the  various  manures  is  carbonate  of  lime,  and  to  this 
can  be  traced  much  of  the  benefit  derived  from  applications  of  that 
substance.  It  acts  alike  upon  potash  and  ammonia  salts,  com- 
bining with  the  acid  and  setting  the  alkali  free  to  enter  into  other 
combinations  in  the  soil. 

Dr.  Voelcker,  in  experimenting,  found  that  when  a  solution  of 
sulphate  of  ammonia  was  poured  through  a  soil  containing  lime, 
the  lime  came  through  with  the  water,  combined  with  the  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  the  ammonia  was  retained. 

(NH4)2SO,  +  CaCOa  =  CaS04  +  (NH,),C03. 

It  also  fixed  superphosphate  by  forming  ordinary  tri-calcic 
phosphate;  and  it  likewise  neutralizes  any  acidity  of  the  superphos- 
phate. It  may  be  asked,  "What  is  the  use  of  applying  manures  in  the 
soluble  form,  if  they  are  retained  by  being  made  insoluble  ?  "  And, 
indeed,  there  seems  good  reason  for  the  question.  Experiments 
and  actual  practice  have,  however,  shown  the  benefit  of  applying 
soluble  manure ;  and  our  own  idea  is  that,  when  a  manure  is 
added  in  a  soluble  condition,  it  is  precipitated  in  so  fine  a  form, 
and  becomes  so  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  soil,  that  it  comes 
into  close  and  complete  contact  with  the  root  hairs.  In  this 
position  it  is  acted  on  by  the  slightly  acid  exudation  from  the 
root,  and  taken  up  as  required.     (Also  see  p.  64.) 

The  process  of  retention  is  that  which  prevents  subsequent 
washings  by  water  from  removing  the  absorbed  matter.  The 
power  of  retention  is  dependent  upon  the  same  physical  and 
chemical  conditions  as  absorption. 

Of  the  value  of  these  properties  there  can  be  no  doubt, 
especially  when  we  take  into  consideration  the  fact  that,  in 
addition  to  the  manures  added  by  the  farmer,  the  soil  is  enriched 
by  matter  brought  down  by  every  shower  of  rain. 

Thus  the  annual  amount  of  nitrogen  brought  down  by  rain 
is  about  4*4  lbs.  per  acre,  and  this  comes  down  as  ammonia 
2*4  lbs.,  nitrates  i  lb.,  and  organic  nitrogen  i  lb  ;  and,  in  addition 
to  this,  considerable  quantities  of  chlorides  and  sulphates  are 
brought  down  in  similar  manner. 


64  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 


Chemical  Changes  taking  Place  in  the  Soil,  and  the 
Influence  of  Various  Tillage  Operations  on  those 
Changes. 

Weathering. — The  process  of  weathering  of  soils  is  much  the 
same  as  that  of  weathering  of  rocks,  and  is  dependent  upon  the 
same  agencies,  viz.  oxygen,  carbonic  acid,  or  carbon  dioxide,  and 
water. 

Indeed,  it  may  be  looked  on  as  a  further  stage  in  the  same 
process.  In  the  weathering  of  rocks  highly  complex  compounds 
are  broken  down  into  simple  ones,  and  large  masses  are  pul- 
verized ;  and  in  the  weathering  of  soils  these  are  still  further  acted 
on  :  insoluble  compounds  are  changed  into  soluble  ones,  and  thus 
into  plant-food,  and  fragments  are  further  pulverized ;  in  addition 
to  which,  injurious  matters  are  rendered  harmless. 

The  oxygen  is  ever  ready  to  convert  lower  oxides  into  higher ; 
to  act  on  the  components  of  complex  compounds,  and  thus  break 
them  down ;  and  in  this  it  is  aided  by  the  carbon  dioxide,  which 
readily  forms  carbonates. 

Water  acts  principally  as  a  solvent,  especially  when  containing 
carbon  dioxide  in  solution  ;  and  it  must  be  remembered  that  even 
so-called  insoluble  substances,  especially  when  in  a  finely  divided 
condition,  are  readily  dissolved  in  small  quantity  by  water,  and 
this  may  in  some  measure  help  to  explain  the  use  of  adding 
soluble  manures  in  preference  to  insoluble  ones.  Water,  how- 
ever, exerts  another  and  purely  chemical  action,  in  that  it  unites 
with  various  substances,  or,  in  other  words,  hydrates  them.  Thus 
with  quicklime  (CaO)  it  forms  hydrated  or  slaked  lime  (CaHaOa), 
and  forms  pure  clay,  hydrated  silicate  of  alumina,  by  uniting  with 
aluminic  silicate,  as  already  noticed.  These,  acting  in  conjunction 
with  physical  agencies,  bring  about  the  reduction  and  pulverization 
of  the  soil,  and  help  to  increase  the  amount  of  available  plant- 
food. 

Nitrification. — Nitrogen  in  organic  combination,  or  as  am- 
monia, is  not  strictly  available  for  plant  food,  but  must  undergo 
oxidation  into  nitrates  before  it  becomes  of  use.  A  method  for 
the  production  of  nitre  artificially  from  nitrogenous  organic  matter 
has  been  carried  on  for  a  considerable  time,  but  it  is  only  of  late 
that  the  process  of  nitrification  has  come  to  be  at  all  perfectly 
understood.  It  was  first  suggested  by  Pasteur  that  nitrification 
was  brought  about  by  a  living  organism,  and  this  was  subsequently 
proved  to  be  the  case  by  Schloesing  and  Miintz,  who  showed  that 
it  could  only  live  under  satisfactory  conditions,  and  that  its  func- 
tions were  destroyed  by  high  temperature  and  poisons,  just  as 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  SOIL.  65 

were  the  functions  of  other  organisms  of  the  class  to  which  it  was 
supposed  to  belong. 

Lately  an  organism,  having  in  a  high  degree  the  power  of 
nitrifying  ammoniacal  solutions,  was  isolated  by  Frankland,  and 
Winogradsky  afterwards  succeeded  in  cultivating  it,  and  was  able 
to  study  it  more  thoroughly.  It  would  seem,  however,  that  the 
complete  process  of  nitrification  as  carried  out  in  the  soil  is  not 
the  work  of  one  organism,  but  of  several,  a  different  class  of 
organisms  completing  each  different  stage  of  the  process ;  and  it 
is  worthy  of  note  that,  where  nitrification  has  been  carried  out  for 
experimental  purposes,  the  necessary  organisms  have  been  supplied 
by  adding  soil,  which  would,  of  course,  contain  the  various  classes 
or  families  necessary.  It  may  also  be  noted  that  the  organisms 
isolated  by  Frankland  and  by  Winogradsky,  acting  on  an  am- 
moniacal solution,  produced  not  nitric  but  nitrous  acid,  which 
would  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  another  species  is  necessary 
to  complete  the  process. 

The  nitrogenous  organic  matter  undergoes  decomposition, 
one  of  the  results  of  which  is  that  compounds  of  ammonia  are 
formed,  and  these  by  the  process  of  nitrification  are  converted 
first  into  nitric  acid,  and  then  into  nitrates.  As  to  whether  the 
whole  process  is  carried  on  by  bacteria,  or  only  the  latter  part,  is 
as  yet  a  matter  of  uncertainty. 

The  researches  of  the  scientists  already  mentioned,  coupled 
with  the  experiments  of  Warington  and  other  eminent  chemists, 
have  entirely  exploded  the  old  idea  that  the  oxidation  was  due  to 
a  supposed  property  of  the  soil,  of  condensing  in  its  pores  the 
oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  and  have  proved  conclusively  that 
bacteria  alone  can  carry  on  the  process  of  nitrification,  and  then 
only  under  suitable  conditions. 

It  has  also  been  shown  that  all  nitrogenous  organic  matter, 
and  probably  also  ammonia  salts,  must  undergo  this  change  before 
they  are  of  use  to  the  plant. 

The  necessity  for  this  explains  the  slower  action  of  ammonia 
manures  as  compared  with  nitrate  of  soda. 

The  favourable  conditions  mentioned  are  : — 

(i)  The  presence  of  oxygen.  If  there  be  a  scarcity  of  this, 
they  cannot  perform  their  work;  indeed,  cannot  live.  The 
nitrates  may  be  looked  on  as  a  by-product  of  their  life's  work,  and 
absence  of  oxygen,  of  course,  stops  this. 

Here  the  value  of  tillage,  etc.,  which  admit  the  atmosphere  to 
the  soil,  becomes  again  apparent. 

(2)  The  presence  of  moisture.  Bacteria  can  only  live  in  a 
moist  soil,  the  water  being  an  actual  necessity  for  their  exist- 
ence. 

F 


66  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

(3)  A  favourable  temperature.  From  40°  to  130°  Fahr.  nitri- 
fication will  be  effected,  but  the  best  temperature  is  98°  Fahr. 
The  period  during  which  nitrification  is  carried  on  to  the  greatest 
extent  is  during  the  summer  months — say  from  April  or  May 
up  to  September  or  October, — and  during  the  other  months  it 
is  practically  at  a  standstill.  This  is  a  very  important  provision 
of  nature,  which  guards  against  a  loss  of  nitrogen  by  drainage 
during  that  part  of  the  year  when  the  ground  is  not  covered  by  a 
crop,  and  provides  for  the  greatest  production  of  nitrates  when 
vegetation  is  in  its  most  vigorous  state. 

(4)  The  presence  of  an  alkaline  base.  In  order  that  the  pro- 
cess may  proceed  most  rapidly  and  efi'ectively,  some  base,  lime 
perhaps  being  the  best,  must  be  present,  to  neutralize  the  nitric 
acid  as  it  is  formed.  The  union  results  in  nitrate  of  calcium, 
which  is  an  exceedingly  valuable  plant-food. 

Alkali,  in  excess  even  ammonia  itself,  is,  however,  fatal  to 
the  bacteria;  hence  it  is  not  advisable  to  apply  heavy  urinary 
dressings,  or  excessive  amounts  of  ammonia  salts. 

The  addition  of  farmyard  manure  favours  nitrification,  not 
only  because  it  contains  considerable  quantities  of  nitrogenous 
organic  matter,  but  also  because  large  numbers  of  bacteria  are 
present  in  it. 

The  conditions  which  interfere  with  nitrification  are  generally 
the  converse  of  those  given  above. 

Where  oxygen  is  deficient,  the  bacteria  giy^  rise  to  changes 
of  a  putrefactive  nature,  and  cause  the  loss  of  nitrogenous 
matter,  as  nitrogen  gas,  oxides  of  nitrogen,  and  ammonia. 

Water  has  been  described  as  indispensable,  but  an  excess 
of  that  substance  is  fatal  to  nitrification. 

The  presence  of  injurious  substances,  as  gas-lime,  ferrous 
sulphate,  etc.,  has  been  found  to  stop  it. 

The  amount  of  nitrogen  produced  by  the  above  process 
naturally  varies  considerably  under  the  varying  conditions  met 
with;  but  from  experiments  at  Rothamsted  on  ordinary  land 
under  bare  fallow  (when  maximum  nitrification  might  be  expected 
to  take  place),  from  35  to  55  lbs.  nitrogen  as  nitric  acid  was 
found  at  the  end  of  the  summer  in  the  first  20  inches  of  the  soil  on 
an  acre  of  land,  and  it  was  estimated  that  nitrates  equal  to  80  lbs. 
of  nitrogen  had  been  produced  during  the  fifteen  months  the  land 
was  without  a  crop. 

Tillage,  by  altering  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil,  and 
by  opening  it  up,  encourages  weathering,  oxidation,  nitrification, 
and,  indeed,  all  the  chemical  changes  taking  place  in  the  soil.  It 
thus  improves  the  condition  of  the  soil,  increases  the  amount  of 
available  plant-food,  and  generally  acts  as  a  substitute  for  manure, 


CHEMISTRY  OF   THE  SOIL.  67 

especially  if  the  soil  be  a  good  deep  one,  and  with  plenty  of 
resource. 

Drainage. — Like  the  above,  drainage  promotes  the  chemical 
changes,  since  it  allows  the  oxygen  of  the  air  to  have  access  to 
the  interior  of  the  soil ;  but  the  effect  is  much  more  marked  in 
this  case,  for  while  land  is  water-logged,  the  helpful  chemical 
changes  are  at  a  standstill.  Oxidation  cannot  proceed,  as  the 
water  effectually  prevents  the  access  of  the  air.  Nitrification  is 
prevented,  and  ^nitrification  is  encouraged.  Complex  organic 
compounds  of  a  more  or  less  sour  nature  are  formed,  together 
with  other  substances  which  are  injurious  to  plant  life,  such  as 
ferrous  oxide. 

The  removal  of  the  superfluous  water,  however,  by  promoting 
a  thoroughly  healthy  state  of  things,  speedily  rectifies  all  this,  and 
the  increase  of  useful  grasses  over  useless  ones,  the  gain  in  the 
yield  of  the  crops,  and  the  general  improvement  in  the  appearance 
of  the  land,  show  the  benefits  arising  from  judicious  draining. 

Clay-burning. — More  information  on  this  will  be  found  in  the 
chapter  on  Tillage.     Briefly,  the  chemical  effects  are — 

(i)  Loss  of  nitrogen  owing  to  combustion  of  the  organic 
matter  of  the  soil. 

(2)  The  amount  of  soluble  salts  is  increased  owing  to  decom- 
position of  siUcates,  etc.,  at  the  high  temperature,  which  renders 
available  potash,  soda,  and  iron  salts,  and  also  of  phosphates 
where  they  are  associated  with  limestone,  the  complete  decom- 
position increasing  the  amount  of  soluble  phosphoric  acid. 

(3)  Where  the  quantity  of  lime  is  small,  the  amount  of  soluble 
phosphoric  acid  is  decreased. 

Liming. — The  effect  of  this  operation  depends  greatly  upon 
the  state  in  which  the  lime  is  applied.  It  is  applied  in  three 
forms — quicklime,  or  burnt-lime  (CaO) ;  slaked  slime  (CaH202) ; 
air-slaked  lime,  or  carbonate  (CaCOa). 

The  first  is  the  lime  as  it  comes  from  the  kiln. 

The  second,  after  being  slaked,  purposely  or  by  rain  falling 
on  it. 

The  third,  after  standing  exposed  to  the  air  for  a  considerable 
while. 

The  equations  representing  the  changes  taking  place  are — 

(Limestone.)  (Coke  or  Coal  used  in  kiln.)  (Quicklime.)  (Carbonic  Oxide.) 
(i)      CaCOa   +  G  =     CaO     -f         2CO. 

(Quicklime.)  (Water.)  (Slaked  Lime.) 

(2)  CaO      +  H2O  =    CaH^O^. 
(Quicklime.)           (Carbon  Dioxide.)  (Air-slaked  Lime,) 

(3)  CaO      +  COa  =       CaCOj. 


6S  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

The  first  two  are  the  most  active  and  the  most  generally  used. 
Lime,  in  whatever  form  it  be  applied,  acts  as — 
(i)  A  plant-food,  some  plants,  e.g.  clover,  requiring  a  consider- 
able quantity. 

(2)  A  corrective  of  acidity,  on,  for  instance,  recently  drained 
soils. 

(3)  An  aid  to  the  absorptive  and  retentive  properties  of  the 
soil. 

Applied  as  quicklime  it  has  special  functions. 

(a)  It  increases  the  amount  of  plant-food  in  the  soil  by 
directly  attacking  the  complex  insoluble  compounds,  and  breaking 
them  down. 

(d)  It  exercises  a  destructive  action  on  organic  matter  which 
may  be  exceedingly  injurious  to  the  soil  under  certain  circum- 
stances, that  is,  where  organic  matter  is  deficient,  the  result  of  the 
decomposition  being  ammonia,  carbon  dioxide,  and  water. 

(^)  It  at  once  corrects  the  sourness  of  a  soil  by  combining  with 
the  organic  acids. 

As  slaked  lime,  the  effects  are  much  the  same,  though  perhaps 
not  so  vigorous. 

As  carbonate  of  lime,  the  effects  are  much  less  marked,  though 
it  may  be  noticed  that,  in  the  case  of  quicklime  and  slaked  lime, 
the  greater  portion  very  soon  forms  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  soil 
by  uniting  with  carbon  dioxide.     It  acts — 

(a)  As  a  plant-food,  being  fairly  soluble,  especially  when  in 
so  fine  a  state  as  it  is  if  formed  by  the  action  of  the  carbon  dioxide 
of  the  air  on  quicklime. 

(^)  It  acts  as  an  important  aid  to  nitrification  (vide  nitrifica- 
tion, pp.  64-66) — a  process  to  which  quicklime  and  slaked  lime 
as  such  are  injurious. 


B. — Chemistry  of  Man  tires. 

Manures. 

As  plants  take  a  considerable  portion  of  their  food  from  the  soil 
it  follows  that  if  the  whole  or  part  of  a  crop  be  removed  from  a 
field,  the  land  becomes  impoverished.  That  such  is  the  case  has 
been  proved  on  a  large  scale  in  the  huge  corn-fields  of  America, 
where  land  which  at  first  yielded  enormous  crops,  after  being 
cropped  continually  year  after  year  for  some  time,  would  not  give 
a  sufficient  yield  to  pay.  In  other  words,  the  land  had  become 
"  exhausted." 


CHEMISTRY  OF  MANURES. 


69 


According  to  Warington,  average  crops  of  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
and  swedes  would  contain  respectively  : — 


t 

1 

1 

1 

i 
;5 

4 
1 

14-2 
6-9 

2I-I 

6 

B 

3 

6 

Wheat :  grain 
,,       straw 

Oats :  grain 
„       straw 

Barley  :  grain 
„        straw 

Swedes  :  root 
„          tops 

33 
15 

48 

27 
51 

7-8 

9'3 
I9'5 

28-8 

06 

2-0 
2^ 

i-o 
8-2 

92 

3-6 

3"5 

7-1 

o*i 
2-4 

2-5 

0-6 

96;3 

969 

38 
55 

8-0 

9-1 

37 -o 

46-1 

08 

4;6 

5-4 

1-8 
9-8 

ir6 

3-6 
51 

87 

130 

194 

2"^ 

6-1 
?6 

199 
65-4 

85-3 

35 
13 

48 

2-9 
6-1 

9-8 
259 

357 

I'l 

3-9 

5-0 

1-2 
80 

9-2 

40 
2-9 

6-9 

i6"o 

47 

207 

0.5 
4*1 

11-8 
56-8 

68-6 

102 

14-6 
3-2 

17-8 

63-3 
16-4 

797 

22-8 

9-2 
32-0 

197 
227 

42-4 

6-8 
2^ 

92 

16-9 
4-8 

217 

6-8 

8:3 

151 

^6 

67 

1 

The  figures  represent  the  number  of  pounds  of  the  respective 
substances,  and  the  weights  of  crops  taken  are — 

Wheat,  30  bush.  @  60  lbs.  =      1800 
Straw  3158 

4958 

Oats,  45  bush.  @  42  lbs.      =      1890 
Straw  2835 

4725 

Barley,  40  bush.  @f  54  lbs.  =      2080 
Straw  2447 

4527 

Swedes:  roots,  14  tons         =31,360 
„  tops        ..         ..         4704 

36,064 

From  the  typical  examples  taken,  it  will  be  seen  that,  though 
the  crops  exhibit  considerable  differences  in  the  respective  amounts 


70  .   ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

of  the  various  substances  which  they  contain,  yet  all  have  made 
very  large  demands  upon  the  plant-food  contained  in  the  soil. 

This  does  not,  however,  represent  the  total  loss,  as  an  ap- 
preciable quantity  of  soluble  matter  is  washed  out  with  the  drainings 
of  the  soil. 

These  losses  have  to  be  made  good  in  some  way,  and  there 
are  two  or  three  courses  by  which  this  may  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent  be  accomplished.  The  farmer  may,  by  extensive  and 
careful  tillage,  develop  the  natural  resources  of  the  soil ;  he  may 
introduce  a  carefully  arranged  rotation  of  crops ;  or  he  may 
restore  the  lost  matters  by  the  direct  application  of  fresh  supplies. 
A  substance  thus  added  to  restore  the  fertility  or  increase  it  is  a 
manure. 

We  have  said  that  one  of  three  courses  may  be  pursued  :  but 
in  practice  the  three  are  always  worked  together ;  as,  however 
carefully  arranged  a  rotation  might  be,  the  crops  reared  would 
never  be  satisfactory,  under  existing  circumstances,  if  no  manures 
were  applied  ;  and  many  soils  have  in  themselves  but  little  resource 
to  develop  by  tillage. 

Since  manuring  is  but  the  return  to  the  land  of  what  has  been 
taken  from  it,  it  would  seem,  knowing  the  composition  of  the  crop 
removed,  to  be  a  very  simple  matter.  This,  however,  is  not  so,  as 
there  are  a  great  many  considerations  to  be  taken  into  account 
if  manuring  would  be  successful  and  economical,  as  it  ought 
to  be. 

No  farmer,  for  instance,  would  think  of  adding,  unless  in 
exceptional  circumstances,  soda,  magnesia,  silica,  or  chlorine  as 
manures,  these  substances  being  contained  in  sufficient  quantity 
in  almost  all  soils.  Then,  again,  the  nature  and  composition  of 
the  soil  has  to  be  taken  into  consideration.  Thus  clays  derived 
from  potash  felspar  would  not  need  potash  manuring,  while  many 
sandy  soils  would,  on  the  contrary,  be  highly  benefited  thereby. 
Also,  it  would  hardly  be  necessary  to  add  lime  to  a  chalky  soil. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  the  nature  of  the  crop  exercises  a 
great  influence  on  the  manuring. 

A  reference  to  the  table  will  show  that  an  average  crop  of 
swedes  will  remove  more  than  twice  as  much  nitrogen  as  an 
average  wheat  crop,  and  yet  the  wheat  is  much  more  dependent 
upon  nitrogenous  manures  than  swedes.  Similarly  the  two  crops 
remove  nearly  equal  quantities  of  phosphoric  acid;  but  a  phos- 
phatic  manure  is  much  more  essential  for  the  swedes  than  for  the 
wheat. 

The  deep-rooted  wheat  seems  to  have  a  much  greater  ability 
to  assimilate  the  phosphates  of  the  soil — largely,  no  doubt,  on 
account  of  the  root  range — than  the  shallower-rooted  swede. 


CHEMISTRY   OF   MANURES.  /I 

The  difference  in  the  power  of  assimilating  nitrogen  is  stated 
by  Warington  to  be  chiefly  due  to  the  fact  that  the  period  of 
most  vigorous  growth  of  the  swede  is  likewise  the  period  of  the 
year  when  nitrification  is  most  active ;  while  during  that  portion 
of  the  year  that  the  wheat  most  requires  nitrogen,  nitrification  is 
at  a  standstill. 

Similarly,  it  will  be  found  that  all  crops  are  influenced  in  a 
greater  degree  by  one  special  ingredient  than  by  the  remainder. 

Thus  the— 

Cereals  require  nitrogenous  manures. 
Turnips  and  swedes  require  phosphatic  manures. 
Mangels  „       nitrogenous       „ 

Potatoes  „       potash  „ 

If  we  add  to  the  above  considerations  the  effect  of  climate 
on  the  effect  of  manures,  we  see  that  successful  and  economic 
manuring  is  by  no  means  simple  or  easy  of  attainment. 

No  exact  rules  can  be  laid  down,  nor  can  any  one  say  that 
such  and  such  a  manure  is  an  infallibly  good  manure  for  a  certain 
crop  in  all  places ;  nor  does  it  follow  that  because  a  manure 
gave  good  results  with  one  farmer,  that  it  will  equally  please 
another. 

Each  farmer  must  test  for  himself  the  effect  of  certain  manures 
or  combinations  of  manures  on  the  crops  he  grows ;  indeed,  that 
is  what  every  successful  farmer  does.  But  there  is  no  need  to  try 
only  one  manure  in  a  year.  By  marking  off  a  portion  of  one  field, 
and  dividing  it  into  small  plots,  as  many  trials  could  be  made  in 
one  year  as  are  usually  made  in  a  dozen ;  and  a  couple  of  years 
would  give  the  experimenter  practically  all  the  information  he 
required  as  to  the  effect  of  the  different  manures  on  the  various 
crops  on  his  land.  Such  a  systematic  trial  would  be  worth  far 
more  than  another's  highest  recommendations ;  and  if  the  farmer 
bought  only  pure,  guaranteed  manures,  and  did  all  the  mixing 
himself,  he  would  know  exactly  what  was  needed  for  each  crop, 
and  would  not  be  helping  to  swell  the  enormous  profits  made  on 
mixed  manures. 

The  pure  manures  should  be  limited  generally  to  nitrogenous, 
phosphatic,  potassic  manures,  and  also  those  containing  lime. 
Below  is  a  table  by  M.  Ville,  which,  in  the  first  column,  gives  the 
various  crops ;  in  the  second,  the  manurial  ingredient  by  which 
each  is  most  influenced,  and  hence  called  the  "  dominant  ingre- 
dient ; "  and,  in  the  third  column,  the  manures  whose  chief  value 
depend  upon  the  proportion  of  the  respective  ingredient  which 
they  contain : — 


72 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


Crop. 

Wheat 

Barley 

Oats 

Rye 

Grasses 

Beetroot 

Peas 

Beans 

Clover 

Tares 

Sainfoin 

Lucerne 

Totatoes 

Flax 

Turnips 
Swedes 
Maize 
Artichokes 


Dominant  Ingredient. 


Nitrogen. 


Potash. 


Phosphates. 


Manure. 

Ammonia  sulphate. 
Nitrate  of  soda. 
Nitrate  of  potash. 


Kainit. 

Muriate  of  potash. 
Nitrate  of  potash. 
Purified  potash. 
Sulphate  of  potash. 

SBone  manures. 
Bone  black. 
Burnt  bones. 
Superphosphates. 
\     Basic  slag. 


Apart  from  M.  Ville's  system,  such  a  table  has  great  value  to 
any  agriculturalist  as  a  reference. 

Taking  the  above  as  his  guide,  however,  and  having  summarily 
disposed  of  farmyard  manure  as  being  in  his  eyes  comparatively 
worthless,  M.  Ville  has,  by  careful  mixing,  arranged  suitable 
manures  for  all  crops ;  the  manuring  being  spread  over  the 
whole  rotation,  what  are  known  as  fractional  dressings  being 
given,  the  object  of  which  is  to  have  a  regular  supply  of  available 
food. 

Classification  of  Manures. 

Manures  may  be  classed  as  General  and  Special  Manures, 
or  as  Natural  and  Artificial.  The  former  is  the  better  arrange- 
ment, as  the  latter  is  purely  arbitrary,  the  distinguishing  feature 
of  an  "  artificial "  being  that  it  has  passed  through  the  dealer's 
hands.  Thus  the  naturally  occurring  guano  is  classed  as  an 
artificial  manure,  as  are  potash  salts,  even  if  they  are  applied  just 
as  obtained  from  the  beds. 

A  General  manure  is  one  which  contains  all  the  constituents 
removed  from  the  soil  by  crops,  and  consists  generally  of  animal 
or  vegetable  matter  in  a  more  or  less  advanced  state  of  decom- 
position. The  commonest  and  best  example  of  such  a  manure  is 
farmyard  manure,  after  which  might  be  mentioned — excremen- 
titious :  guano,  night-soil  and  poudrette,  town  sewage,  native 
guano,  human  egesta,  birds'  dung,  liquid  manure,  sheep's  manure. 

Other  animal  manures  :  chiefly  refuse  from  fisheries,  slaughter- 
houses, tanneries,  glue-works,  oil-works,  refuse  wool,  hair,  feathers, 
horn  shavings,  etc. 


CHEMISTRY  OF   MANURES.  73 

Vegetable  manures ;  refuse  cakes,  green  crop  manures : 
composts,  seaweed,  bran,  and  brewer's  grains. 

Special  manures  usually  contain  in  quantity  only  one  con- 
stituent of  plant-food.  They  may  be  mixed  with  each  other 
before  applying,  or  used  separately,  according  to  circumstances. 

The  term  "special"  is  also  used  to  denote  a  special-purpose 
manure,  such  as  a  turnip-manure,  potato-manure,  etc.—  concoc- 
tions which,  as  a  rule,  are  sold  at  prices  infinitely  higher  than  what 
they  are  worth. 

General  Manures. 

Farmyard  Manure.  —  This,  the  commonest  and  most  im- 
portant of  the  general  manures,  in  spite  of  criticism  still  holds 
its  own.  It  consists,  of  course,  of  the  excrements  of  the  various 
animals  kept  on  the  farm,  with  the  litter  supplied  to  the  animals. 
Hence  its  composition  will  vary  to  some  extent  with  the  nature 
of  the  farm,  the  kind  of  stock  kept,  the  food  given,  and  the  litter 
used.  Greater  variations,  however,  may  be  introduced  by  the 
management  or  mismanagement  of  the  manure  after  production. 

When  the  manure  is  stored  in  a  heap  it  undergoes  a  species 
of  fermentation,  which  is  brought  about  by  agency  of  organisms, 
the  action  of  which,  however,  is  but  imperfectly  understood.  The 
conditions  which  are  favourable  to  a  rapid  fermentation,  and 
those  which  retard  the  fermentation,  have,  however,  been  care- 
fully studied. 

1.  The  ComJ)ositton  of  the  Manure. — This  affects  considerably 
the  rapidity  of  the  fermentation ;  the  concentrated  nitrogenous 
manure  from  the  stable,  for  instance,  fermenting  much  more 
rapidly  than  the  watery  voidings  of  the  milch  cattle.  Indeed,  so 
rapidly  does  the  former  ferment,  that,  if  kept  dry,  sufficient  heat 
will  be  developed  during  the  fermentation  to  blacken  and  even 
fire  it. 

2.  The  External  Tetnperature. — The  activity  of  the  organisms 
is  dependent  upon  the  temperature,  so  that  the  most  rapid 
fermentation  will  take  place  in  summer.  The  chemical  changes 
taking  place  during  the  fermentation  are  themselves  productive 
of  a  certain  amount  of  heat,  so  that  once  the  process  is  well 
started  it  becomes  less  dependent  on  the  temperature  of  the 
surrounding  atmosphere.  The  temperature  of  the  heap  should 
not  be  allowed  to  rise  above  80°  Fahr. 

4.  The  Supply  of  Air. — Where  the  heap  is  loose,  and  the  air 
has  easy  access  to  the  interior,  the  fermentation  proceeds  rapidly  ; 
but  where,  from  consolidation,  the  air  cannot  penetrate,  the 
process   is  greatly  retarded.     It   is   held   that  where  the  air  is 


74  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

excluded  in  this  way,  fermentation  can  only  go  on  up  to  a  certain 
point,  it  being  conducted  by  a  class  of  organisms  not  requiring 
oxygen  for  their  support.  The  fermentation  is  only  complete  in 
the  presence  of  atmospheric  oxygen,  as  the  later  stages  are  carried 
on  by  organisms,  which  are  dependent  upon  oxygen  for  their 
existence. 

5.  The  Presence  of  Wafer. — This  has  the  effect  of  lowering 
the  temperature,  and  hence  decreasing  the  rate  of  fermentation, 
and  it  also  contributes  to  the  same  result  by  preventing  the  access 
of  air. 

Seeing  that  so  many  conditions  affect  the  fermentation,  it 
should  be  under  the  direct  control  of  the  farmer,  and,  in  order 
that  this  be  so,  the  manure-heap  should  be  provided  with  a 
light  roof,  a  watertight  floor,  and  the  drainings  should  be  con- 
ducted into  a  tank.  Into  this  tank  also  the  drainings  from  the 
cow-sheds,  etc.,  ought  to  be  conveyed ;  and  a  pump  should  be 
so  fixed  that,  when  necessary,  the  temperature  of  the  heap  may 
be  lowered  by  pumping  over  it  the  liquid  contained  in  the  tank. 
With  such  an  arrangement,  and  knowing  the  conditions  affecting 
fermentation,  the  process  can  be  regulated  to  a  nicety ;  but  where 
the  manure-heap  is  exposed  in  the  middle  of  the  yard,  alternately 
washed  with  a  shower  of  rain,  and  then  dessicated  by  the  summer 
sun,  not  only  is  the  fermentation  out  of  control,  but  the  most 
valuable  portion  of  the  heap  is  being  lost 

The  chemical  changes  taking  place  during  fermentation  are, 
no  doubt,  highly  complex;  but,  as  yet,  the  information  con- 
cerning them  is  anything  but  complete. 

The  result  is  an  increase  of  soluble  matter,  and  also  an 
increase  in  the  amount  of  water. 

Considerable  quantities  of  CO2  (carbon  dioxide)  are  given  off 
during  the  fermentation,  as  well  as  a  fair  proportion  of  marsh  gas 
(CH4) — a  gas  which  may  be  observed  rising  in  bubbles  from  de- 
caying vegetable  matter  in  stagnant  water.  It  is  the  same  gas 
which  is  found  amongst  the  coal,  and  is  there  called  "  fire-damp." 
Small  quantities  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  (SH2)  and  phospho- 
retted  hydrogen  (PH3)  also  escape,  together  with  some  carbon 
disulphide  (CSg),  resulting  from  the  decomposition  of  the  albu- 
minoids. Where  the  heap  gets  unduly  heated,  considerable 
amounts  of  ammonia  gas  (NH3)  are  given  off,  often  in  sufficient 
quantity  for  it  to  be  recognized  by  its  smell. 

Most  of  the  ammonia  produced  in  this  way  is  a  product  of 
the  decomposition  of  urea  and  like  bodies. 

Urea  undergoes  a  fermentation  in  urine,  by  which  ammonium 
carbonate  is  produced,  the  change  being  brought  about  by  a 
micrococcus,  and  the  action  represented  by — 


CHEMISTRY   OF   MANURES.  75 

Urea.  Water.     Ammonium  Carbonate. 

CO  <^^^^  +  2OH,  =  (NH4),C0, 

Under  the  influence  of  heat  this  decomposes  into  carbon 
dioxide,  water,  and  ammonia  gas. 

Ammonium       Carbon  Ammonia 

Carbonate.       Dioxide.    Water.        Gas. 

(NH^)^  CO3  =  CO,  +  OH2  +  2NH3 

Dr.  Voelcker  found  that  organic  acids,  such  as  ulmic  and 
humic,  were  produced  during  the  decomposition  of  the  manure, 
and,  where  the  temperature  does  not  become  too  high,  the 
ammonia  of  the  ammonium  carbonate  combines  with  the  ulmic 
and  humic  acids  to  form  ammonium  salts  of  those  acids,  which 
are  not  so  easily  decomposed  as  the  carbonate. 

These  organic  acids  also  combine  with  the  potash  and  soda, 
producing  exceedingly  soluble  salts,  and  the  formation  of  these 
soluble  compounds  during  the  fermentation  explains  the  great 
loss  to  which  manure  is  liable  when  washed  by  rain. 

(For  Table  giving  the  composition  of  fresh  manure,  and  also 
thoroughly  fermented  manure,  see  next  page.) 

According  to  Warington,  a  ton  cf  farmyard  manure  contains 
from — 

9  to  15  lbs,  nitrogen,  equal  to  57  J  to  96  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda  (95  per  cent.  pure). 
9  to  15  lbs.  potash,  equal  to  68  to  113^  lbs.  kainit  (containing  24*5  per  cent. 

sulphate  of  potash). 
4  to  9  lbs.  phosphorus  pentoxide,  equal  to  35  to  79  lbs.  superphosphate  (con 

taining  25  per  cent,  soluble  phosphate). 

From  these  figures  we  see  the  small  amount  of  fertilizing 
ingredients  which  farmyard  manure  contains.  M.  Ville,  who  puts 
no  great  faith  in  this  manure,  says  that  the  following  mixture 
contains  as  much  of  the  four  great  constituents  of  plant-food  as 
sixteen  tons  of  dung :  — 

lbs. 
Superphosphate  of  lime  ..  ..         520 

Potassic  chloride  ..  ..  ..          282 

Sulphate  of  ammonia    ..  ..  ..         691 

Sulphate  of  lime  ..  ..  ..         747 

2240 

Use  of  Anwwnia  Fixers. — In  order  to  prevent  the  waste  of 
ammonia  by  volatilization  various  substances  are  added  to  the 
manure,  the  object  of  which  is  to  form  compounds  with  the 
ammonia  which  shall  not  be  liable  to  decomposition.     Amongst 


76 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


COMPOSITION   OF  FARMYARD  MANURE. 


Long  or  Fresh  Manure. 

Well-rotted  Manure, 

2  weeks  old. 

6  months  in 

heap. 

Water  .. 

, 

66*17 

75-42 

Soluble  organic  matters  * 

. 

2.48 

371 

Soluble  inorganic  matters — 

Silica 

0-237 

0*254 

Phosphate  of  lime 

0-299 

0*382 

Lime 

o'o66 

0-II7 

Magnesia 

OOII 

0*047 

Potash 

0-573 

0*446 

Soda 

0*051 

0-023 

Chloride  of  sodium    .. 

0*030 

0037 

Sulphuric  acid 

o'055 

0-058 

Carbonic  acid,  and  loss 

0*2l8 

1-54 
25-76 

o-io5 

1*47 
12*82 

Insoluble  organic  matters  ' 

. 

Insoluble  inorganic  matters — 

Silica 

1*528 

2*434 

Oxides    of    iron,    alumina    and|      q.kqA 
phosphates               ..             ../          ^^ 

0*947 

Containing  phosphoric  acid 

•       (0-178) 

..       (0*274) 

Equal  to  bone  earth 

..        (0386) 

(0-573) 

Lime 

I-120 

1*667 

Magnesia     .. 

0-I43 

0-091 

Potash 

0*099 

0-045 

Soda 

0*019 

0-038 

Sulphuric  acid 

o*o6i 

0063 

Carbonic  acid,  and  loss 

0*484 

1-295 



4-05 

6-58 

100*00 

100*00 

*  Containing  nitrogen    . . 

0*149 

0*297 

Equal  to  ammonia 

0*181 

0*360 

2  Containing  nitrogen     .. 

0-494 

0.309 

Equal  to  ammonia 

0*599 

0-375 

Total  nitrogen 

0-643 

0-606 

Equal  to  ammonia      . .     " 

0*780 

0*735 

the  substances  used  for  this  purpose  may  be  mentioned  gypsum, 
iron  sulphate  (copperas),  sulphate  of  magnesia,  crude  potash 
salts,  and  also  sulphuric  and  hydrochloric  acids  in  very  dilute 
condition.  There  are  also  several  preparations  in  the  market  for 
absorbing  liquid  manure,  claiming  also  to  fix  the  ammonia,  the 
properties  of  which  depend  partly  upon  their  absorbent  nature, 
and  partly  upon  the  fact  that  they  contain  substances  like  the 
above-mentioned. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  first  four  of  these  substances  are 
sulphates,  and  their  action  depends  upon  the  fact  that  they  form 
ammonia   sulphate,   which,  besides  being  stable,  is  a  valuable 


CHEMISTRY   OF   MANURES.  JJ 

plant-food.      The   equations    representative  of    the    respective 
reactions  are — 

With  gypsum — 

Ammonium                                          Ammonium  Carbonate 

Carbonate.              Gypsum.                   Sulphate.  of  Lime. 

(NHJaCOs    +    CaS04     =     (NH4)2S04  +       CaCOg 

With  ferrous  sulphate  (copperas) — 

Ferrous  Ferrous 

Sulphate.  Carbonate. 

(NH4)2C03     +     FeS04     =       (NH4)2S04       +       FeCOg 

With  sulphate  of  magnesia — 

Sulphate  Carbonate 

of  Magnesia.  of  Magnesia. 

(NH4)2C03     +     MgS04    =       (NH4)2S04       +      MgCOa 

Crude  potash  salts  contain  sulphate  of  potash. 

Sulphate  Carbonate 

of  Potash.  of  Potash. 

(NH4)2C03     +     K2SO4      =       (NH4)2SO        4-       K2CO3 

The  use  of  dilute  acids  is  not  very  extensive,  though  they 
have  found  some  little  favour  when  mixed  with  sand.  They  form 
chloride  and  sulphate  of  ammonia. 

Hydrochloric        Ammonium  Carbon 

Acid.  Chloride.  Water.  Dioxide, 

(NH4).3C03     +      2HCI     =     2NH4CI      +     OH2     +     CO2 
Sulphuric 
Acid. 

(NH4)2C03         +         H2SO4      =        (NH4)2S04     +     OH2       +        CO2 

The  Value  of  Farmyard  Manure, — Lately  this  manure  has  been 
subjected  to  a  great  deal  of  criticism,  and  many  chemists  have 
sought  to  prove  that  it  is  the  most  expensive  and  wasteful  of  all 
the  manures  used.  The  small  quantity  of  available  fertilizing 
matter  contained  in  it  has  given  rise  to  this ;  and  if  it  be  looked 
at  from  this  point  of  view  only,  the  opinion  would  appear  to  be 
well  founded. 

The  cost  of  cartage  and  distribution  is  great,  especially  if  the 
district  be  hilly  and  the  fields  be  at  some  distance  from  the 
midden.  Indeed,  this  item  may  be  so  heavy  in  certain  districts 
as  to  preclude  its  use,  except  upon  the  fields  very  near  at  hand. 

There  are,  however,  many  circumstances  which  render  farm- 
yard manure  a  very  valuable  commodity,  a  safe  fertilizer  in  any 
hands,  and  certain  in  its  results. 

(i)  It  contains  all  the  constituents  removed  by  the  crop  from 
the  soil.     Some  parts  of  the  crop  have  been  passed  through  the 


yS  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

bodies  of  animals;  other  parts  have  simply  undergone  decom- 
position, e.g.  straw.  That  which  has  passed  through  the  animals 
has  been  robbed,  to  some  extent,  of  phosphates  and  nitrogen. 
A  considerable  portion  of  the  nitrogen  is  passed  off  as  urine,  and 
thus  finds  its  way  into  the  manure. 

Since,  however,  part  of  these  substances  is  retained  by  the 
animals,  and  the  loss  during  fermentation,  etc.,  is  considerable, 
this  manure  does  not  contain  all  the  constituents  required  by  the 
crops,  in  sufficient  amount  to  supply  the  demands — that  is, 
unless  an  excessive  quantity  of  the  manure  is  used.  Hence  this 
manure  is  commonly  used  in  company  with  artificials. 

(2)  Farmyard  manure  usually  contains  a  large  number  of 
nitrifying  bacteria,  and  also  a  considerable  quantity  of  nitro- 
genous organic  matter  upon  which  the  bacteria  can  act. 

(3)  It  contains  a  large  quantity  of  organic  matter  which  has 
a  highly  beneficial  effect  on  many  soils,  especially  those  deficient 
in  humus. 

The  effect  is  seen  when  fresh  or  green  manure  is  added  to  a 
heavy  clay  soil,  as  the  stiff  clay  is  mellowed  and  rendered  freer  to 
work  and  in  every  way  a  more  desirable  soil. 

On  light  lands  it  is  always  applied  in  a  thoroughly  rotten — 
short — condition,  and,  if  possible,  at  a  time  when  the  plant  will 
speedily  be  able  to  make  good  use  of  the  material. 

(4)  Its  effect  is  felt  for  a  long  time  after  it  is  applied. 

Much  of  the  matter  of  which  it  is  composed  is  insoluble  when 
it  is  added,  but  it  gradually  changes  its  nature,  owing  to  nitrifi- 
cation and  other  actions.  The  continuous  supply  of  plant-food 
thus  prepared  is  at  once  used  up,  and  the  insoluble  residue  has 
no  tendency  to  be  washed  out  of  the  soil.  In  winter,  when  the 
land  is  not  under  a  crop,  nitrification  is  at  a  standstill,  and  this 
prevents  loss  of  plant-food  during  those  months. 

This  permanence  of  effect  is  one  of  the  most  valuable 
characteristics  of  farmyard  manure,  as  if  applied  once  in  a  rota- 
tion, it  benefits  all  the  crops  in  that  rotation. 

Its  influence  has  been  distinctly  traced  so  far  as  twenty  years 
after  application,  and  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes  estimates  the  period  through 
which  it  will  act  as  considerably  longer  than  this. 

(5)  By  its  decomposition  in  the  soil  it  sets  free  carbonic  and 
other  acids,  and  helps  in  the  formation  of  other  plant-foods. 

(6)  It  is  a  universal  manure,  suiting  all  crops,  climates,  and 
soils.  In  the  case  of  leguminous  crops,  where  great  difficulty 
has  been  experienced  in  arranging  satisfactory  artificial  mixtures, 
farmyard  manure  has  always  given  excellent  results. 

In  many  parts  of  England  it  is  the  only  manure  used,  as, 
owing  to  the  climate,  the  artificials  cannot  be  depended  on ;  and 


CHEMISTRY  OF   MANURES. 


79 


this  is  more  marked  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  countries  of 
southern  Europe,  in  whose  dry  climate  dung  is  the  only  satis- 
factory manure. 

(7)  It  is  one  of  the  products  of  the  farm,  and  must  be 
consumed  in  some  way;  and  even  granting  it  a  low  value,  the 
best,  cheapest,  and  easiest  method  of  disposing  of  it  is  to  apply 
it  directly  to  the  land. 

Guano. — This  substance,  which  consists  chiefly  of  the  accu- 
mulated excrements  of  seabirds,  depends  for  its  value  upon  the 
amount  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  it  contains. 

The  first  samples,  coming  from  the  rainless  islands  of  Peru, 
contained  the  largest  proportion  of  nitrogen,  existing  as  urates 
and  salts  of  ammonium. 

Many  of  these  samples  contained  nitrogen  equal  to  twenty 
per  cent,  of  ammonia ;  but  these  supplies  are  no  longer  available, 
having  been  worked  out.  A  good  sample  to-day  would  contain 
about  eight  to  twelve  per  cent,  of  ammonia. 

In  such  guanos  the  amount  of  phosphates  is  comparatively 
small — say  about  thirty  per  cent. — and  the  potash  equals  about 
three  to  five  per  cent. 

The  greater  proportion  of  the  guano  imported  at  the  present 
day  belongs  to  the  class  of  phosphatic  guanos.  These  deposits 
have  been  exposed  to  rain  until  the  highly  soluble  compounds 
have  been  washed  out,  leaving  the  more  insoluble  matters — 
chiefly  tricalcic  phosphate — behind. 

The  amount  of  phosphate  varies  from  thirty  to  eighty  per 
cent,  and  the  amount  of  nitrogen  is  equal  to  three  to  five  per 
cent  of  ammonia. 

The  subjoined  table  gives  the  composition  of  some  typical 
guanos. 

Composition  of  Guanos. 


Water 

Organic  matter,  etc. 

(yielding  ammonia) 
Calcic  phosphate  . . 
Calcic  carbonate 
Alkaline  salts 

(containing  potash) 
Insoluble  matter     . . 

Nitrogenous. 

Phosphatic. 

Chincha 
Islands. 

Ichaboe. 

Angamos. 

Mejil- 
lones. 

Curasao. 

Pata- 
gonian. 

13-67 
52-05 
(16-52) 
22*78 

967 

1-83 

18-60 
47*84 
(13-00) 

IO-86 

3-44 
10-90 

(2-00) 
8-36 

8*76 
69-96 

(23-44) 

8-27 

(2-IO) 
0-94 

8-98 
8*36 

(075) 
71*16 

4-30 

3*34 
(2-00) 
3-86 

11-53 
7*11 

(traces) 

72-84 

(0-50) 
020 

23-00 
26*50 

(4*io) 

40-54 
2*00 
5-66 

(I-30) 
230 

lOO'OO 

loo-oo 

loo-oo 

lOOOO 

loo-oo 

100 -OO 

80  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

Some  of  the  pbosphatic  guanos  are  now  treated  with  sulphuric 
acid,  by  which  a  great  portion  of  the  tricalcic  phosphate  is 
rendered  soluble.  Guanos  so  treated  are  known  as  dissolved 
guanos. 

Seeing  the  composition  varies  so  much,  it  is  always  necessary 
to  get  a  guaranteed  analysis  before  purchase.  The  unit  value  is 
then  easily  worked  out. 

Guanos  have  often  been  adulterated  with  sand,  clay,  powdered 
limestone  and  bricks,  salt,  gypsum,  etc.  Various  simple  tests 
can  be  readily  made  to  prove  the  genuineness. 

(i)  The  colour  should  be  that  of  coffee  and  milk :  if  very 
brown,  it  contains  too  much  water ;  if  grey,  it  is  too  earthy. 

(2)  The  smell  should  be  ammoniacal,  and  strongly  so  when 
damp.  The  guanos  imported  long  ago,  such  as  the  Chincha 
Island,  had  a  very  powerful  odour,  and  many  farmers  still  prefer 
a  strong-smelling  artificial  manure. 

(3)  The  taste  is  strong — salt  and  caustic. 

(4)  The  consistency.  Oily  to  the  touch.  Usually  found  in 
small  grains.  When  the  pieces  appear  crystallized  on  break- 
ing, the  manure  is  usually  rich  in  urates,  and  consequently  in 
nitrogen. 

(5)  H)\Q  flame.  It  will  readily  blaze  up  if  good,  and  leave  a 
considerable  residue  of  ashes.  This  shows  whether  it  is  rich  in 
organic  matter  or  not. 

(6)  The  ash  ought  to  be  perfectly  white.  When  reddish- 
brown,  the  guano  may  have  been  adulterated  with  powdered 
bricks,  marl,  clay,  sand,  etc.  The  ash  should  dissolve  completely 
in  hydrochloric  acid,  without  effervescence.  An  insoluble  residue 
indicates  adulteration ;  effervescence  shows  the  presence  of  large 
amounts  of  carbonate  of  lime. 

(7)  When  mixed  with  quicklime,  there  ought  to  be  a  strong 
evolution  of  ammonia. 

(8)  The  weight  per  bushel  is  from  sixty-eight  to  seventy 
pounds.     When  adulterated  it  is  usually  lighter. 

Poudrette  contains  from  14*8  to  37*4  per  cent,  organic  matter 
(giving  o'95  to  2*5  per  cent,  nitrogen),  0.87  to  3  per  cent,  phos- 
phoric acid,  o'6  to  1*5  per  cent,  potash,  and  i  to  67  per 
cent.  lime.  It  is  consequently  not  very  rich  in  fertilizing  ingre- 
dients. 

Native  guano  consists  of  the  precipitated  solids  of  sewage 
water.  The  reagents  used  for  this  purpose  are  numerous,  but 
those  most  generally  employed  are  alum,  blood,  and  clay,  in  what 
is  known  as  the  ABC  process.  The  mixture  is  dried  and  then 
sold.  The  following  table  gives  the  composition  of  two 
samples  : — 


CHEMISTRY   OF   MANURES. 


8i 


Water           

Organic  matter  *      . , 
Phosphate  of  lime  . . 
Carbonate  of  lime  . . 
Alkalies  and  magnesia 
Iron  oxide  and  alumina     .  . 
Clay  and  sand 

I- 

II. 

6-12 

22-45 
2-8i 
6-37 
3-56 
6'59 

52-10 

7-91 
19-40 

2-40 
20-93 

2-92 

8-78 
37-66 

100-00 

loo-oo 

^  Containing  nitrogen    . . 
equal  to  ammonia    . . 

1-92 
2-23 

0-96 
i-i6 

Rendonda  and  Alta  Vela  phosphates  (containing  a  large 
percentage  of  alum)  have  been  used  for  this  purpose  of  clarifi- 
cation. 


Human  Egesta.- 

are  by  Griffiths  : — 


-The  following  analyses  of  human  excrements 


Water           

I.  Solid. 

II.  Liquid. 

75-00 

97-00 

Organic  matter  •     . . 

22-13 

2'02 

Iron  oxide   . . 

0-13 

Lime 

0-43 

0"02 

Magnesia     . . 

0-38 

001 

Phosphoric  acid 

I -07 

0-04 

Sulphuric  acid 

o-o6 

.  , 

Potash 

0-30 

0-05 

Soda             

Sodium  chloride     . . 

008 
005 

}          0-86 

Insoluble  matter     . . 

0-37 

traces 

loo-oo 

100-00 

*  Containing  nitrogen    . . 

1-50 

0-58 

equal  to  ammonia    . . 

1-82 

0-71 

Nightsoil. — The  analyses  show  that  the  substance  is  not  of 
very  high  value. 

The  following  are  by  Dr.  Yoelcker  ; — 


82 


ADVANCED    AGRICULTURE. 


Moisture 

Organic  matter  and  water 

of  combination  ' 
Iron  oxide  and  alumina  . . 
Phosphoric  acid    . . 
Calcium  carbonate 

Magnesia 

Alkaline  salts 

Sand  and  clay       . .         , . 

I.  Earth 
before  use. 

II.  Earth 
once  used. 

III.  Earth 
twice  used. 

IV.  Earth 
thrice  used. 

lO'OO 

8-89 

11-65 

1-62 

.75 
}  ,-30 

6479 

21-69 

7-67 

12-65 

0-19 

1-76 
2-06  1 
53-98 

II-8l 

io'i7 
12-43 
0-39 
1-88 
0-68 
0*64 
62-00 

13-81 

IO-53 
10-76 
0-44 
1-84 
078 
0-64 
61-20 

100 'OO 

100 -OO 

100-00 

100-00 

'  Containing  nitrogen 
equal  to  ammonia 

0-31 

0-37 

0-37 
0*45 

0-42 
051 

0-51 
0-62 

Liquid  Manures  generally  consist  of  the  urine  of  farm-stock, 
with  the  drainings  from  the  dung-heap.  The  urine  of  the  different 
animals  varies  greatly  in  character.^  That  of  the  horse  is  cloudy, 
and  has  an  alkaline  reaction.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1-05.  It 
becomes  brown  on  exposure  to  the  air,  and  deposits  carbonate 
of  lime.  From  -i  to  |  of  the  calcium  salts  of  the  food,  and  up 
to  f  of  the  potassium  compounds  appear  in  the  urine.  The  urine 
of  the  ox  is  clear  yellowish,  or  greenish,  and  possesses  a  peculiar 
musky  odour.  It  has  a  specific  gravity  of  i"o2  to  i'o3.  The 
urine  of  the  sheep  is  similar  to  that  of  the  ox,  but  the  amount 
of  solids  it  contains  varies  more  and  is  usually  less.  Its  specific 
gravity  runs  from  i'oo6  to  1-015.     The  urine  of  the  fig  is  clear, 


*  Composition  of  Urine. 


Water  and  undetermined  substances    .. 

I.  Horse. 

II.  Ox. 

III.  Pig. 

91*00 

92-13 

97-91 

Urea          

Alkaline  lactates 

3-10 
201 

1-85 
172 

•49 

Potassium  hippurates 

Potassium  bicarbonate 

•47 

1*55 

1-65 
I-61 

I -07 

Potassium  sulphate 

Magnesium  carbonate 

Calcium  carbonate 

■12 

•42 
i-o8 

•36 
•47 
-06 

-20 

-09 

traces 

Sodium  chloride  .. 

•07 

•15 

•13 

Phosphates 

Silica         

•10 

traces 

-10 
-01 

99-92 

100-00 

I  GO -00 

CHEMISTRY   OF   MANURES.  8^ 

yellowish,  with  an  alkaline  reaction;  specific  gravity,  I'oioto  1*015. 
It  contains  urea,  but  rarely  uric  or  hippuric  acids.  The  average 
amount  of  urine  voided  annually  by  the  horse  is  4380  lbs.,  by 
the  ox  20,000  lbs.,  by  the  sheep  380  lbs.,  and  by  the  pig  1200  lbs. 
The  drainings  from  the  dung-heap,  with  which  the  urine  mixes, 
have  the  following  average  composition,  according  to  Wolff : — 

Water 98-20 

Organic  matter  ..  ..  .,  ..  ..       070 

Ash  ingredients..  ..  ,.  ..  ..        I'lo 


Nitrogen     ..  ..  ..  ..  .,  0*15 

Potash         ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  o'49 

Phosphoric  acid  ..  ..  ..  ..  O'oi 

Lime           ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  0*03 

Magnesia    ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  0*04 

During  the  time  liquid  manure  is  usually  stored,  fermenta- 
tion proceeds,  and  the  organic  forms  of  nitrogen  (urea,  etc.)  are 
decomposed  with  the  production  of  ammonia.  A  small  amount 
of  very  dilute  sulphuric  acid  is  sometimes  added  to  fix  this  latter 
compound. 

Sheep-fold  Manure  gives  back  to  the  soil,  with  the  least  waste, 
the  constituents  taken  from  it  by  crops,  and  afterwards  used  as 
food  by  the  stock.  Should  cake  or  corn  and  hay  be  supplied  as 
well,  the  soil  is  fully  compensated  for  the  slight  loss  occasioned 
by  the  growth  of  the  animals  and  their  production  of  wool  and 
mutton. 

Analysis  of  Sheep  Manure. 

Water    ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ,.       69*30 

Dry  organic  matter      ..  ..  ..  ..        2371 

Ash  ingredients  ..  ..  ,.  ..         6  "99 


Potash       . . 
Lime 

Magnesia  .. 
Phosphoric  acid 
Ammonia  .. 
Total  nitrogen 


loo-QO 

077 
o-6o 
o'o6 
o*2i 

o'45 
o'6i 


Other  Animal  Manures. — Fishery  Refuse  consists  of  whole 
fish  and  offal,  and  is  preferably  used  in  a  compost,  at  the  rate 
of  say  i^  tons  per  acre.  It  contains  about  \\  per  cent,  nitrogen 
and  I  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  is  suitable  for  cereals 
and  root  crops. 


84  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Fish  Guano  is  somewhat  of  the  same  nature,  consisting  of 
refuse  from  fish-curing  yards,  and  from  Norway  cod-oil  factories. 
This  material  is  dried  and  ground  up. 

Most  of  the  manure  obtained  from  Norway  has  had  salts  of 
potash  and  magnesia  added  as  preservatives,  an  addition  which 
considerably  enhances  its  value,  as  otherwise  the  manure  is  some- 
what poor  in  potash. 

Such  a  manure  naturally  varies  considerably  in  composition. 
A  good  sample  of  the  Norwegian  "  potash  "  guano  may  contain 
lo  to  12  per  cent,  ammonia,  i8  to  30  per  cent,  phosphates,  and 
from  8  to  15  per  cent,  sulphate  of  potash.  The  less  valuable 
forms  contain  up  to  8  per  cent,  of  ammonia  and  40  per  cent, 
phosphates. 

Broad-casted,  say  a  fortnight  before  sowing  the  seed,  these 
manures  have  given  excellent  results  with  a  large  number  of  crops, 
the  rate  of  application  being  from  3  to  6  cwts.  per  acre. 

As  a  rule  the  manure  contains  a  large  proportion  of  oil,  the 
presence  of  which  interferes  considerably  with  the  decomposition, 
and  this  renders  it  very  slow  in  its  action.  The  lower  the  per- 
centage of  oil,  other  things  being  equal,  the  more  valuable  the 
manure. 

Slaughterhouse  Refuse  is  rich  in  nitrogenous  organic  matter. 
Made  into  a  compost  with  road-scrapings  and  old  mortar  or  old 
lime,  it  forms  a  valuable  manure,  owing  to  the  formation  of  nitre 
in  the  heap. 

Tanyard  Waste  contains  about  i-|  per  cent,  nitrogen,  2\  per 
cent,  tricalcic  phosphate,  and  13  per  cent.  lime. 

It  has  little  value  as  a  manure,  and  spent  bark  practically  has 
none  at  all.       Glue  Refuse  contains  about  2\  per  cent,  nitrogen. 

Refuse  Hair,  Feathers,  etc.,  contain  some  quantity  of  nitrogen, 
feather  and  fur  waste  averaging  about  6^  to  8|-  per  cent. 

Wool  Refuse  and  Shoddy  depend  for  their  value  upon  the  per- 
centage of  nitrogen.  They  are,  however,  very  insoluble,  and  unless 
treated  with  superheated  steam  or  sulphuric  acid  are  not  of 
great  value.  In  wool  waste  there  is  about  5  per  cent,  nitrogen ; 
in  shoddy  about  7  to  13  per  cent. 

The  latter  is  largely  used  as  a  manure  for  hops. 

Horn  Dust,  keronikin,  yields  about  16  to  18  per  cent,  of 
ammonia,  but  is  of  little  value  unless  exceedingly  finely  divided. 

Leather  contains  from  4-i-  to  9  per  cent,  of  ammonia, 

Frey-Bentos  Guano  is  the  residual  waste  matter  from  the 
manufacture  of  extract  of  meat,  after  it  has  been  dried  and  finely 
ground. 

It  contains  from  5  to  14  per  cent,  of  ammonia,  and  5  to  35 
per  cent,  phosphates. 


CHEMISTRY  OF  MANURES.  85 

Meat  Meal  is  a  manure  of  similar  composition,  containing 
more  ammonia  and  less  phosphates. 

Manchester  Manwe  is  made  from  waste  organic  matter,  and 
contains  about  37  per  cent,  ammonia,  8  per  cent,  phosphates, 
2 '8  per  cent,  alkahne  salts,  and  15  per  cent,  sulphate  and 
carbonate  of  lime. 

These  refuse  manures  are,  as  a  rule,  very  insoluble,  and  there- 
fore the  analysis  is  not  a  true  indication  of  their  value.  If 
reduced  to  very  fine  state  of  division  the  value  is  increased,  and 
where  they  are  fermented  or  otherwise  specially  treated  they  may 
be  rendered  much  more  soluble. 

Vegetable  Manures. — Green-crop  Manuring. — In  some  parts 
of  England  and  the  Continent  a  method  of  manuring  is  pursued 
which  consists  of  growing  a  crop  for  the  express  purpose  of 
ploughing  it  in.  Mustard,  vetches,  rye,  lupines,  clover,  rape, 
buckwheat,  and  turnips  have  been  used  for  the  purpose,  the 
requisites  being  that  the  crop  shall  be  quick  growing,  hardy, 
and  somewhat  deep-rooted. 

This  method  of  "green-manuring"  can  be  carried  out  on 
both  light  and  heavy  lands  with  beneficial  results;  upon  the 
former  the  roots  have  the  effect  of  consolidation  and  of  binding 
it  together,  while  the  admixture  of  so  much  organic  matter 
mellows  the  latter. 

There  are  many  advantages  resulting  from  their  use,  of  which 
the  following  may  be  taken  as  typical : — 

I.  There  is  a  direct  addition  of  plant-food  to  the  soil,  as 
during  the  growth  of  the  plant  it  absorbs  food  from  the  air,  and 
the  upper  layers  of  the  soil  are  enriched  by  matter  brought  up 
from  the  subsoil,  and  which,  when  the  plants  are  ploughed  in, 
becomes  almost  immediately  available  for  the  succeeding  crop. 

With  certain  crops  this  gain  in  plant-food  is  much  more 
marked,  as  it  consists  in  an  increase  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  soil  at 
the  expense  of  that  of  the  air.  The  plants  which  possess  this  power 
of  abstracting  nitrogen  direct  from  the  air  are  those  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  Leguminoseae,  to  which  order  belong  peas, 
beans,  vetches,  clovers,  sainfoin,  lucerne,  etc.  On  the  rootlets 
of  the  plants  of  this  order  are  a  large  number  of  small  nodules, 
or  tubercles.  These  are  the  home  of  micro-organisms  capable 
of  abstracting  free  nitrogen  from  the  air,  and  forming  nitrogenous 
compounds.  The  great  portion  of  this  nitrogen  ultimately  finds 
its  way  into  the  plant,  and  is  there  made  use  of. 

The  benefit  is  not  confined  to  the  leguminous  crop  alone,  but 
where  that  crop  is  ploughed  in,  or  even  if  only  the  roots  are  left, 
the  soil  becomes  so  enriched  by  the  accumulated  nitrogen  that 
greatly  increased  crops  result. 


S6  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Dr.  Wagner,  of  Darmstadt,  conducted  experiments  to  test 
the  effect  of  the  above.  Two  equal  plots  were  taken,  and  upon 
one  white  mustard  and  on  the  other  vetches  were  ploughed  in, 
and  oats  sown.  Each  received  an  equal  dressing  of  artificials, 
but  the  yield  on  that  where  vetches  had  been  ploughed  in  was 
twice  that  on  the  one  where  white  mustard  had  been  ploughed  in. 

Similar  experiments  were  conducted  by  Heiden,  rye  being 
taken  (i)  after  lupins,  ploughed  in,  and  (2)  after  bare  fallow. 
The  relative  yields  of  the  plots  were ;  plot  i,  96  of  grain  and 
205  chaff  and  straw;  plot  2,  56  of  grain  and  114  chaff  and  straw. 

The  importance  of  this  fixation  of  free  nitrogen  cannot  be 
over-estimated,  as  it  provides  a  large  quantity  of  the  dearest 
manurial  constituent  without  cost. 

2.  The  food  added  to  the  soil  by  green-manuring  cannot 
readily  be  lost  by  drainage. 

This  explains  the  advantage  which  light  land  derives  from 
it,  that  class  of  land  not  being  usually  retentive  of  plant-food. 

3.  A  large  quantity  of  humus  is  added  to  the  soil,  the  benefit 
of  which  has  already  been  noticed. 

4.  During  the  decomposition  of  the  vegetable  matter,  mineral 
matters  are  rendered  available  for  plant-food,  owing  to  the  effects 
of  the  products  of  the  decomposition. 

It  always,  however,  seems  a  pity,  especially  in  the  eyes  of  a 
farmer,  to  plough  into  the  land  what  might  be  providing  food  for 
his  stock,  and  he  naturally  prefers  to  feed  the  crop  and  return  the 
manure  to  the  soil ;  and  probably,  all  things  considered,  this  is 
the  best  plan. 

To  some  extent,  however,  green-manuring  can  be  and  is 
practised  with  great  advantage.  When  lea  is  broken  up,  that  is 
green-manuring  on  a  smaller  scale ;  and  ploughing  in  turnip-tops, 
etc.,  is  likewise  carrying  out  the  same  system. 

Seaweed  is  used  largely  in  districts  where  a  considerable  quan- 
tity is  readily  available,  and  heavy  dressings  give  good  results, 
especially  in  the  case  of  mangels. 

Analysis  of  Seaweed  (Two  Samples). 
I.  n. 

Water  ..  ..77-94         ..  ..         85-03 

Organic  mattet         ••      18-12         ..  ..  12-35 

Asli     ,,  ,.  ..       394         ,.  ..  2-62 


loo-oo  lOO-CX) 


The  fresh  plants  contain  from  '25  to  '5  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 
In  the  ash  there  is  from  7  to  15  per  cent,  of  potash,  10  to  15  per 
cent,  lime,  4  to  8  per  cent,  magnesia,  2  to  4  per  cent,  phosphoric, 
pentoxide,  and  a  large  proportion  of  common  salt. 


CHEMISTRY   OF    MANURES.  87 

Refuse  Cakes. — Oil-cakes  of  various  kinds  are  used  as  manure, 
either  in  the  form  of  damaged  samples  or  cheap  cakes  not  fit  for 
food.  The  composition  varies,  and  the  less  oil  they  contain  the 
more  valuable  will  their  ingredients  become. 

An  average  sample  of  cake  used  for  manure  might  contain — 
Nitrogen,  4  to  9  per  cent,  j  phosphoric  acid,  1*5  to  3  per  cent. ; 
potash,  I  to  2  per  cent 

Artificial  and  Manufactured  Manures. 

These  may  be  divided  into  nitrogenous^  phosphatic^  potassic, 
and  miscellaneous  manures. 

Of  these  we  will  first  consider  the  nitrogenous  manures,  as 
they  are  perhaps  the  most  important 

All  plants  require  nitrogen  for  their  proper  growth,  and  it  is 
one  of  the  elements  in  which  the  soil  very  readily  becomes 
deficient 

Among  nitrogenous  manures  are  nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  nitrate  of  potash,  chloride  of  ammonia,  gas  liquor, 
blood,  soot 

Nitrate  of  Soda. — This  manure  is  obtained  from  Chili  and 
other  rainless  districts  of  South  America,  where  it  occurs  as  an 
efflorescence  on  the  soil  or  in  thick  beds.  The  whole  of  the  vast 
deposits  have  been  formed  from  organic  matter  by  nitrification, 
and  the  presence  of  large  quantities  of  sodium  salt  has  determined 
the  base  with  which  the  nitric  acid  is  united. 

The  crude  salt  found  here  contains  from  27  to  ^-^  per  cent 
of  NaNOg,  but  after  it  has  been  purified  by  dissolving  and 
crystallization,  the  commercial  article  is  obtained,  the  refraction 
(or  impurity)  of  which  does  not  exceed  5  per  cent ;  indeed,  it 
is  often  much  less  than  that.     The  percentage  of  nitrogen  is  15*6. 

The  commonest  adulterant  of  this  manure  is  sodium  chloride, 
in  addition  to  which  other  sodium  salts  are  used. 

The  presence  of  sodium  chloride  in  any  quantity  may  be 
demonstrated  by  adding  to  a  solution  of  the  manure  a  few  drops 
of  a  solution  of  silver  nitrate,  when  a  white  precipitate  will  be 
produced.  Another  proof  is  obtained  by  ignition  ;  thus  sodium 
nitrate  bums  with  a  clear  flame,  sodium  chloride  crackles  and 
leaps  about 

Nitrate  of  Potash. — This  substance  is  rarely,  if  ever,  used  as 
a  manure,  on  account  of  its  high  price.  It  is  a  very  concentrated 
manure,  and  suppHes  both  potash  and  nitrogen  to  the  soil.  It  is 
formed  in  small  quantities  in  compost  heaps,  in  which  old  lime 
is  mixed.  Nitrate  of  potash  (saltpetre  or  nitre)  contains  12  to 
13  per  cent  of  nitrogen. 


88  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia. — This  compound  is  obtained  as  a 
by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  coal  gas,  and  also  in  the 
manufacture  of  steel.  During  the  destructive  distillation  of  coal 
in  the  production  of  coal  gas,  the  greater  portion  of  the  nitrogen 
is  evolved  as  ammonia,  and  this,  on  absorption  with  water,  forms 
the  ammoniacal  liquors  of  the  gas-works.  The  Hquor  is  heated 
with  lime,  and  the  ammonia  is  driven  off  as  a  gas,  which,  on 
being  passed  off  into  sulphuric  acid,  forms  ammonium  sulphate 
([NHJ,S0,). 

Sulphate  of  ammonia  should  contain  20  per  cent,  of  nitrogen, 
equal  to  24  per  cent,  of  ammonia.  If  chemically  pure  it 
would  contain  21  per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  Ammonium  sulpho- 
cyanate  is  sometimes  found  in  this  manure,  and,  as  it  is 
very  poisonous  to  vegetation,  it  should  always  be  tested  for. 
If  present,  a  solution  becomes  blood-red  in  colour  on  addition 
of  ferric  chloride.  As  sulphate  of  ammonia  and  nitrate  of 
soda  resemble  each  other  greatly,  it  may  be  as  well  to  tell 
how  to  distinguish  between  them.  The  former  varies  con- 
siderably in  colour,  has  a  sharp  alkaline  taste,  and,  when 
treated  with  an  alkali,  it  gives  off  ammonia  gas,  which  is 
readily  recognized  by  the  smell.  When  heated  on  a  clean  iron 
plate  it  volatilizes,  leaving  little  residue,  the  amount  of  which  is 
a  rough  index  of  the  purity  of  the  sample.  Nitrate  of  soda  is 
darker  looking,  more  crystalline,  and  rougher  to  the  feel  than 
ammonium  sulphate.  Ammonium  sulphate  is  not  so  soluble  nor 
so  active  a  manure  as  sodium  nitrate,  as  it  is  probable  that  it 
must  undergo  nitrification  before  it  is  available  for  plant  food, 
consequently  it  is  of  more  use  on  wet  lands  and  in  wet  seasons, 
when  it  is  not  so  likely  to  be  washed  away.  It  is  because  of 
the  necessary  changes  which  ammonium  sulphate  must  undergo 
that  it  is  not  so  exhausting  as  nitrate  of  soda.  It  does  not 
force  the  plants  so  much,  and  consequently  allows  them  more 
time  to  gather  up  their  food.  The  lower  qualities  of  this  manure 
may  contain  much  moisture,  free  acid,  tarry  matter,  and 
sulphate  of  lime  and  iron.  The  nitrogen  of  ammonium  sulphate 
has  not  such  a  high  unit  value  as  that  of  nitrate  of  soda. 

Ammonium  Chloride  is  known  also  as  sal-ammoniac.  On 
account  of  its  expense  it  is  not  often  used  as  a  manure.  It 
contains  about  i8i  per  cent,  of  water,  and  32^  per  cent,  of 
ammonia.  According  to  some  authorities,  it  is  not  much  better 
than  ammonium  sulphate  in  agricultural  value. 

Gas -liquor.  —  One  ton  of  coal  yields  ten  gallons  of 
ammoniacal  liquor,  containing  3]  to  6  ozs.  of  ammonia  per 
gallon.  Gas-liquor  is  an  impure  solution  of  ammonium  carbonate 
and  acetate. 


I 


CHEMISTRY  OF   MANURES.  89 

Dried  Blood  contains  10  to  13  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  in  an 
active  state,  and  consequently  ready  almost  immediately  to  be 
made  use  of  by  the  crop.  The  ash  contains  about  60  per  cent, 
of  common  salt,  21  percent,  of  sodium,  calcium,  and  magnesium 
phosphates,  6  per  cent,  potassium  chloride,  and  8  per  cent, 
of  iron  compounds. 

Fresh  Clotted  Blood  consists  of  blood  with  most  of  the 
serum  expelled  by  gravitation ;  the  remains  are  then  broken  up 
finely.     It  contains  5  to  7  per  cent,  ammonia. 

Acid  Clotted  Blood  consists  of  blood  which  has  been  clotted 
by  some  acid,  such  as  sulphuric.  It  contains  5  to  7  per  cent, 
ammonia,  and  is  easily  ground  to  a  powder. 

Soot  owes  its  manurial  value  chiefly  to  small  amounts  of 
ammonia  (from  traces  up  to  5  per  cent.)  which  it  contains.  It 
also  has  a  considerable  amount  of  mineral  matter,  from  10  to  40 
per  cent.,  the  chief  body  being  carbonate  of  lime. 

2.  Phosphatic  Manures  are  a  very  important  series.  Phos- 
phorus is  one  of  the  necessary  constituents  of  protoplasm  in 
plants.     The  following  are  the  chief  members  of  this  group  : — 

Superphosphate  of  Lime. — This  very  important  manure  is 
made  by  treating  some  phosphatic  material  with  sulphuric  acid, 
which  to  a  certain  extent  dissolves  it,  forming  a  more  soluble 
compound.  By  a  superphosphate  is  now  generally  meant  a 
manure  made  from  mineral  phosphates,  and  not  from  bones. 
The  raw  phosphate  is  first  ground  down  to  a  fine  powder 
between  millstones.  It  is  next  placed  in  a  strong  vessel  called 
a  "  mixer,"  and  then  sulphuric  acid  is  run  in  to  the  extent  of 
rather  more  than  half  the  former  quantity  of  ground  phosphate. 
The  acid  (sp.  gr.  1*5)  is  run  in  from  a  tank  above,  through 
a  kind  of  hopper.  The  acid  and  phosphate  are  intimately  mixed 
by  means  of  a  revolving  spindle,  provided  with  numerous  blades 
set  at  right  angles.     The  following  reaction  takes  place  : — 

CagPsOg  +   2H2SO     =  CaH4P208  +  2  CaS04. 

Insoluble  j       (     i  u     •    1        I    soluble     )        (      1  • 
tricalcic     +     s^lP^^""^     =    monocalcic    +  )  ^^^"^^"^ 


incaicic  >  -r  \       ^  -J       >  =  <monocaicic>  -*-  <     ,  1    . 
phosphate)       I      ^^^d       )       I  phosphate  (h'^lP^^t^- 

In  a  short  time  the  bottom  of  the  mixer  is  opened  by  a  lever, 
and  the  contents,  usually  from  10  to  20  cwts.,  fall  on  the  floor 
of  a  close  chamber,  called  a  "den."  The  superphosphate  is 
allowed  to  dry  for  a  day  or  two,  then  put  through  a  disintegrator, 
stored  for  some  time,  and  is  then  ready  for  use. 

Sufficient  sulphuric  acid  to  convert  all  the  insoluble  phosphate 
into  the  soluble  form  is  never  added,  as  the  resulting  super- 
phosphate would  be  too  moist  and  would  be  very  bad  to 
distribute. 


90  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

The  different  forms  of  mineral  tricalcic  phosphate  are  divided 
into  apatite  or  crystallized,  and  phosphorite  or  non-crystallized. 
Apatite  is  of  two  kinds — green  from  Canada,  red  from  Norway. 
Canadian  apatite  contains  70  to  90  per  cent,  of  tricalcic 
phosphate,  combined  with  calcium  fluoride  or  calcium  chloride. 
Norwegian  apatite  is  the  better  of  the  two,  so  far  as  solubility 
goes.  It  contains  about  78  per  cent,  of  tricalcic  phosphate, 
combined  with  calcium  chloride.  Of  phosphorites  there  are 
Charleston  river  (Carolina),  containing  55  to  63  per  cent. 
tricalcic  phosphate,  and  black  in  colour;  Spanish  (Estremadura) 
and  Portuguese,  containing  75  to  85  per  cent.  CaaPgOs,  of  light 
colour;  Belgian;  German  (Nassau  and  Lahn),  containing 
CagPaOg,  varying  in  percentage  from  30  to  89  per  cent.  ;  French, 
Boulogne  phosphates,  containing  44*5  percent.  CagPgOs;  Bordeaux 
phosphates,  with  60  to  77*5  per  cent.  CagPgOs ;  Welsh,  found  in 
the  Silurian  rocks,  and  of  very  variable  quality;  West  Indian 
(Curagoa,  73  percent. ;  Aruba,  67  to  72  per  cent.  ;  Navassa,  62  to 
70  per  cent.  ;  Sombrero,  70  to  75  per  cent. ;  Pedro-keys,  64  per 
cent. ;  St.  Martin,  68  to  80  per  cent.  ;  Redonda).  In  Cambridge, 
Suffolk,  Bedford,  and  Buckinghani  there  are  found  uncrystallized 
phosphates  known  as  CoproHtes.  They  are  brown  or  greyish 
nodules,  said  to  be  the  fossil  dung  of  extinct  animals.  Cambridge 
coprolites,  found  in  the  Upper  Greensand,  are  of  grey  colour, 
and  contain  58  per  cent.  CagPsOg ;  Surrey  coprolites  are  brown 
in  colour,  and  have  45  to  55  per  cent.  CaaPgOg;  Bedford  and 
Bucks  coprolites  are  similar  to  those  of  Surrey. 

Analysis  of  a  Superphosphate. 

Moisture             ..          ..  ..  ..  ..  17*10 

Water  of  combination  . .  ..  ..  ..           9*63 

Monocalcic  phosphate  ..  ..  ..  iS'oi 

(Equal  to  tricalcic  phosphate  made  soluble  28*10) 

Insoluble  phosphate     ..  ..  ..  ..           2'83 

Sulphate  of  lime           ..  ..  ..  ..  47 'oi 

Insoluble  matters         ..  ..  ..  ..           5*42 

In  an  account  of  an  analysis,  instead  of  the  amount  of 
monocalcic  phosphate  in  the  manure,  there  is  often  put  the 
amount  of  tricalcic  phosphate  which  has  been  rendered  soluble, 
under  the  tide  of  "  phosphate  made  soluble,"  or  even  of  "  soluble 
phosphate." 

When  the  conversion  into  monocalcic  phosphate  is  incom- 
plete, a  reaction  may  take  place  between  the  monocalcic  and 
tricalcic  phosphates,  in  which  dicalcic  phosphate  is  formed. 

CaaPaOs  +  CaH^PgOa  =  2Ca.,H2P,Os. 


CHEMISTRY  OF  MANURES.  9 1 

The  tendency  to  form  "  reduced "  or  dicalcic  phosphate  is 
the  greater  the  more  iron  or  alumina  the  original  phosphate 
contained.  Some  chemists  believe  that  insoluble  basic  phosphates 
of  iron  and  alumina  are  formed.  At  any  rate,  the  reduced  or 
retrograde  phosphate  is  not  so  soluble  as  the  monocalcic  form, 
and  hence  is  of  lower  value.  It  is,  however,  more  soluble  than 
tricalcic  phosphate,  although  it  is  often  valued  at  the  same 
price. 

Dissolved  Bones. — This  manure  is  manufactured  in  a  similar 
manner  to  superphosphate,  but  bones  are  used  instead  of  mineral 
phosphates. 

Analysis  of  a  Sample  of  Dissolved  Bones. 

Moisture            ..          ..          ..          ..          ..  17 '3  7 

Organic  matter  and  water  of  combination  *  1 2-59 

Monocalcic  phosphate ^            ..          ..          ..  I9'20 

Insoluble  tricalcic  phosphate  . .          ..          ..  io"93 

Calcium  sulphate,    magnesia,    and    alkaline 

salts            37 '62 

Insoluble  silicious  matter        ..          ..          ..  229 

lOO'OO 

Owing  to  the  organic  matter  in  bones  (amounting  to  nearly 
40  per  cent.),  it  is  often  difficult  to  dissolve  them  sufficiently. 
When  boiled,  much  of  this  organic  matter  separates  out  as 
gelatine.  The  bones  dissolve  more  easily,  but  there  is  a  loss 
of  nitrogen.  The  tricalcic  phosphate  of  bones,  owing  to  its 
greater  solubility  in  the  soil,  has  a  money  value,  whereas  that 
of  mineral  superphosphates  has  practically  none. 

Bone-ash  Superphosphate. — The  ashes,  imported  in  large 
quantities  from  South  America,  are  obtained  chiefly  by  burning 
the  bones  of  cattle.  The  superphosphates  contain  little  or  no 
nitrogen,  and  25  or  26  per  cent,  monocalcic  phosphate. 

Bone  Black  is  a  valuable  manure  obtained  from  sugar 
refineries.  It  consists  of  animal  charcoal,  which  has  been  used 
for  decolourizing  sugar.  It  contains  from  72  to  87  per  cent, 
of  calcium  phosphate,  mostly  in  the  tricalcic  form.  It  may  be 
used  as  it  comes  from  the  refineries,  or  after  being  dissolved  in 
sulphuric  acid. 

Dissolved  Phosphatic  Guano. — Genuine  guano,  dissolved  in 
sulphuric  acid,  may  contain  40  to  45  per  cent,  of  soluble 
phosphate  (Warington).  Many  of  the  "  dissolved  guanos " 
consist  of  guano,  treated  with  oil  of  vitriol,  to  which  has  been 

'   Containing  nitrogen,  o*86  (equal  to  ammonia,  i  '04). 
'  Equal  to  phosphate  made  soluble,  30'07. 


92  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

added  some  dried  blood,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  or  other  body 
containing  ammonia;  they  are  then  said  to  be  fortified.  The 
compound  thus  formed  may  contain  20  to  23  per  cent,  soluble 
phosphate,  3  or  4  per  cent,  insoluble  phosphate,  and  8  per  cent, 
ammonia.  Dissolved  guano  is  a  quick-acting  manure,  of  great 
use  on  strong  lands. 

Raw  Bones. — These  are  often  used  without  being  chemically 
treated.  They  contain  49  per  cent,  of  tricalcic  phosphate,  and 
4  or  5  per  cent  of  ammonia.  Bones  are  ground  down  to  various 
degrees  of  fineness,  such  as  half-  and  quarter-inch  bones,  etc. 

Half-inch  Bones  have  been  much  used  for  pastures.  On  such 
soils,  there  is  often  a  want  of  phosphates,  owing  to  the  demand 
by  young  cattle  for  bone  formation,  and  by  cows  for  their 
milk.  This  want  the  half-inch  bones  gradually  supply,  but  their 
action  is  very  slow.  They  are  apt  to  be  carried  away  by  such 
birds  as  crows  and  rooks. 

Quarter-inch  Bones  are  more  rapid  in  their  action  than  the 
last,  but  still  are  very  slow  when  compared  with  such  manures 
as  nitrate  of  soda  or  superphosphate. 

Bone  Dust  consists  of  bones  ground  to  a  rough  powder.  It 
becomes  more  readily  available  than  the  two  preceding  manures. 

Bone  Meal  is  in  a  finely  divided  state,  and  is  often  adulterated 
with  sulphate  of  lime,  etc.  When  of  good  quality  it  contains 
49  per  cent,  tricalcic  phosphate,  3  or  4  per  cent,  ammonia,  9  or 
10  per  cent,  carbonate  of  lime,  and  2  to  5  per  cent,  alkaline 
salts. 

Bone  Flour  is  the  most  finely  divided,  and  consequently  acts 
most  quickly.  It  has  nearly  the  same  composition  as  bone  meal. 
Apply  at  the  rate  of  9  to  15  cwts.  per  acre. 

Fermented  Bones  are  prepared  by  mixing  them  with  a  quarter 
of  their  weight  of  clay,  and  then  saturating  with  liquid  manure. 
Cover  over  the  heap  with  clay  to  protect  it  from  the  rain,  and 
allow  it  to  stand  for  a  week  or  two.  The  organic  part  of  the 
bones  begins  to  decompose,  and  the  whole  mass  gradually 
crumbles.  The  resulting  manure  is  very  soluble,  and  gives  good 
results  on  turnips  and  grass  land. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  value  of  bones  depends  greatly  upon 
the  degree  of  fineness  of  their  particles ;  the  finer  they  are,  the 
more  readily  will  they  dissolve.  The  fatty  matter  in  bones 
interferes  greatly  with  their  solubility,  and  hence  it  is  thought 
best  to  have  as  much  of  it  as  possible  extracted  before  using. 
This  is  done  by  boiling  or  steaming,  by  which  means  not  only 
the  fat,  but  a  considerable  portion  of  the  gelatine,  etc.,  is  also 
extracted.  The  operation  causes  a  loss  of  i  or  2  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen  to  the  bones. 


CHEMISTRY   OF   MANURES.  93 

Basic  Slag  is  a  valuable  phosphatic  manure,  known  also  as 
Basic  Cinder  and  Thomas's  Phosphate  Powder.  It  contains 
14  to  20  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid  (equal  to  32  or  42  per 
cent  of  tricalcic  phosphate)  ;  about  50  per  cent  Hme;  oxides  of 
iron,  etc.,  22  per  cent ;  silica  and  magnesia,  10  per  cent  The 
phosphoric  acid  exists  chiefly  as  a  tetrabasic  phosphate  of  lime 
([CaO]4P205).  This  is  not  a  very  stable  compound,  and  hence 
it  readily  dissolves  in  the  soil. 

Precipitated  Phosphate  is  similar  to  reduced  phosphate,  but 
here  lime  has  been  added  artificially  to  monocalcic  phosphate,  and 
the  manure  consists  of  mono-,  di-,  and  tri-calcic  phosphates.  The 
tricalcic  phosphate  in  this  state  is  in  a  fairly  soluble  condition, 
and  the  manure  is  very  useful  on  light  sandy  soils. 

3.  Potash  Manures. — Potash  is  not  so  much  used  as  a 
manure  as  nitrates  and  superphosphates.  It  is  generally  con- 
tained in  sufficient  amounts  in  the  soil,  but  still  is  of  great  use 
when  applied  to  such  crops  as  potatoes  and  nearly  all  leguminous 
crops. 

Kainit  is  obtained  chiefly  from  the  mines  at  Stassfurt  and 
Leopoldshall  in  Germany.  It  contains  about  24*5  per  cent 
sulphate  of  potash,  13  per  cent  magnesium  sulphate,  14  per 
cent,  magnesium  chloride,  and  30  per  cent  common  salt 

Sulphate  of  Potash  is  obtained  from  Germany.  It  occurs 
crystallized  in  four-sided  prisms  and  double  six-sided  pyramids. 
Kainit  is  a  common  source.  It  contains  54  per  cent  of  potash 
when  pure. 

Polyhalite  is  a  double  sulphate  of  potash  and  magnesia,  con- 
taining about  49  per  cent  of  the  former,  and  39  per  cent  of  the 
latter.     It  occurs  in  a  deposit  at  Stassfurt. 

Muriate  or  Chloride  of  Potash  is  obtained  as  a  by-product  in 
the  manufacture  of  chlorate  of  potash,  and  also  from  carnallite. 
It  crystallizes  in  cubes,  and  decrepitates  when  heated.  The 
commercial  form  is  usually  about  80  per  cent  pure. 

Carnallite. — This  is  a  double  chloride  of  potash  and  magnesia 
(KCl,MgCl2  4-  6H0O),  containing  39  per  cent  moisture,  27  per 
cent,  potassic  chloride,  and  34  per  cent  magnesic  chloride. 
In  its  ordinary  form  it  may  have  i  or  2  per  cent  of  sulphates, 
and  a  little  lime  and  soda.  It  is  generally  purified  by  crystalliza- 
tion until  it  contains  80  per  cent  potassic  chloride. 

Grugite  is  another  potash  salt,  containing  about  1 1  per  cent 
of  potash  in  the  form  of  a  sulphate. 

Carbonate  of  Potash  is  occasionally  used  as  a  manure.  It 
is  found  largely  in  wood-ashes. 

Wood-ashes. — These  contain  from  5  to  15  per  cent  of 
potash ;  the  ashes  from  the  leaves  and  young  twigs  containing 


94  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

more  than  those  from  the  other  stems  and  branches.  Beech- 
ashes  also  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of  phosphates. 
Wood-ashes  may  be  used  as  they  are,  or  the  carbonate  and 
oxide  of  potassium  may  be  changed  into  the  more  valuable 
nitrate.  For  this  purpose,  wood-ashes  are  mixed  in  a  compost 
with  organic  matter  and  lime.  During  the  decomposition,  nitric 
acid  is  formed  from  the  organic  matter.  This  combines  with  the 
lime,  forming  nitrates  of  lime,  and  this  in  turn  is  decomposed 
by  the  carbonate  of  potassium,  forming  the  nitrate.  The  whole 
mixture  also  forms  an  excellent  manure. 

Salts  recovered  from  Sheep-washing. — Wool  often  contains 
much  of  a  substance  called  "  suint ; "  indeed,  with  merino  sheep,  it 
may  amount  to  one-third  the  weight  of  the  fleece.  Suint  con- 
tains 50  per  cent,  organic  matter,  44*5  per  cent,  carbonate  of 
potash,  2*5  per  cent,  sulphate  of  potash,  3  per  cent,  chloride  of 
potash.  In  France  the  potash  salts  are  extracted  from  the  wool, 
and  used  as  manure. 

4.  Miscellaneous  Manures. — (a)  Lime  compounds ;  (d)  salts 
of  soda,  magnesia,  and  iron  ;  (c)  silica. 

(a)  Lime  Compounds. — The  forms  of  lime  usually  applied 
to  land  are  quicklime,  slaked  lime,  gas-lime,  sulphate  of  lime, 
chalk,  marl,  shell  sand,  corals. 

Lime  is,  next  to  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash,  the 
most  important  plant-food.  It  is  contained  in  considerable  pro- 
portions in  the  ashes  of  all  plants.  The  ash  of  wheat  grain 
contains  10 J  per  cent,  lime,  of  beans  7  per  cent.,  of  meadow 
hay  18  per  cent,  of  mangels  13^  per  cent.,  of  cabbages  15^  per 
cent.,  of  turnip  roots  13  per  cent,  of  turnip  leaves  35^^  per  cent, 
of  potato  tubers  3  per  cent,  of  potato  haulms  17  per  cent,  of 
stem  of  vine  44  per  cent,  cherry  stem  22  per  cent,  olive  stem 
14^  per  cent 

By  Hme,  as  the  term  is  ordinarily  used,  is  meant  burnt  or 
caustic  lime.  It  is  obtained,  as  has  already  been  stated,  by 
burning  limestone. 

Mountain  and  magnesian  limestones  are  the  principal  forms 
used.  An  ordinary  limestone  contains  about  94  per  cent 
carbonate  of  lime,  2  per  cent  carbonate  of  magnesia,  1*5  per 
cent  alumina  and  ferric  oxide,  2  per  cent  calcic  sulphate  and 
phosphate,  0*5  per  cent,  silica.  After  burning,  the  quicklime 
contains  90  per  cent  of  calcic  oxide.  One  ton  of  hmestone 
yields  ii^  cwt  quicklime,  weighing  75  to  112  lbs.  per  bushel. 

The  effect  of  lime  has  been  fully  dealt  with  under  ''  Liming,'* 
and  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  touch  on  anything  but  the  special 
lime  manures,  "  gas-lime,"  etc. 

Gas-lime. — In  the  manufacture  of  coal  gas,  quicklime  is  used 


CHEMISTRY   OF   MANURES.  95 

to  absorb  various  gaseous  impurities,  being  afterwards  sold  as 
gas-lime.  This  consists  chiefly  of  slaked  lime,  and  carbonate  of 
lime,  with  calcium  sulphate  and  sulphite.  The  following  analysis 
gives  the  composition  of  an  average  sample,  but  it  must  be 
remembered  that  they  vary  greatly  :  water,  30*1 ;  slaked  lime,  31*0 ; 
calcium  carbonate,  17*4;  calcium  sulphate  and  sulphite,  20*0; 
ammonia,  'oi  ;  iron  oxide  and  alumina,  1*5  per  cent.  ;  calcium 
thiocyanate,  traces.  In  its  fresh  state,  the  sulphites,  and  the 
traces  of  sulphide  and  thiocyanate  cause  it  to  have  an  injurious 
effect.  It  should  be  exposed  to  the  air  for  some  time  in  order 
that  the  poisonous  bodies  may  be  oxidized,  and  hence  it  should 
be  applied  in  autumn. 

Sulphate  of  Lime  (CaS04  +  2H.jO).— The  common  name 
is  Gypsum.  It  is  most  suited  for  such  crops  as  turnips,  clover, 
grasses,  potatoes,  and  mustard,  which  contain  a  considerable 
percentage  of  sulphur  in  their  ashes.  Leguminous  crops  are 
generally  benefited  by  its  application. 

Gypsum  costs  about  lod.  per  cwt,  and  is  applied  at  the  rate 
of  2  to  10  cwts.  per  acre.  Superphosphates  contain  considerable 
amounts  of  calcium  sulphate,  5  cwts.  of  superphosphate  contain- 
ing 2  cwts.  of  gypsum.  Hence,  when  that  manure  is  given  to 
the  land,  no  sulphate  of  lime  is  needed.  It  has  the  power  of 
absorbing  and  fixing  ammonia  in  the  soil  and  in  manure-heaps, 
forming  probably  ammonium  sulphate  and  calcium  carbonate. 
Gypsum  is  said  to  partially  decompose  the  rock  materials, 
liberating  potash  and  other  valuable  ingredients.  This  is  probably 
owing  to  the  sulphuric  acid  which  it  contains.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  said  that  gypsum  promotes  the  formation  of  woody 
fibre,  adding  to  the  luxuriance  of  the  vegetation ;  that  it  prolongs 
the  period  of  growth  of  the  plant,  delaying  the  time  of  its 
maturity. 

Marls  consist  of  a  mixture  of  clay  and  lime.  They  also 
contain  small  amounts  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  The 
percentage  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  them  varies  considerably,  some 
of  the  chalk-marls  containing  70  per  cent.  They  sometimes 
contain  4  per  cent,  of  phosphates.  When  the  cost  for  carriage 
is  not  too  great,  they  form  a  good  manure.  Marls  may  be  used 
in  making  composts,  or  ploughing  into  arable  land.  They  im- 
prove peaty  soils  greatly.  As  they  are  intermediate  in  physical 
properties  between  clays  and  sands,  marls  are  useful  on  both. 

Shell  Sands  consist  of  broken  pieces  of  shells  mixed  with  a 
varying  amount  of  sea-sand.  They  contain  from  about  20  per 
cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  poor  varieties  to  50  per  cent,  in  good 
ones.     Shell  sands  are  useful  on  peaty  soils  and  hillside  pastures. 

Corals. — These  are  only  obtained  on  some  parts  of  the  coast. 


g6  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

and  have  a  very  limited  use.  They  may  be  used  as  a  powder,  or 
in  composts.  When  fresh,  they  contain  as  much  as  15  per  cent, 
of  organic  matter,  in  addition  to  carbonate  of  Hme,  and  a  little 
phosphate. 

Chalk  is  similar  to  the  forms  of  carbonate  of  lime  already 
treated.  It  contains  80  to  97  per  cent,  of  calcium  carbonate.  It 
may  be  dug  out  of  pits  and  spread  over  the  land,  while  still  wet, 
at  the  rate  of  30  to  80  cubic  yards  per  acre.  It  is  a  useful  manure 
for  sandy  soils. 

(d)  Salts  of  Soda. — Sodium  chloride,  sodium  sulphate,  sodium 
carbonate. 

Sodium  Chloride,  or  Common  Salt  (NaCl). — Usually  is  of 
little  value  for  its  direct  action.  Sodium,  although  closely  aUied 
to  potassium,  cannot  take  its  place  as  a  plant-food,  and  hence 
is  of  little  use  as  a  manure.  Chlorine,  though  said  to  be  essential 
to  buckwheat,  does  not  benefit  ordinary  plants  greatly.  Common 
salt,  however,  is  a  direct  plant-food  in  small  proportions,  and  is 
very  useful  for  mangels  and  cabbages,  originally  sea-side  plants. 
When  applied  with  nitrate  of  soda,  salt  reduces  the  tendency  to 
over  luxuriance  of  leafage.  This  checking  action  is  probably  due 
to  the  chlorine  of  the  salt.  Sodium  chloride  is  said  to  increase 
the  weight  per  bushel  of  grain.  On  pastures  it  is  of  use  in  destroy- 
ing coarse  herbage.  Common  salt,  when  applied  with  farmyard 
manure  and  guano,  renders  both  of  these  manures  more  efficacious 
by  acting  on  the  insoluble  nitrogenous  matter,  and  forming 
ammonium  chloride.  Salt  is  very  useful  in  neutralizing  sour 
organic  bodies  in  the  soil.  Ammonia  is  set  free  ;  this  unites  with 
chlorine,  while  the  sodium  forms  a  carbonate.  Sodium  chloride 
destroys  the  seeds  of  many  weeds,  and  it  is  also  well  known  that 
on  salt  marshes  certain  diseases  do  not  appear.  The  salt  either 
destroys  the  bacteria  causing  the  disease,  or  the  medium  through 
which  the  disease  passes.  Salt  improves  the  power  of  certain 
soils  for  absorbing  moisture  from  the  atmosphere. 

Sodium  Sulphate  is  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the  manu- 
facture of  nitric  acid  from  nitrate  of  soda. 


2NaN03    +  H2SO4       =  Na2S04    +  2HNO3. 

Nitrate  oH    ,    rsulphuricl  _  (  sodium  )    ,    Tnitric 
soda    /  "^  \     acid     /       \sulphate/  "^  \acid. 

Glauber's  salts  is  the  common  name  for  the  crystallized  sodium 
sulphate.     The  ordinary  form  is  94  to  98  per  cent.  pure. 

Salts  of  Iron. — The  only  one  used  as  a  manure  is  the  sulphate. 

Sulphate  of  Iron  (FeS04 -f- 7H,0).  Iron  is  one  of  the 
ingredients  necessary  to  the  plant,  though  only  required  in  very 
small  quantities.     It  is  contained  in  the  chlorophyll  granules,  and 


CHEMISTRY   OF   MANURES.  97 

gives  the  green  colour  to  leaves.  Iron  sulphate  is  said  to  increase 
the  albuminoids  and  carbohydrates  in  the  plant,  thus  causing  it 
to  have  a  higher  feeding  value. 

Salts  of  Magnesia. — It  is  very  seldom  that  these  are  used  as 
manure,  except  in  experiments.  They  are  taken  up  in  small 
amounts  by  the  plant,  and  the  soil  generally  contains  a  sufficient 
supply.     M.  Ville  states  that  magnesia  is  essential  to  plant  life. 

Sulphate  of  Magnesia  is  commonly  known  as  "  Epsom  salts," 
It  is  never  used  by  itself,  in  practice,  although  in  mixtures  it  is 
said  to  benefit  corn  and  clover  crops.  It  has  also  been  recom- 
mended in  a  top-dressing  for  potatoes. 

Phosphate  of  Magnesia  has  been  stated  to  act  beneficially 
to  potatoes.  It  will,  however,  scarcely  pay  its  cost  of  applica- 
tion. 

(c)  Silica  is  contained  in  fairly  large  quantities  in  the  ash  of 
most  plants.  The  ash  of  wheat  straw  contains  66  per  cent,  silica ; 
the  ash  of  barley  straw,  51  per  cent.  Although  such  large  amounts 
are  thus  taken  up,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  it  is  essential  to 
plant  life.  The  silica  is  absorbed  by  the  plant  as  siHcates  of 
potash,  etc.  The  potash  is  made  use  of,  and  then  the  silica 
is  excreted  in  the  straw.  The  manures  called  "Soluble 
Silica  "  are  generally  of  no  good  whatever.  M.  Ville  says  that 
the  absence  of  soluble  silicates  from  the  soil,  however,  prevents 
the  proper  growth  of  plants.  Professor  Wrightson  asserts  that 
silica  is  worthless,  and  sometimes  even  injurious  to  the  plant. 
It  coats  itself  round  the  cells,  clogging  the  m  up,  and  preventing 
their  proper  action. 

Directions  for  the  Use  of  Manures.— Whenever  a  farmer  buys 
any  artificial  manure  he  should  always  get  a  written  guaranteed 
analysis.  From  this  analysis  he  will  be  able  to  calculate  the 
value  of  the  manure.  This  is  done  by  multiplying  the  percentage 
of  each  constituent  by  its  unit  value.  Thus,  say  he  bought  some 
dissolved  bones,  he  could,  by  the  following  method,  find  its  value. 

Unit  Value. 
Per  Cent.         s.    d.        £    s.    d. 
Ammonia  (contained  in  the  organic  matter)        . .       i  -q  @    10  3    =    o  10  3 

Phosphate  niade  soluble 30*0  @     28    =    400 

Insoluble  phosphates  ..  10*9  @     26    =    1     55 

Alkaline  salts,  etc 37  -6  @     o  4   =    o  12  4 

£6    80 

The  unit  is  really  the  price  of  -^  ton  of  the  substance.  It 
varies  according  to  the  solubility  of  the  ingredient,  and  therefore 
according  to  the  material  the  constituent  is  derived  from.  Thus, 
the  phosphates  in  basic  slag  are  worth  9^.  per  unit ;  in  guanos 
they  are  valued  at  2s.  2d. 

u 


98  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Mixing  Manures. — In  performing  this  operation,  great  care 
should  be  exercised  that  no  chemical  action  takes  place  which 
may  cause  the  value  of  the  manure  to  deteriorate.  Thus,  when 
alkaline  ashes  or  quicklime  are  mixed  with  a  body  containing 
ammonia,  a  loss  of  the  latter  substance  through  evolution  occurs ; 
thus — 

(NH4)2S04  +  CaO      =  2NH3    +  CaS04  +H2O. 

Ammoniumi    ,    fquick-l  .      ,    fsulphatel    ,         , 

sulphate  I  +  (lime  /  =  ^"^"^^^^^  +  (of lime  |  +  '^^^^'' 

This  is  the  reason  why  basic  slag  and  sulphate  of  ammonia 
should  never  be  mixed.  When  nitrate  of  soda  is  added  to 
superphosphate,  the  sulphuric  acid  of  the  latter  unites  with  the 
soda  to  form  sulphate  of  soda  on  standing.  The  nitric  acid  is  set 
free  as  nitrous  fumes  (N2O3),  and  a  great  loss  of  nitrogen  occurs. 
The  two  manures  should  either  be  mixed  directly  before  sowing, 
or  be  applied  separately.  When  superphosphate  is  mixed  with 
bones  or  basic  cinder,  some  of  the  soluble  monocalcic  phosphate 
of  the  former  takes  up  more  calcium  and  becomes  reverted  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent. 


Classification  of  Manures  according  to  their  Composi- 
tion AND  Action. 

I .  Nitrogenous  Manures. 

(a).  Substances  containing  nitric  acid  (very  quick  acting). 

Nitrate  of  potash  (saltpetre). 

Nitrate  of  soda  (Chili  saltpetre). 
(3).  Substances  containing  ammonia  (quick  acting) 

Sulphate  and  chloride  of  ammonia. 

Gas-liquor. 

Peruvian  guano. 

Putrid  animal  substances  :  blood,  flesh,  wool. 

Putrid  urine  and  liquid  manure. 

Short  dung. 

Poudrette  and  nightsoil. 

Soot. 
[c).  Nitrogenous  matters  which  easily  putrefy  (tolerably  quick  acting). 

Dissolved  and  finely  ground  bones. 

Fresh  urine  and  liquid  manure. 

Malt  dust. 

Refuse  cakes  of  all  kinds. 

Long  dung. 
{d).  Nitrogenous  manures  which  decompose  with  difficulty  (slow  acting). 

Half-inch  and  quarter-inch  bones. 

Horn-shavings ;  glue  ;  refuse  hair. 

Woollen  rags ;  shoddy  j  leather  waste,  etc. 


CHEMISTRY  OF   THE   PLANT.  99 

2.  Phosphatic  Manures^ 

Dissolved  bones  and  dissolved  guano. 

Fermented  bones. 

Superphosphate. 

Bone  meal,  dust  and  flour;  bone  black. 

Guano. 

Farmyard  manure  ;  human  egesta  ;  organic  refuse. 

Basic  slag. 

Ground  phosphatic  minerals. 

Raw  bones. 

3.  Potassic  Manures^ 

Potassic  nitrate,  sulphate,  chloride. 
Kainit  j  polyhalite  ;  camallite  ;  grugite. 
Wood  ashes  ;  green  manures. 
Farmyard  manure  ;  urine ;  composts. 

4.   Calcareous  Manures. 

Burnt  lime ;  chalk  ;  marls  ;  shell  sand ;  corals. 
Gypsum  ;  gas-lime. 

5.  Sodic  Manures, 
Sodium  chloride  and  sulphate. 

6.  Ferric  Manures. 
Iron  sulphate. 

7.  Magnesic  Manures. 
Sulphate  and  phosphate  of  magnesia. 


C. — Che?nisiry  of  the  Platit. 
Chemical  Composition. 

When  a  plant  is  subjected  to  heat,  (i)  the  water  is  driven  off; 
(2)  the  organic  matter  becomes  oxidized  or  burned,  and  is  driven 
off  in  a  gaseous  state ;  (3)  nothing  but  a  small  amount  of  inorganic 
matter  remains. 

The  amount  of  water  varies  very  much  according  to  the  kind 
of  plant  and  its  age.  Turnips  contain  91  per  cent,  water ;  meadow 
grass,  72  per  cent. ;  and  even  timber,  felled  at  the  driest  part  of 
the  year,  has  40  per  cent 

Water  exists  in  all  parts  of  the  plant,  and  is  absolutely  essential 
to  life.  It  is  present  in  two  different  conditions:  (i)  as  free 
water  of  vegetation,  which  is  expelled  by  ordinary  drying,  as  in 
making  hay ;  and  (2)  water  of  combination,  which  is  only  got  rid 
of  by  exposing  air-dry  plants  for  several  hours,  at  a  temperature 
of  212°  F.,  in  a  warm  water-bath. 


ICK)  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

The  organic  matter^  or  combustible  part  of  the  plant,  consists 
chiefly  of  carbon,  combined  with  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  and  in 
some  cases  nitrogen  and  sulphur,  with  traces  of  phosphorus. 

Carbon,  about  50  per  cent. 
Oxygen,      „     40    „      „ 

Drv  omanic  matter  }  Hydrogen  „       5    „      „ 

Uiy  organic  matter  ^^  j^jt^ogen,  from  ^  to  4  per  cent. 

Sulphur,      ,,      I  to  4    ,,      „ 
.Phosphorus,  traces. 

The  Organic  Constituents  of  Plants. 

The  organic  substances  found  in  plants  are  almost  innumer- 
able. Nearly  every  plant  possesses  some  organic  body  peculiar 
to  itself,  in  addition  to  the  usual  constituents  of  all  vegetation. 

The  organic  bodies  may  be  divided  into  the  following 
groups : — 

Amyloids    ("Starch,  cellulose,  Hgnin, 
(CfiHioOa);/  \     inulin,  dextrin,  gum. 

I    Carbohydrates-!  F^^^  ^"^ar  (saccharose)  C^^ll^^O^,, 

I.  Caibohydrates<  U,^.^.^  (laevulose)  C«H„0„. 


Sugars 


(Igevulose)  CgH, 
I  Grape  „     (glucose)  C^Vl^^O^. 


[Milk    „     (lactose)  CiaHjgOn.HaO.] 
/  (Palmatin,  C3H5(OCi8H3iO)3 

(  Fats  \  Stearin,  C3H5(OC,8H350)3. 

2.  '  (Olein,  C3H5(OCi8H330)3. 

/  Oils,  such  as  olive,  colza,  linseed, 
V     mustard. 

3.  Pectose  Group — Pectose,  pectin,  pectic  acid. 

i Oxalic,  C2H2O4  +  2HjO. 
Malfcfc.S'.of" 
Citric,  CflHgO,. 

Vegetable.     ^  Animal. 

({a)  Vegetable  albumin  =  Albumin  of  &gg, 

{b)  Vegetable  casein  of  flour  A  _  ^      .      -.     .,, 
legumin  of  bean  /  "  ^^""  °*  "^^^*'- 

{c)  Vegetable  fibrin  of  flour        =  Fibrin  of  meat. 

6.  Amides. — Difiusible      nitrogenous      bodies,      such      as      asparagin, 
C2n,(NH2)(CO,NH2)(C02H). 

7.  Extractives,  such  as  chlorophyll,  tannin,  and  the  alkaloids. 

I.  Carbohydrates. 

(A)  Cellulose  Group,  consisting  of   bodies  of   the  formula 
(CeH.oOs)^. 

Starch  is  the  first  visible  substance  manufactured  by  the  leaves 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE*  PLANT.  ,  ; ;  '       TCXL  , 

during  the  process  of  assimilation.  It  is  found  more  or  less  in 
all  plants ;  in  the  seeds  of  wheat,  Indian  corn,  and  other  grain, 
the  tuber  of  the  potato,  wood  of  forest  trees,  pith  of  the  sago-palm, 
and  root  of  the  manihot. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  constituents  of  vegetable  food, 
many  plants  being  grown  for  the  sake  of  the  starch  alone. 

Under  the  microscope  starch  is  seen  to  be  made  up  of  numbers 
of  small  white  glistening  granules  consisting  of  concentrically 
arranged  layers. 

Starch  is  the  usual  insoluble  form  in  which  plants  store  up 
their  carbonaceous  matter  to  be  used  for  purposes  of  future 
growth.  When  required,  it  is  readily  converted  into  soluble 
sugar  by  the  aid  of  a  ferment. 

Tests /or  StdrcJu- — A  drop  of  solution  of  iodine  turns  starch  a 
beautiful  dark  blue.     Bromine  colours  it  bright  yellow. 

Cellulose  (C12H20O10)  has  the  same  chemical  composition  as 
starch.  Cell  walls  chiefly  consist  of  this  substance,  at  least  in  their 
earlier  stages.     It  is  a  white  amorphous  powder. 

We  have  said  before  that  every  plant  is  made  up  of  a  number 
of  microscopic  cells,  the  partitions  between  them  being  called  cell 
ivalls.  These  cell  walls  are  formed  through  the  agency  of  living 
protoplasm  within  the  cell.  At  first  thin,  they  become  thickened 
by  successive  layers  of  cellulose. 

It  is  very  insoluble  in  either  acids  or  alkalis,  but  boiling  for 
some  hours  with  sulphuric  acid  converts  it  into  sugar.  The  test 
for  cellulose  is  to  add  strong  sulphuric  acid,  and,  after  a  time,  a 
drop  of  iodine,  when  a  blue  colouration  will  result.  After  the  proto- 
plasm has  disappeared  from  the  cell,  the  cell-wall  in  many  cases 
becomes  converted  into  lignin,  or  woody  fibre. 

Lignin  turns  yellow  with  iodine,  and  brown  when  treated  with 
iodine  and  sulphuric  acid. 

Inulin  replaces  starch  in  the  roots  of  many  Compositae,  such 
as  the  artichoke,  dahlia,  chicory,  and  dandelion. 

Dextrin,  or  British  Gum,  found  in  small  amounts  in  the  sap 
of  many  plants,  is  a  transition  stage  between  starch  and  glucose 
(grape  sugar),  which  may  be  formed  from  starch  by  heating  it  to 
a  high  temperature. 

Dextrin  is  soluble  in  cold  water.  When  starch  is  digested  for 
some  time  with  a  weak  solution  of  sulphuric  acid,  it  is  converted 
first  into  dextrin  and  then  into  glucose.  The  action  of  the 
ferment  ptyalin  in  the  saliva  of  animals  produces  the  same 
chemical  changes. 

The  various  gums,  such  as  gum  arable  and  mucilage,  are 
degradation  products  formed  by  disintegration  of  the  cell-wall. 

(B)  Sugars.— Cane  Sugar,  or  Saccharose  (CioH220n),  is  found 


102  AI>VANeED  AGRICULTURE. 

in  the  juice  of  the  sugar-cane,  beet-root,  turnip,  carrot,  parsnip ; 
and  in  spring  time  can  be  obtained  from  the  ascending  sap  of 
many  trees,  such  as  the  sugar-maple.  It  is  readily  soluble  in 
water,  and  very  sweet 

When  acted  on  by  yeast  or  dilute  acid?,  it  is  converted  into 
equal  parts  of  Isevulose  and  glucose.  It  is  not  directly  ferment- 
able, but  under  the  action  of  yeast  in  a  warm  atmosphere  it  splits 
up  into  laevulose  and  dextrose,  which  then  ferment,  yielding 
alcohol  and  CO2. 

Grape  Sugar,  or  Glucose  (CgHisOe),  is  found  in  the  juice  of 
the  grape,  and  in  many  fruit  and  vegetable  juices,  combined  with 
laevulose.  It  is  also  formed  during  the  germination  of  most  seeds. 
It  is  soluble  in  water,  does  not  crystallize  so  readily  as  cane 
sugar,  nor  is  it  so  sweet.  It  can  be  formed  from  starch  by  the 
action  of  warm  dilute  acids.  The  starch  is  first  converted  into 
dextrin,  and  then  into  glucose. 

Fruit  Sugar,  or  Laevulose  (CeHjaOe),  is  found,  in  combination 
with  other  sugars,  in  honey  and  many  sweet  fruits.  It  is  incapable 
of  crystallizing,  and  exists  as  a  very  sweet  syrup. 

Milk  Sugar," or  Lactose  (Ci2H2.0n,  HgO),  should  be  mentioned 
while  dealing  with  sugars.  It  is  prepared  from  whey  by  evapora- 
tion and  crystallization.  It  is  sparingly  soluble  in  cold  water, 
and  does  not  readily  ferment  with  yeast.  Sour  milk  is  caused  by 
milk  sugar  splitting  up  into  lactic  acid  under  the  influence  of  the 
lactic  acid  ferment  The  great  lesson  to  be  learned  from  a  study 
of  the  chemistry  of  the  starches  and  sugars  is  the  simplicity  and 
ease  with  which  they  are  converted  from  one  form  into  another, 
the  change  consisting  generally  in  the  addition  or  subtraction  of 
one  molecule  of  water.  In  nature,  these  changes  are  brought 
about  chiefly  through  the  agency  of  ferments. 

2.  Fats  and  Oils. 

These  substances  contain  a  larger  proportion  of  carbon  and 
hydrogen  and  less  oxygen  than  the  carbohydrates,  and  are  there- 
fore capable  of  giving  out  a  greater  amount  of  energy  when  they 
are  oxidized,  consequently  they  are  more  valuable  as  food  sub- 
stances. They  are  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  plants,  but  chiefly 
in  seeds,  as,  for  example,  flax,  hemp,  cotton,  cabbage,  cocoa-nut, 
palm-nut,  etc.,  which  contain  large  quantities  of  oil,  whilst  most 
seeds  contain  some  amount,  even  oats  and  wheat  The  bloom 
seen  on  the  leaves  and  stems  of  many  plants,  the  Swedish  turnip 
for  example,  and  on  fruits,  as  the  grape,  consists  of  extremely 
small  particles  of  wax. 

All  the  various  fats  and  oils  consist  of  the  mixture  in  diff"erent 


CHEMISTRY  OF   THE   PLANT.  IO3 

proportions  of  a  few  elementary  fats,  the   chief  of  which  are 
palmatin,  stearin,  and  olein. 

Origin  of  Fats  and  Oils. — All  the  vegetable  oils  found  in 
seeds  or  elsewhere  are  the  production  of  living  protoplasm, 
starch  or  sugar  being  consumed  in  the  manufacture.  Most  of 
the  oily  seeds  contain  starch  at  first,  which  is  replaced  when  ripe 
by  oil. 

3.  The  Pectose  Group. 

Pectose  is  a  substance  found  in  unripe  fruits  and  roots.  It 
is  probably  an  altered  form  of  cellulose ;  and  when  the  fruits  and 
roots  ripen  the  pectose  becomes  softened  and  converted  into 
pectin. 

The  same  change  takes  place  in  the  baking  of  apples  and 
pears,  and  in  the  boiling  of  turnips  and  carrots. 

4.  The  Vegetable  Acids. 

These  are  very  numerous,  occurring  either  free  or  in  combi- 
nation with  lime,  potash,  magnesia,  etc.,  and  forming  acid  salts. 
The  most  important  are- 
Oxalic  Acid  (C2H204,2H20),  found  in  the  rhubarb,  sorrel,  and 
the  acid  sap  of  most  plants. 

Malic  Acid  (C4H6O6),  the  principal  vegetable  acid  in  the  sap 
of  most  fruits,  especially  when  unripe. 

Tartaric  Acid  (C4H6O6),  found  in  the  juice  of  the  grape,  pine- 
apple, etc. 

Citric  Acid  (CeHgOy),  present  as  a  free  acid  in  lemons  and 
oranges.  It  is  also  found  accompanying  malic  acid  in  most 
unripe  fruits. 

5.  The  Albuminoids,  or  Proteids. 

These  are  bodies  of  a  very  complex  nature  found  in  animals 
and  vegetables.  In  addition  to  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen, 
they  contain  nitrogen  and  traces  of  sulphur  and  phosphorus.  The 
exact  chemical  formulae  of  albuminoids  is  not  known,  and  even 
the  percentage  composition  is  found  to  vary.  It  may  be  re- 
membered, though,  that  they  consist  of  over  50  per  cent,  of 
carbon,  about  21  per  cent,  of  oxygen  (the  same  percentage  of 
oxygen  as  there  is  in  air),  about  16  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  7  per 
cent,  of  hydrogen,  and  i  per  cent,  of  sulphur. 

Vegetable  Albuminoids  are  found  in  every  part  of  the  plant 
in  some  stages  of  its  growth.  Especially  are  they  found  in  seeds 
and  young  growing  plants. 


104  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Vegetable  Albumin  is  found  in  solution  in  the  sap  of  fresh 
plants,  and  coagulates  when  heated,  like  white  of  egg,  to  which  it 
corresponds. 

Vegetable  Fibrin. — When  wheat-flour  is  made  into  dough  and 
kneaded  for  some  time  in  a  stream  of  water,  the  starch  of  the 
flour  is  gradually  washed  away,  and  a  sticky  mass  remains,  known 
as  crude  gluten.  This  gluten  consists  of  at  least  four  albuminoids 
combined  with  some  starch  and  fat. 

When  treated  with  dilute  alcohol  a  solution  is  obtained  which, 
upon  evaporation,  yields  an  albuminoid  known  as  gluten-fibrin. 

Another  albuminoid,  called  gluten-casein,  and  insoluble  in 
alcohol  or  water,  remains  behind.  It  resembles  the  casein  of 
milk  very  much  in  properties. 

Legumin,  the  principal  albuminoid  of  the  seeds  of  leguminous 
plants  (beans,  peas,  clover,  etc),  is,  like  casein,  insoluble  in  water 
or  alcohol,  but  soluble  in  water  containing  earthy  phosphates. 

Tests  for  albutninoids — 

1.  Stained  yellow  by  iodine. 

2.  Coloured  bright  yellow  when  boiled  with  nitric  acid  \  on 
the  addition  of  ammonia  the  yellow  changes  to  orange. 

3.  When  boiled  with  Millon's  reagent  (a  solution  of  nitrate  of 
mercury  in  nitric  acid),  a  reddish-coloured  precipitate  is  produced. 
(This  is  a  very  delicate  reaction.) 

6.  Amides. 

These  nitrogenous  bodies  closely  resemble  ammonia.  They 
are  crystalline,  and  soluble  in  water.  They  readily  diffuse 
through  moist  membranes,  differing  in  these  respects  from 
albuminoids,  most  of  which  are  insoluble  in  water,  non-crystalline, 
and  indiffusible.  The  most  important  of  them  is  asparagin. 
They  are  found  in  seeds  during  germination  and  in  the  growing 
parts  of  plants.  They  no  doubt  take  a  very  important  part  in 
the  transfer  of  albuminoids  from  one  part  of  a  plant  to  another. 

An  amide  may  be  derived  from  an  acid  by  the  substitution  of 
amidogen  (NHg)  for  hydroxyl  (HO),  or  from  ammonia  by  the 
substitution  of  an  acid  for  hydrogen. 

7.  Extractives. 

Chlorophyll. — This  is  a  name  given  to  the  green  colouring 
matter  found  in  the  cells  of  the  leaves  of  most  plants.  Upon 
examining  a  section  of  a  green  leaf,  it  is  found  that  the  green 
colour  is  due  to  the  small  granules  embedded  in  the  protoplasm 
of  the  cells,  called  cJdorophyll  corpuscles.     Under  the  influence  of 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  PLANT.  lOS 

sunlight  and  the  presence  of  carbon  dioxide,  starch  grains  are 
found  in  the  interior  of  the  chlorophyl  corpuscles.  During 
darkness  these  starch  grains  disappear,  being  transformed  into 
soluble  sugar,  and  carried  away  in  the  elaborated  sap  for  the 
nourishment  of  various  organs. 

The  presence  of  iron  is  necessary  for  the  development  of  the 
green  colouring  matter  of  chlorophyll. 

Tannin  is  the  name  given  to  a  bitter  astringent  substance, 
closely  related  to  the  carbohydrates,  found  in  the  leaves,  bark, 
and  unripe  fruits  of  many  plants — oak  bark  and  tea  leaves,  for 
example.  The  presence  of  tannin  in  tea  is  shown  by  the  black 
colouration  when  a  drop  of  strong  tea  falls  upon  a  steel  knife. 

The  alkaloids  are  organic  bases  occurring  in  the  bodies  of 
plants  and  animals,  either  ready  formed,  or  during  destructive 
distillation  of  complex  organic  bodies.  They  are  all  derivatives 
of  ammonia. 

The  fact  that  many  of  them  are  deadly  poison  is  interesting 
to  agriculturalists  ;  cattle  and  horses  often  being  poisoned  by 
eating  herbs  or  trees  containing  them.  It  is  important  to  re- 
member that  those  free  from  oxygen  are  volatile,  so  that  many 
plants,  like  hemlock,  fool's  parsley,  and  the  common  buttercup, 
poisonous  in  their  natural  state,  are  harmless  when  dried  and 
made  into  hay. 

1.  Volatile^  without  oxygen. 

Coniine,  found  in  the  hemlock,  water-parsnip,  cowbane,  and 
many  umbelliferse. 

Nicotine,  in  tobacco. 

2.  Oxidized  bases,  decomposed  on  distillation. 
Caffein,  found  in  coffee  and  tea. 
Theobromine,  found  in  the  cacao-bean. 

Morphia  and  laudanum  are  obtained  from  opium,  the  juice  of 
the  poppy. 

Quinine,  from  the  Peruvian  bark. 

Strychnine,  from  the  nux  vomica,  or  vomit  nut. 

Atropine,  from  the  deadly  nightshade. 

Aconite,  the  most  deadly  of  all  vegetable  poisons,  from  the 
monkshood. 

The  leaves  and  berries  of  the  yew  are  extremely  poisonous. 
Cattle  and  horses  are  constantly  poisoned  from  eating  the  clip- 
pings of  the  yew  tree,  which  should  always  be  burned. 

The  Ash  of  Plants. 

When  any  part  of  a  plant  is  burned  in  air  the  organic  matter 
is  decomposed,  and  fresh  and  simple  combinations  with  oxygen 


I06  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

are  formed.  Some  of  these  are  volatile,  and  pass  away  as  gases  or 
vapour.  These  volatile  compounds  are  chiefly  water,  carbonic 
acid  gas,  oxides  of  nitrogen,  with  traces  of  sulphur  dioxide  and 
phosphorus  pentoxide. 

In  the  ash  that  remains  behind  may  be  found  the  following 
elements. 

Non-metals,  Metals. 

Oxygen.  Potassium. 

Carbon.  Sodium. 

Sulphur.  Calcium. 

Phosphorus.  Magnesium, 

Silicon.  Iron. 

Chlorine.  Manganese. 

Nitrogen  may  sometimes  be  found  in  the  ash  in  the  form  of  a 
cyanide. 

The  six  elements,  potassium,  magnesium,  calcium,  iron,  sul- 
phur, and  phosphorus,  are  always  present  in  the  ash,  and  they  are 
indispensable  to  the  life  of  the  plant.  Iron  is  present  in  only  a 
minute  quantity. 

The  largest  proportion  of  ash  is  found  in  the  leaves  of  plants, 
and  the  least  in  the  timber  of  large  trees. 

The  metals  of  the  ash  occur  in  the  plant  in  the  form  of  salts, 
as — 


I  Phosphates  N^ 
rmcSS 
Sulphates 
Chlorides 
(  Oxalates 
Organic       J  Malates 
acids  I  Tartrates 

1^  Citrates        ) 


Potassium. 

Sodium. 
\  r  )  Calcium. 
^  '  Magnesium. 

Iron. 

Manganese. 


During  combustion  the  nitrates  and  vegetable  salts  of  organic 
acids  are  decomposed,  and  the  bases  are  found  in  the  ash  in  the 
form  of  carbonates  or  oxides. 

Chemical  Changes  taking  Place  in  the  Plant. 

I.  Chemical  substances  absorbed,  and  the  part  they  play  in  the 
economy  of  the  plant. 

Oxygen. —  Oxygen  is  taken  up  by  plants  either  free  in  the 
gaseous  condition,  or  in  the  form  of  water  or  salts.  The  free 
oxygen  plays  the  part  of  oxidizing  the  tissues  and  reducing  them 
to  more  simple  forms,  especially  CO2,  whilst  the  combined  oxygen 
enters  into  the  composition  of  those  bodies  which  help  to  build 
up  the  tissues. 

Hydrogen. — Hydrogen  is  absorbed  by  all  plants,  combined 


CHEMISTRY  OF   THE   PLANT.  IO7 

with  oxygen  in  the  form  of  water,  combined  with  nitrogen  in  the 
form  of  ammonia  or  its  compounds. 

Carbon. — Green  plants  obtain  their  carbon  by  the  decompo- 
sition of  CO2  in  the  chlorophyll  granules  during  sunlight.  The 
carbon  absorbed  is  used  for  the  formation  of  substances  which 
either  take  part  in  the  building  up  of  the  plant,  or  undergo 
decomposition,  setting  free  energy.  (This  will  be  more  fully  con- 
sidered under  the  head  of  "  Assimilation.") 

Nitrogen. — Nitrogen,  as  a  rule,  is  absorbed  only  in  combina- 
tion, but  exception  must  be  made  in  favour  of  the  plants  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  of  Leguminosae,  which  absorb  free  nitrogen 
from  the  atmosphere  by  the  aid  of  special  bacteria  found  in  the 
tubercles  of  the  roots. 

The  chief  nitrogenous  compounds  absorbed  by  plants  consist 
of  ammonia  and  its  compounds,  and  nitrates. 

Boussingault  concluded  that  the  higher  plants  flourish  best 
when  supplied  with  nitrates,  and  the  lower  plants  with  ammonia, 
but  it  has  been  shown  by  experiment  that  this  is  not  always  the 
case.  Many  plants  prefer  ammonia  salts  to  nitrate.  The  beet 
root  and  the  tobacco  plant  are  well-known  examples.  Nitric  acid 
can  be  absorbed  in  the  form  of  nitrates  of  soda,  potash,  lime, 
magnesia,  and  ammonia ;  and  ammonia  is  taken  up  in  the  form  of 
chloride,  sulphate,  nitrate,  and  phosphate.  The  carbonate  is  said 
to  be  injurious.  Nitrogen  is  especially  required  for  the  proto- 
plasm of  young  cells;  therefore  no  active  growth  can  take 
place  without  nitrogen. 

Sulphur. — Sulphur  is  absorbed  in  the  form  of  sulphates,  chiefly 
those  of  ammonium,  potassium.,  calcium,  and  magnesium.  All 
that  is  known  of  the  use  of  sulphur  is  that  it  forms  an  essential 
constituent  of  proteids. 

Phosphorus. — Phosphorus  is  taken  up  by  plants  in  the  form 
of  phosphates.  It  enters  into  the  composition  of  protoplasm,  and 
has  some  relation  to  the  activity  of  the  chemical  changes  which 
are  always  taking  place  in  living  protoplasm. 

The  greatest  increase  of  phosphorus  in  the  plant  takes  place 
during  the  period  of  its  most  active  development. 

According  to  Lawes  and  Gilbert,  phosphates  exercise  an 
influence  upon  the  assimilation  of  nitrogen.  The  addition  of  a 
soluble  phosphatic  manure  will  enable  a  plant  to  take  up  a  larger 
quantity  of  nitrogen. 

Nitrogenous  manures  are  often  wasted  by  applying  large  dress- 
ings without  adding  a  small  amount  of  phosphate. 

Potassium. — Potassium  is  taken  up  in  the  form  of  sulphate, 
chloride,  phosphate,  and  silicate.  The  chief  function  of  potash 
seems  to  be  starch  formation. 


I08  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

If  potash  does  not  enter  into  the  food  of  plants,  no  starch  is 
formed.  A  further  proof  in  support  of  potash  being  chiefly 
concerned  in  the  production  and  storing  up  of  starch  is,  that  the 
organs  in  which  these  processes  are  taking  place,  the  leaves, 
tubers,  and  seeds,  are  very  rich  in  potash. 

Sodium. — Sodium  is  always  present  in  the  ash  of  plants,  but 
only  in  small  quantities,  except  in  seaweeds.  It  cannot  replace 
potassium  in  the  nutrition  of  the  plant,  and  has  no  important 
function. 

Calcium. — Calcium  is  supplied  to  plants  in  the  form  of 
sulphate,  phosphate,  nitrate,  and  carbonate.  The  chloride  has  an 
injurious  effect  upon  all  vegetation.  The  exact  use  of  calcium  to 
plants  is  not  quite  known,  but  one  of  the  most  important  functions 
is  certainly  that  of  neutralizing  the  organic  acids  which  are 
excreted  within  the  tissues.  Crystals  of  calcium  oxalate  are 
especially  found  in  the  cells  of  many  plants,  where  they  have  been 
apparently  excreted  from  the  sap. 

Magnesium. — Magnesium  is  taken  up  in  the  same  way  as 
calcium,  all  its  salts  being  beneficial  but  the  chloride.  Very 
little  seems  to  be  known  as  to  its  function. 

Iron. — Iron  can  be  absorbed  in  the  form  of  all  its  soluble 
compounds. 

It  is  essential  to  all  green  plants.  Without  it,  plants  would  be 
colourless  and  develop  no  chlorophyll.  Although  iron  does  not 
enter  into  the  chemical  composition  of  chlorophyll,  yet  it  affects 
the  processes  in  the  cell  which  lead  to  its  formation. 

Chlorine. — Chlorine  is  a  very  constant  constituent  of  plants, 
although  it  does  not  seem  to  be  essential.  It  has  been  considered 
as  necessary  for  buckwheat,  because,  when  no  chlorine  was 
supplied,  the  chlorophyll  granules  became  overburdened  with 
starch. 

It  would  thus  seem  to  have  some  bearing  on  the  translocution 
of  starch. 

Vines,  however,  considers  this  effect  to  be  only  indirect,  the 
chloride  being  the  compound  of  potassium,  which  has  most  effect 
on  the  plant. 

Silicon. — Silicon  is  absorbed  in  the  form  of  silicates,  and  some- 
times soluble  silica.  Silica  is  always  present  in  the  ash  of  plants, 
and  is  chiefly  located  in  the  cell  wall.  It  is  very  abundant  in 
grasses  and  cereals.  It  must  be  distinctly  understood,  however, 
that  silica  is  not  essential  to  the  nutriment  of  the  plant,  and 
therefore  is  not  a  plant-food.  Professor  Wrightson  especially 
insists  on  this  point.  It  was  first  suggested  by  Sir  Humphry 
Davy,  that  the  cause  of  "laying"  of  wheat  was  an  insuflicient 
supply    of  silica.      It  has    since    been   demonstrated    that   the 


CHEMISTRY  OF   THE   PLANT.  IO9 

stiffness  of  the  stem  is  not  dependent  on  the  amount  of  silica. 
The  true  cause  of  "laying"  is  the  imperfect  development  of  the 
woody  fibres,  due  to  want  of  light,  when  corn  is  sown  too  thickly. 

Assimilation. 

The  chemical  changes  taking  place  during  assimilation  con- 
sist in  the  decomposition  of  CO2  by  the  chlorophyll  corpuscles 
through  the  agency  of  sunlight.  The  result  of  this  action  is  an 
evolution  of  oxygen  gas  equal  in  volume  to  the  carbonic  acid 
gas  absorbed;  the  carbon  remains  behind,  and  makes  its  first 
visible  appearance  as  small  grains  of  starch  within  the  chlorophyll 
corpuscles. 

The  reaction  might  be  represented  by  the  following  equation  : — 

6CO3  +  5H2O  =  QHioOs  +  60, 

There  are  many  reasons  for  thinking  that  this  simple  explana- 
tion is  not  sufficient. 

The  equality  in  the  amount  of  CO2  absorbed  and  O.2  given 
out,  might  accompany  the  formation  of  formic  aldehyde  according 
to  the  following  equation  :— 

CO2  +  H2O  =  CH2O  +  O2 

Formic  aldehyde  readily  undergoes  polymerization,  so  that 
grape  sugar  might  easily  be  derived  from  it. 

6CH2O  =  CeHiaOe 

and  CfiHisOs  -  H^O  =  CeHi.Os 

This  has  not  been  proved,  however ;  all  we  know  for  certain  is 
that  a  substance  is  formed  which  ultimately  is  converted  into  starch. 

Chemistry  of  Respiration. 

The  chemical  changes  which  take  place  during  respiration 
consist  in  the  absorption  of  oxygen  gas  and  the  evolution  of 
carbonic  acid  gas  and  water.  This  eff'ect  can  only  be  observed 
in  the  dark,  because  in  the  day  time  it  is  obscured  by  the  process 
of  assimilation  going  on,  which  is  exactly  the  opposite  to  that  ot 
respiration,  viz.  the  absorption  of  CO2  and  the  evolution  of  O. 

The  formation  of  CO2  and  H2O  is  the  last  stage  in  a  series  01 
oxidations  always  taking  place  in  the  tissues.  The  complex 
molecules  built  up  by  the  protoplasm  are  gradually  broken  down 
by  the  oxygen,  the  energy  absorbed  to  build  them  up,  derived 
in  the  first  instance  from  sunlight,  is  set  free  in  the  form  of  heat 
and  mechanical  energy  within  the  plant 


no  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Chemical  Changes  connected  with  Metastasis. 

The  chemical  changes  which  occur  in  connection  with  the 
nutrition  of  the  plant  are  very  complicated  indeed,  and  very 
important.  We  have  first  to  remember  that  all  constructive  pro- 
cesses are  carried  out  by  the  living  protoplasm,  and  in  those 
parts  of  the  plant  where  the  protoplasm  is  most  abundant  there 
we  find  the  greatest  amount  of  chemical  change  going  on ;  as,  for 
example,  the  leaves^  the  g7'owifig points,  the  secreting  cells. 

We  saw  that,  during  the  process  of  assimilation,  starch  was 
manufactured  within  the  chlorophyll  granule,  and  it  is  entirely 
from  this  starch  within  the  leaves  that  the  different  cells  of  the 
tissues  derive  their  supply  of  carbonaceous  material. 

Starch,  which  is  insoluble,  has  to  be  changed  into  a  soluble 
body  before  it  can  be  removed.  This  is  done  by  converting  it 
into  sugar  by  means  of  an  unorganized  ferment,  called  diastase. 
The  sugar  is  diffusible,  and  thus  can  pass  through  the  cell  walls 
dissolved  in  the  sap,  and  reach  those  cells  where  it  may  be 
required. 

Nitrogenous  substances  are  formed  by  the  protoplasm  of  the  leaf 
cells  from  materials  absorbed  by  the  roots,  such  as  nitrates,  salts 
of  ammonia,  etc.  The  probable  action  is,  that  the  nitrates  are 
decomposed  by  the  organic  acids  in  the  sap,  and  nitric  acid  is  set 
free.  The  nitric  acid  is  used  by  the  protoplasm,  in  combination 
with  some  carbohydrate,  and  sulphur,  and  phosphorus,  to  form 
proteid  substances. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  proteid  is  not  directly  formed,  but 
that  nitrogenous  compounds  of  less  complex  composition  are 
formed  first,  these  intermediate  compounds  being  amides,  such 
as  asparagin,  leucin,  etc. 

Malting  of  Barley. 

This  work  is  not  commonly  undertaken  by  the  farmer;  it 
belongs  more  to  the  brewer.  The  latter  performs  it  in  the  manu- 
facture of  alcoholic  liquors.  The  barley  is  put  into  large  tubs, 
and  soaked  with  water  for  48  hours.  It  is  then  taken  out  and 
spread  evenly  upon  the  floor  of  a  warm  room,  to  the  depth  of 
six  or  eight  inches.  The  room  should  be  kept  at  a  temperature 
of  from  80°  to  90°  Fahr.  The  grain  has  now  all  the  essential 
conditions  of  germination,  viz.  moisture,  heat,  and  oxygen.  It 
accordingly  begins  to  sprout  in  a  similar  manner  to  what  it 
would  have  done  if  it  had  been  sown  in  the  ground  in  the  natural 
course  of  operations.  It  continues  germinating  for  about  48 
hours,  and  then  the  process  is  stopped  by   raising  the  heat   of 


CHEMISTRY   OF  THE   PLANT.  Ill 

the  room  suddenly  to  130°  or  140°  Fahr.  This  high  tempera- 
ture soon  kills  the  young  embryo,  and  the  malt  is  now  screened, 
by  which  operation  the  shoots  are  separated.  The  remainder  is 
next  steeped  in  water,  by  which  a  part  of  the  sugar  is  dissolved 
out,  and  forms  the  sweet  wort  of  the  brewer.  The  malt  is  then 
of  no  more  use  to  that  person,  and  is  therefore  sold  to  the  farmer. 
It  is  commonly  known  as  brewers'  grains,  or  draff. 

But  when  the  farmer  performs  the  operation,  he  stops  as  soon 
as  he  has  killed  the  germ,  and  hence  saves  much  of  the  soluble 
sugars.  When  a  large  quantity  of  inferior  barley  is  left  on  hand, 
it  may  often  be  used  to  advantage  in  this  manner. 

Changes  taking  Place  during  Malting. — It  is  well  known 
that  during  germination  various  important  chemical  changes  take 
place  in  the  seed  in  order  to  prepare  food  for  the  young  embryo. 
Water  is  absorbed  into  the  grain,  and  the  young  plumule  and 
radicle  soon  begin  to  sprout.  But  during  this  time  they  are  not 
gathering  up  food  for  themselves,  and  have  to  depend  upon  what 
has  been  stored  up  for  them  in  the  seed.  The  food  there,  how- 
ever, is  in  an  insoluble  solid  form,  and  hence  the  need  of  a 
chemical  change.  The  starch  is  acted  upon  by  a  ferment  called 
diastase,  contained  in  the  nitrogenous  part  (scutellum)  of  the 
seed.  It  is  changed  first  into  dextrin,  and  then  by  further 
action  partly  into  glucose.  In  this  way  from  8  to  10  per  cent,  of 
the  whole  grain  is  changed  into  a  soluble  sugar,  of  great  use  to 
the  embryo.  A  small  amount  of  the  insoluble  albuminoids  is 
changed  into  amides,  in  which  form  it  can  be  taken  up  by  the 
young  plant.  These  chemical  changes  are  attended  by  evolution 
of  heat  and  carbonic  acid  gas.  It  has  been  calculated  that  from 
3  to  6  per  cent,  of  the  whole  grain  is  lost  as  carbonic  acid  gas, 
and  about  3  per  cent,  is  taken  off  as  the  combs,  or  dust. 

The  quality  of  the  grain  influences  the  process  of  malting 
greatly.  Thus,  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes  found  that  with  barley  of  fair 
malting  quality  there  was  a  loss  of  19  per  cent,  of  its  weight  during 
the  operation ;  and  of  this,  1 2  per  cent  was  water,  and  7  per  cent, 
solid  or  food  material.  With  a  barley  of  good  feeding,  but 
inferior  malting,  powers,  there  was  a  loss  of  22  per  cent  of  its 
weight ;  and  of  this  15  per  cent  was  water,  and  7  per  cent  solid 
matter.  An  inferior  grain  must  produce  poor  malt,  and  the  loss 
of  carbonaceous  matters  in  this  case  would  cause  the  malt  to  be  of 
very  low  quality.  Again,  in  well-developed  grain  the  starch  would 
be  more  quickly  acted  on  by  the  ferment,  and  a  large  percentage 
of  soluble  matters  would  be  the  result 

Brewers'  grains  are  distinct  from  malt,  and  are  possessed  of 
low  feeding  value,  having  had  nearly  all  their  sugar  extracted. 
When  a  farmer  malts  his  own  barley,  he  only  desires  to  improve 


112 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


Its  feeding  qualities,  and  to  do  this  he  does  not  let  the  malting 
process  go  as  far  as  the  brewer  would,  and  hence  there  is  less  loss 
of  carbon  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Value  of  Malt  as  a  Feeding  Material.— Malt  is  not  used  as 
food  as  much  as  might  be  expected.  The  farmer  rarely  takes  the 
trouble  to  prepare  malt;  while  brewers'  grains  are  not  always 
obtainable,  and  are  rather  low  in  nutritious  matters.  The  analyses 
given  show  the  composition  of  barley  and  malt. 

Analyses  of  Grain  and  Malt. 


Moisture 

Oil           

Albuminoids 

Soluble  carbohydrates  .. 

Woody  fibre 

Ash          

Barley. 

Malt  Barley. 

Wheat. 

Malt  Wheat. 

I4'8 

2-1 

II-2 

65-5 

2-2 

9-35 

1*97 

"'37 

68-27 

5-53 
3-51 

137 
1-6 

13-2 

66-2 
3-6 
17 

9-68 
I -30 
10-37 
73-26 
270 
2-69 

The  analyses  of  malt  are  by  Dr.  Voelcker. 

Wheat  is  seldom  malted,  and  indeed  is  not  often  used  as  food 
for  the  stock  at  all. 

Malt  owes  its  higher  feeding  value  to  the  fact  that  most  of  its 
constituents  are  in  a  soluble  form.  With  enough  heat  all  its 
carbohydrates  will  become  digestible.  Not  only  is  this  the 
case  with  the  malt,  but,  according  to  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes,  should 
other  grains  be  mixed  with  the  malt,  and  the  digestion  assisted  by 
heat,  most  of  their  starchy  matters  will  become  readily  available 
This  action  is  a  very  important  one,  and  shows  that  it  would  be 
an  advantage  to  mix  a  little  malt  with  the  food  of  nearly  all  kinds 
of  stock.  ^ 

Malt  contains  from  5  to  10  per  cent,  less  water  than  barley 
grain,  and  also  often  has  a  somewhat  higher  albuminoid  ratio 
But  a  given  weight  of  barley  gives  as  good,  if  not  better,  results 
as  a  rule  than  the  amount  of  malt  produced  from  a  similar 
quantity.  This  is  owing  to  the  amount  of  matter  lost  during  the 
process  of  malting.  ^ 

Malt  is  very  palatable  and  acts  as  a  condiment  to  a  certain 
extent.  AH  stock  eat  it  readily,  and  it  is  very  useful  as  a  food  for 
animals  in  rather  delicate  health.  It  also  tempts  the  fat  cattle  to 
eat  freely,  when  otherwise  they  very  often  have  no  appetite  for 
their  food.  Malt  is  very  useful  for  putting  a  finishing  touch  upon 
fatting  stock,  and  for  getting  young  animals  into  good  condition. 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE   PLANT. 


113 


The  benefits  derived  from  the  use  of  malt  vary  a  good  deal 
according  to  the  character  of  the  animal.  It  has  been  found  that 
strong  healthy  stock  give  the  best  results.  Weakly  creatures, 
although  greatly  assisted  in  being  restored  to  good  condition,  did 
not  thrive  so  well  upon  the  food.  With  regard  to  milking  cattle, 
the  produce  was  almost  alike,  but  rather  more  cream  was  got 
from  the  milk  of  the  cows  fed  on  a  similar  amount  of  ordinary 
barley. 

According  to  Mr.  F.  Beard  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society^  1881,  the  cost  of  malting  barley  is  about 
2S.  per  quarter.  This  expense  detracts  somewhat  from  the  value 
of  the  malt,  but  the  authority  just  stated  says  that  the  result  amply 
repays  the  outlay.  For  cattle  he  ground  the  malt  up,  mixed  it 
with  chopped  straw  and  hay,  and  then  added  enough  pulped 
roots  to  ferment  the  whole  in  24  hours,  i  gallon  malt  meal, 
a  few  pounds  of  linseed  cake-  and  barley-meal,  and  the  above 
mixture  ad  lib.  was  given  to  each  cow.  Sheep  in  folds  should 
get  about  2  lbs.  of  ground  malt,  barley,  and  linseed-cake  in  equal 
proportions. 

Mr.  James  Howard,  in  the  same  journal,  says  he  gave  each  ot 
his  working  horses  i~  bushels  oats,  i  peck  maize,  i  peck  malt, 
and  14  lbs.  bran  weekly,  besides  hay.  The  oats,  maize,  and  malt 
were  crushed.  Young  horses  got  i^  lbs.  malt  a  day,  with  3 
pecks  oats,  and  14  lbs.  bran  weekly,  besides  hay  or  grass. 
Wether  sheep  on  roots  had  \  lb.  malt,  \  pint  maize,  and  i  pint 
tail  barley  daily.  His  lambs  got  small  amounts  of  malt  when 
a  month  old.  Feeding  bullocks  had  2-|  to  4  lbs.  malt,  i  gallon 
meal,  i  gallon  linseed  and  cotton  cake  per  day.  He  says  that 
it  is  best  to  begin  with  small  amounts,  and  then  to  slowly  and 
gradually  increase. 

Malt-combs. — These  are  sometimes  known  as  malt  cummins 
or  malt-dust.  They  consist  of  the  separated  radicles  and  plumules 
of  the  malting  barley. 


Analyses  of  Malt-Combs  (Dr.  Voelcker). 


Moisture 

10-83 

574 

11*54 

Albuminoids 

23-81 

21  94 

26-81 

Non-nitrogenous  organic  matter 

5870 

66-12 

56-31 

Phosphates  of  lime  and  magnesia 

1-49 

1-97 

1 

Alkaline  salts 

4-06 

2-40 

5*34 

Insoluble  silicious  matter 

I'll 

1-83 

1 

The  above  authority  says  that  malt-combs  are  a  very  good  food 
for  milk  cows,  at  the  rate  of  2\  lbs.  per  day,  containing  as  they  do 

I 


1 14  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

large  amounts  of  all  required  constituents,  especially  phosphates. 
He  also  recommends  it  for  sheep.  Some  farmers  use  the  malt- 
combs  as  manure,  but  this  is  a  wasteful  practice,  as  they  contain 
much  soluble  sugar  and  other  matters,  of  no  use  to  the  plant. 
Should  they  be  very  dirty  they  may  be  added  to  the  manure- 
heap. 

Malt-combs  assist  in  the  digestion  of  other  foods  in  a  similar 
manner  to  malt.  It  is  advisable  to  mix  the  two  together;  the 
resulting  mixture  is  a  very  good  food. 

Brewers'  Grains. — These  consist  of  malt  after  it  has  had  as 
much  as  possible  of  its  sugar  extracted  by  the  brewer.  This  is 
done  by  mashing  it  in  a  large  vat,  and  then  adding  water  or 
steam. 

The  following  analysis  shows  that  they  contain  a  large  per- 
centage of  water,  and  consequently  are  very  much  less  valuable 
as  food  than  malt : — 


Water 

..     767 

Albuminoids    . . 

..       4-8 

Fat 

12 

Soluble  carbohydrates    . . 

..      Ill 

Fibre 

5'o 

Ash 

I'2 

100 'O 

By  a  certain  process  brewers'  grains  can  be  dessicated  or 
dried.  This  reduces  the  bulk  greatly,  and  lowers  the  cost  of 
carriage,  but  against  this  there  is  the  expense  of  drying,  which 
has  to  be  done  by  artificial  means. 

Brewers'  grains,  being  very  succulent,  and  stimulating  to  the 
mammary  gland,  greatly  increase  the  flow  of  milk,  and  hence  are 
often  used  in  dairies,  the  cows  getting  up  to  half  a  bushel  a  day. 
The  milk  is  rather  deficient  in  solid  matters,  but  where  the  milk 
is  sold  it  pays  to  use  them. 


D. — Chemistry  of  the  Animal  Body, 
Composition  of  the  Animal  Body. 

The  primary  substance  of  all  animals  is  Protoplasui^  or 
Bioplasm  (Life-substance).  The  other  organic  bodies  which 
are  afterwards  produced  are  formed  from  the  metabolism  of  this 
protoplasm. 

The  exact  chemical  formula  of  protoplasm  has  never  been 
made  out,  as  it  seems  to  be  constantly  subject  to  change,  and 


CHEMISTRY  OF   THE   ANIMAL   BODY.  II 5 

even  the  percentage  composition  cannot  be  satisfactorily  given, 
for  the  same  reason.  It  is  known  that  protoplasm  contains 
carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen,  with  small  amounts  of 
sulphur  and  phosphorus.  It  appears  that  protoplasm  consists 
of  a  network  of  dead  proteids,  incapable  of  solution  in  caustic 
alkalies,  and  known  as  plastin,  and  of  a  true  living  portion,  soluble 
in  potash. 

The  derivatives  of  protoplasm  may  be  roughly  classed  under 
three  heads:  (i)  Proteids;  (2)  Carbohydrates;  (3)  Fats  and  Oils. 

Proteids. — These  form  the  greater  part  of  the  muscular  and 
nervous  tissues.  Hoppe-Seyer  says  the  composition  is  as  follows  : 
C,  Si"5  to  54'5%;  H,  6-9  to  7-3%;  N,  15-2  to  17%;  O,  20-9  to 
23-5%;  S,  '3  to  2%.  In  addition  to  these,  most  proteids  contain 
a  small  variable  amount  of  ash,  probably  due  to  the  admixture 
of  other  bodies. 

Tests, — Red  precipitate  on  heating  with  Millon's  reagent. 
Heated  with  strong  nitric  acid  they  turn  yellow ;  on  the  addition 
of  ammonia  the  colour  changes  to  deep  orange.  With  a  caustic 
soda  solution,  a  violet  colour  is  obtained  with  one  or  two  drops 
of  copper  sulphate ;  the  colour  deepens  on  boiling. 

Proteids  are  divided  up  into  the  following  classes  : — 

Class  I.,  Native  Albumins. — Naturally  occurring  bodies, 
soluble  in  water,  precipitated  by  very  dilute  acids,  and  by  common 
salt,  coagulated  by  heating  to  about  70  degrees. 

1.  Egg-albumin, — Forms  the  greater  part  of  the  white  of  egg. 
It  is  coagulated  by  strong  acids,  and  by  excess  of  strong  alcohol. 
In  an  aqueous  solution  it  is  a  neutral,  transparent,  slightly  yellow 
fluid. 

2.  Serum-albumin, — Found  in  the  blood,  lymph,  and  serous 
excretions,  etc.  When  dried  it  is  a  yellowish,  brittle,  transparent 
body,  soluble  in  water.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  the  previous 
albumin  by  not  being  coagulated  by  ether. 

Class  II.,  Derived  albumins. — These  bodies  are  insoluble  in 
water,  but  readily  soluble  in  alkalies  or  dilute  acids.  They  are 
not  coagulated  by  heat. 

I.  Acid-albumin, — By  the  action  of  a  dilute  acid  on  a  native 
albumin  in  solution,  at  a  fairly  warm  temperature,  acid-albumin 
is  formed.  It  now  becomes  insoluble  in  water  and  uncoagulable  by 
heat.  By  treating  finely  divided  muscular  tissue  with  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid,  from  which  all  the  soluble  albumins  have  been 
washed,  a  considerable  quantity  of  the  muscle  may  be  dissolved. 
The  filtrate  contains  a  proteid,  resembling  acid-albumin,  but 
known  as  syntonin.  During  digestion  in  the  stomach  a  somewhat 
similar  body  is  formed  by  the  gastric  juice  from  the  lean  part  of 
meat. 


Il6  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

2.  Alkali-albu7nifts. — Should  an  alkali  be  used  instead  of  an 
acid  as  above,  alkali-albumins  result.  They  greatly  resemble  the 
previous  bodies. 

3.  Casein. — Found  in  milk,  and  forms  the  chief  constituent 
of  cheese.  In  its  properties  it  greatly  resembles  the  alkali- 
albumins.  It  may  be  obtained  from  milk  by  adding  dilute  acetic 
acid,  as  a  white,  friable,  opaque  body. 

Class  III. — Globulins. — Native  proteids  insoluble  in  pure 
water,  but  soluble  in  dilute  solutions  of  acids  and  alkalies.  They 
are  coagulated  by  heat,  and  precipitated  from  solutions  by 
alcohol. 

1.  Globulin^  or  Crystallin. — Obtained  from  the  crystalline  lens 
of  the  eye.     It  is  precipitated  by  carbonic  acid  and  by  alcohol. 

2.  Paraglohulin. — Known  also  as  Fibrinoplastin.  It  can  be 
precipitated  from  blood-serum  by  carbon  dioxide,  or,  to  a  less 
extent,  by  common  salt.  In  water  containing  no  oxygen, 
paraglohulin  is  insoluble. 

3.  Fibrinogen. — This  also  is  found  in  the  blood,  and  greatly 
resembles  paraglohulin.  When  mixed  with  the  fibrin-ferment, 
fibrinogen  develops  fibrin,  the  chief  substance  in  the  clot  of 
blood. 

4.  Myosin  is  the  chief  constituent  of  muscle  when  under- 
going "  rigor  mortis."  When  moist  it  is  an  elastic,  gelatinous  mass ; 
when  dry,  it  is  very  brittle.  It  may  be  precipitated  from  a 
solution  by  common  salt ;  but  is  very  soluble  in  dilute  acids  and 
alkalies. 

5.  Vitellin. — Obtained  from  the  yolk  of  eggs,  and  from  the 
crystalline  lens  of  the  eye.  It  is  not  precipitated  by  sodium 
chloride,  and  is  soluble  in  dilute  acids,  being  in  this  manner 
readily  converted  into  syntonin. 

Class  IV. — Fibrin. — The  fibrins  are  solid  albuminous  bodies, 
insoluble  in  water  and  dilute  common  salt  solutions,  and  almost 
insoluble  in  dilute  acids  and  alkalies.  When  treated  with  acids 
they  swell  up  into  a  stiff  jelly.  Fibrin  may  easily  be  obtained 
from  blood,  which  has  been  diluted  with  an  equal  bulk  of  water, 
by  whipping  with  twigs.  It  rapidly  coagulates  on  the  twigs  in 
white  stringy  masses. 

Class  V. — Coagulated  Proteids. — These  are  very  insoluble 
bodies,  only  being  dissolved  by  strong  acids  and  alkalies.  They 
are  produced  by  heating  native  albumins  to  about  70  degrees. 
By  the  action  of  gastric  or  pancreatic  juice  in  the  ordinary 
processes  of  digestion  they  are  converted  into  peptones. 

Class  VI. — Peptones. — These  bodies,  as  stated  before,  are 
produced  during  the  digestion  of  proteids.  They  are  extremely 
soluble  in  water,  and  are  not  precipitated  by  the  action  of  acids 


CHEMISTRY   OF   THE  ANIMAL   BODY.  II 7 

or  alkalies,  or  by  boiling.  They  are  insoluble  in  alcohol,  and 
are  with  difficulty  precipitated  by  it.  They  are,  however, 
precipitated  by  the  bile-acids. 

Class  VII. — Lardacein. — Lardacein  appears  to  be  derived 
from  fibrin,  and  is  found  as  a  deposit  in  liver,  spleen,  kidneys, 
etc.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  ether,  alcohol,  dilute  acids,  and  the 
digestive  juices.  It  gives  a  violet  solution  on  boiling  with 
sulphuric  acid,  and  with  the  strong  acid  is  converted  into  tyrosin 
and  leucin.  Its  composition  is  much  the  same  as  that  of 
other  proteids,  but  it  appears  that  the  sulphur  exists  in  an 
oxidized  state. 

Nitrogenous  Bodies  allied  to  Proteids. 

Under  this  head  may  be  considered  the  non-crystalline 
albuminoids. 

1.  Muciiu — Found  in  all  mucous  secretions.  Its  approximate 
composition  is  C,  48*94%;  H,  6-8i%;  O,  3575%;  N,  8-50% 
(Eichwald).  It  is  of  a  glutinous  nature,  and  will  not  dissolve 
in  water.  It  dissolves  in  concentrated  mineral  acids.  It  gives 
the  same  reactions  as  proteids  with  Millon's  reagent  and  with 
nitric  acid,  but  not  with  copper  sulphate. 

2.  Gelatin^  of  Gluiin. — Formed  by  the  prolonged  boiling  of 
connective  tissues  in  water,  or  by  heating  for  a  lengthy  period 
in  dilute  acetic  acid.  Its  percentage  composition  is  C,  5076 ; 
H,  7-15  ;  O,  23-21 ;  N,  18-32  ;  S,  0-56. 

The  ordinary  form  of  gelatin  is  well  known.  It  is  insoluble 
in  alcohol  and  ether,  but  soluble  in  warm  glycerin. 

3.  Chondrin. — Results  from  the  prolonged  boiling  of  cartilage 
in  water;  on  cooling,  chrondrin  gelatinizes  out  as  a  stiff  jelly, 
which,  when  dry,  forms  a  hard,  translucent,  yellowish,  gummy 
mass.  Its  percentage  composition  is  C,  4774;  H,  6-76;  O, 
31-04;  N,  13-87;  S,  -60.  It  can  be  easily  dissolved  by  hot  water, 
ammonia,  and  the  alkalies,  and  precipitated  from  its  solutions  by 
acetic  acid  and  dilute  mineral  acids. 

4.  Elastift  may  be  obtained  from  yellow  elastic  fibre,  as  in 
the  ligamentum  nuchae,  for  instance.  It  is  soluble  in  strong 
boiling  alkalies,  and  in  concentrated  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids. 
It  is  made  up  of  55-5%  C,  7*4%  H,  20-5%  O,  167%  N. 

5.  Keratin  is  found  in  horn,  feathers,  hair,  etc.  Continued 
boiling  with  acids  and  alkalies  dissolves  it.  On  treating  the 
acetic  solutions  with  an  acid,  sulphuretted  hydrogen  is  evolved. 
Its  percentage  composition  varies  thus:  C,  5o'3  —  52*5  ;  H, 
6*4  —  7-0;  O,  20-7  —  25-0;  N,  i6*2  —  177;  S,  0-7  —  5-0  (Foster). 
It  differs  greatly  from  the  proteids  in  its  properties. 


Il8  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

6.  Niiclein  (C2!)H49NyP302..). — This  is  found  in  the  yolk  of  egg. 
It  is  soluble  in  alkalies,  and  gives  a  precipitate  with  copper  sulphate. 

7.  Collagen  forms  the  organic  base  of  bones  and  teeth,  and 
of  the  fibrous  part  of  tendons  and  ligaments.  It  is  insoluble  in 
cold  water.  When  acted  on  by  dilute  acids  it  first  swells  and 
becomes  transparent ;  with  prolonged  action  it  dissolves. 

Carbohydrates. — These  never  contain  nitrogen.  The  greater 
part  are  vegetable,  but  a  few,  to  be  mentioned  here,  are  normally 
found  in  animal  tissues,  etc. 

1.  Dextrose,  or  Grape  Sugar  (CgHiaOe  +  HgO). — In  the  animal 
body  it  occurs  in  the  blood,  lymph,  chyle,  liver,  etc.  Its  chemical 
properties  have  been  treated  in  the  section  on  the  *'  Constituents 
of  Plants." 

2.  Lactose,  or  Milk  Sugar  (CiaHgaOn  +  H^O). — Occurs  in  milk 
to  the  extent  of  about  4^  per  cent.  On  heating  lactose  to  100°  C, 
it  loses  its  extra  molecule  of  water.  It  can  be  crystallized  in  the 
form  of  hard,  colourless,  rhombic  crystals,  insoluble  in  alcohol  or 
eiher,  but  dissolving  in  water.  Under  the  action  of  an  organized 
ferment,  the  Bacterium  lactis,  lactose  changes  to  lactic  acid. 

C12H22O11   +    H2O    =    4   CsHcOg 

I^actose  =  lactic  acid. 

3.  Maltose  (CisHasOn  +  H2O). — This  sugar  is  produced  by 
the  action  of  a  diastasic  ferment,  or  of  dilute  acids  on  starch. 

4.  Inosite  (CgHisOe  +  2H2O). — Occurs  in  the  animal  body  in 
the  heart-muscles,  and  in  most  of  the  organs  of  the  body,  especially 
of  the  horse  and  cow.  It  crystallizes  in  long,  efflorescent,  rhombic 
tables.  It  is  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  but  readily  soluble  in 
water.     It  cannot  undergo  alcoholic  fermentation. 

5.  Glycogen  (CgHioOg). — Glycogen  may  be  obtained  from  the 
liver  as  a  white  amorphous  powder,  forming  an  opalescent  solution. 
Under  the  action  of  various  ferments  it  is  converted  into  dextrose. 

With  iodine,  glycogen  gives  a  port-wine  colour,  which  disap- 
pears on  heating.  In  this  it  resembles  dextrose,  but  on  cooling 
the  glycogen  solution,  the  colour  returns. 

6.  Dextrin  (CeHioOg). — May  be  formed  from  starch  by  the 
action  of  ferments.  It  is  soluble  in  water,  but  precipitated  by 
alcohol.     It  does  not  undergo  alcoholic  fermentation. 

The  Fats  and  their  Derivatives. — To  go  fully  into  all  this 
series  would  take  up  too  much  space,  consequently  only  the  more 
important  can  be  given.  Many  of  the  fats  consist  of  compounds 
of  glycerin  and  various  fatty  acids,  and  rarely  contain  nitrogen  or 
sulphur. 

I.  Palmitin  (CaHsCOCieHgiOja).— Palmitic  acid  (C16H32O2). 
Melts  at  45°  C.  Crystallizes  in  fine  needles.  It  is  more  soluble 
in  ether  and  alcohol  than  stearin. 


CHEMISTRY  OF  THE  ANIMAL   BODY. 


119 


2.  Stearm  (C3H5[OCi8H350l3).— Stearic  acid  (CisHagOa).  This 
is  the  chief  constituent  of  the  more  sohd  fats,  as  mutton  suet. 
Melts  between  53°  and  66°.  Insoluble  in  cold  ether  and  alcohol, 
but  soluble  in  both  when  boiled.     Crystallizes  in  square  tables. 

3.  Olei7i  (C3H5[OCi8H330]3).— Oleic  acid  (C18H34O2).  Fluid  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  solidifying  below  1°.     Found  in  pig's  fat. 

4.  Glycerin  (C3H5[OH]3)  is  a  thick,  colourless  syrup.  When 
cooled  sufficiently,  it  solidifies,  forming  crystals  like  sugar-candy. 
Soluble  in  water  and  alcohol ;  insoluble  in  ether. 

The  four  preceding  bodies  are  found  among  the  butter  fats  of 
milk  \  in  addition  to  them  we  have  triglycerides  of  the  following 
fatty  acids. 

Butyric  acid  (C^HsO^).— Butyrin  (C3H5(OC4H,0)3).  The  acid 
is  an  oily  liquid,  supposed  to  give  the  odour  of  rancid  butter, 
owing  to  its  being  set  free  from  butyrin.  Soluble  in  water,  alcohol, 
and  ether. 

Myristic  acid  (CuHogOg),  Caproic  acid  (CgHjoOs),  Capryllic  acid 
(CsHieOo),  and  Capric  acid  (C10H20O2),  are  also  found  in  butter 
the  last  three  being  volatile  fatty  acids. 

Chokstrin  (Co6H440[H20])  is  found  in  the  bile.  It  is  a  white, 
crystaUine  body,  forming  the  greater  part  of  "  gall-stones." 

Nitrogenous  Fats. — These  are  several  fatty  bodies,  containing 
nitrogen,  and  found  in  the  brain,  etc. 

Lecithin  (C44H90O9NP)  is  a  phosphorized  fat,  occurring  in  small 
amounts  in  many  organs  of  the  body,  and  found  as  well  in  the 
white  blood  corpuscles.  It  is  a  colourless  substance,  soluble  in 
ether,  alcohol,  carbon  disulphide,  etc.  It  is  easily  decomposed, 
one  of  the  products  being  stearic  acid. 

Frotagon,  a  body  whose  exact  composition  is  not  known, 
occurs  in  the  brain. 

Chemistry  of  Digestion. 

Salivary  Digestion. — Saliva  is  a  fluid  secreted  by  certain 
glands  in  the  cheeks,  and  effects  the  first  chemical  change  in 
the  food. 


Composition  of 

Saliva  (Lassaigne). 

Animal. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Water. 

^^"<="S         Alkaline 
Albumen,   carbonates. 

1 

Alkaline 
chlorides. 

Alkaline  Phosphates, 

and  Phosphates 

of  Lime. 

Horse 

Cow 

Sheep 

I -0045 
I'OIO 

99-2 

99-074 
98-9 

bob 

o-io8 
0-338 
0-3 

0-492 
0-285 
06 

traces 
0-259 
01 

120 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


The  most  important  constituent  of  saliva  is  ptyalin,  a  ferment, 
which  converts  starchy  substances  into  sugars.  The  exact  manner 
in  which  this  is  done  is  not  known,  but  two  theories  as  to  the 
products  have  been  advanced. 

(i)  sCeHioOs  +  3H,0   =        QH^A  +  2C6H10O5  +  2H2O  • 

Starch  and  water  yield     grape  sugar  +     dextrin. 

=   3(C6H,,Oe) 
(2)  2o(C6H,oO,)  +  8  H,0  =  8(Ci,H2,On)  +  2(C,,U.^Oio). 
Starch  and  water  yield      maltose         +  achroodextrin. 

Whatever  results,  however,  the  amylaceous  compounds  are 
rendered  more  soluble. 

Gastric  Digestion. — The  process  of  digestion  in  the  stomach 
is  effected  chiefly  by  the  gastric  juice.  The  composition  of  this 
substance  in  the  sheep  and  dog  is  as  follows  : — 


Water            

Organic  matter  (especially  ferments) 
Sodium  chloride 
Calcic  chloride 

Potassic  chloride 

Ammonium  chloride           

Free  hydrochloric  acid 

Calcic  phosphate 

Magnesic  phosphate            

Ferric  phosphate 

Dog. 

Sheep. 

96*10 
1-67 

0'22 
0-02 
O'lO 
0-04 

1-67 
o-i6 

0"02 

98-39 
0-40 
0-42 

o-oi 
0-15 
0-04 
,   0*40 
oil 
0*05 

0-03 

loo-oo 

1 00 '00 

The  chief  ferment  in  the  gastric  juice  is  pepsin,  a  nitrogenous 
principle.  Unlike  ptyalin,  which  only  performs  its  work  in  alka- 
line solutions,  pepsin  effects  its  changes  in  acid  solutions  alone. 
It  may  be  noticed  in  the  above  analyses  that  free  hydrochloric 
acid  is  present.  Small  amounts  of  lactic,  butyric,  and  other  acids 
may  be  found,  but  these  may  be  classed  as  products  of  decom- 
position of  the  food. 

The  exact  changes  caused  by  pepsin  are  not  very  well-known. 
It  appears  that  it  transforms  proteids  into  soluble  peptones,  which 
may  then  be  absorbed  by  the  walls  of  the  stomach.  Gastric  juice 
coagulates  the  casein  of  milk,  consequently  "  rennet,"  an  infusion 
of  calves'  stomachs  is  used  in  cheese-making.     This  action  is  not 


CHEMISTRY   OF  THE  ANIMAL  BODY.  121 

due  entirely  to  the  acid,  as  neutralized  gastric  juice  is  efficacious. 
It  is  supposed  to  be  due  to  a  milk-curdling  ferment  contained  in 
the  gastric  juice. 

Pancreatic  Digestion. — Pancreatic  juice  is  a  clear  viscid  fluid, 
with  a  very  decided  alkaline  reaction.  In  the  dog  it  contains 
from  91  to  98  per  cent,  water,  and  9  to  i^  per  cent,  of  solids,  of 
which  9  to  I  per  cent,  is  organic  matter. 

Pancreatic  juice  contains  three  principal  ferments,  Trypsin, 
Amylosin,  and  Steopsin. 

Like  gastric  juice,  trypsin  converts  proteids  into  peptones,  but 
considerable  amounts  of  other  bodies  also  appear.  Of  these  latter 
substances,  leucin  (CeHigNOg),  and  tyrosin  (C9H11NO3),  two 
crystallizable  nitrogenous  bodies,  are  the  chief. 

Amylosin  has  no  action  of  any  consequence  upon  proteids, 
but  can  dissolve  carbohydrates.  In  the  changes  it  causes,  there 
is  a  great  resemblance  to  those  due  to  ptyalin,  except  that  the 
action  of  the  saliva  is  less  vigorous. 

Steopsin  attacks  the  fats  of  foods,  splitting  them  up  into  the 
fatty  acid  and  glycerin.  The  fatty  acids  thus  liberated  combine 
with  the  alkaline  bases  of  the  pancreatic  juice  and  bile  to  form 
soaps.  These  soaps  further  assist  the  steopsin  and  bile  in  forming 
an  emulsion  of  the  fats  and  oils.  In  this  state  the  villi  on 
the  walls  of  the  duodenum  "are  able  to  absorb  the  fatty  food 
materials. 

The  changes  may  be  represented  thus  : — 

(1)  2C3H.,(OC,eH3iO)3  +  6H,0  =  6C,,U,,0,  +  2C3H5(OH)3 

Palmitin  +      water  =  palmitic  acid  +         glycerin 

(2)  CieHg^O,  +      KHO         =         CieH3i02K  -f-  H^O. 

Palmitic  acid  +  potassic  hydrate  =  potassic  palmate  or  soap  +  water. 

Bile. — The  specific  gravity  varies  from  i*oo8  to  i'o3o.  A 
sample  from  a  pig  was  found  to  contain  88-8  per  cent,  water,  and 
1 1-2  per  cent,  solids.  Of  the  solids,  7-3  per  cent,  was  bile  salts, 
2 '2  per  cent,  fats  and  soaps,  '6  per  cent,  mucin  and  colouring 
matter,  and  'ii  per  cent.  ash.  Its  reaction  is  alkaline.  The  bile 
salts  consist  principally  of  glycocholate  and  taurocholate  of  soda. 
Glycocholic  acid  possesses  the  formula  C26H43NO6.  It  may  be 
decomposed  by  boiling  with  H2O  into  cholic  acid  and  glycin, 
thus : — 

C^eH^aNOe  +  H^O  =  C24H40O5  +  QH^NOj, 

Cholic  acid  +      glycin. 

Taurocholic  acid  (C26H45NO;S)  is  derived  from  the  breaking 
down  of  albuminoids.  It  may  be  split  up  into  cholic  acid  and 
taurin  (C2H7NSO3). 


122 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


In  action  bile  seems  to  assist  the  amylosin  of  pancreatic  juice 
in  forming  an  emulsion  of  fat.  It  also  tends  somewhat  to  preserve 
the  food  in  the  intestines  from  decomposition. 

Succus  Entericus. — This  is  a  digestive  juice  secreted  by  the 
Lieberkiihnian  follicles.  It  is  of  a  slightly  alkaline  nature,  and 
contains  nearly  99  per  cent,  water.  Its  use  is  scarcely  known, 
but  it  is  supposed  to  convert  cane-sugar  into  dextrose,  and 
laevulose,  thus  : — 


C12H22OH  -f-  H2O 

Saccharose  +  water 


CeHiaOe  +  CeHj-^Oe. 

dextrose  +  laevulose. 


The  Chemistry  of  Excretion. 

Intestinal  secretion  may  be  almost  disregarded  in  the  present 
section,  as  the  composition  of  the  faeces,  etc.,  is  dealt  with  in  the 
chapter  on  ''  Manures." 

Renal  Secretion. — This  is  really  made  up  of  two  acts  :  (i)  the 
mere  infiltration  of  various  constituents,  as  water,  sugar,  peptones, 
and  certain  salts,  into  the  glomeruli ;  and  (2)  the  manufacture  of 
others  in  the  kidneys  from  bodies  originally  existing  in  the  blood. 
The  physiological  part  of  renal  secretion  is  dealt  with  under  the 
"Anatomy  of  Farm  Animals."  At  present,  only  the  chemistry 
will  be  touched. 


(Composition  of  Urine  Boussingault). 


Water         

Urea           

Alkaline  lactates 

Potassium  bicarbonate     . . 
Calcic  carbonate   .. 
Potassic  hippurate 
Magnesic  carbonate 
Potassium  sulphate 
Sodium  chloride    . . 
Silica 
Phosphates 

Horse.' 

Cow.^ 

Pig.' 

91-00 
3-10 

2  01 

1*55 

I -08 

0-47 
0-42 

0-I2 

0  07 

O'lO 

92*12 

1-85 
1-72 
I -61 
0*06 
1-65 
0-47 
0-36 
0-15 
traces 

■ 

97-91 
0-49 

1-07 
traces 

0-09 
0-20 
013 
o-oi 
o-io 

99-92 

100 -oo 

100-00 

According  to  R.  M.  Smith,  the  water,  K,  Na,  Ca,  and  Mg, 
compounds  are  derived  directly  from  the  blood.  The  sulphuric 
acid  results  from  the  oxidation  of  sulphur  compounds  in  the  food  j 

*  Diet  of  oats  and  clover-fodder.  '  Diet  of  hay  and  potatoes, 

'  Diet  of  cooked  potatoes. 


CHEMISTRY  OF   THE  ANIMAL   BODY.  1 23 

the  phosphates,  from  the  oxidation  of  albuminoids  in  the  food  and 
tissues ;  carbonates,  from  the  food,  and  also  from  the  decomposition 
of  vegetable  acids. 

Urea  (CO[NH2].2)  results  from  the  decomposition  of  albumi- 
noids. Small  amounts  may  already  exist  in  the  blood,  but  the 
greater  part  is  formed  in  the  kidneys. 

Uric  acid  (C5H4N4O3)  is  formed  in  the  same  manner  as  urea. 
It  is  rarely  found  in  the  urine  of  mammals,  but  occurs  in  that  of 
birds  and  serpents. 

Kreatin  (C4H9N3O2)  is  not  a  normal  constituent  of  urine,  but 
may  occur  there  owing  to  the  conversion  of  kreatinin  into  it.  It 
may  be  decomposed  into  urea,  etc.,  thus  : — 

C4H9N3O2  +  H,0  =  C,H;NO.,  +  CO(NH2)2. 

Sarcosin    +         urea. 

Hippuric  acid  (C9H9NO3)  is  a  combination  of  benzoic  acid 
with  glycochol.  It  originates  in  the  constituents  of  vegetable 
foods,  the  cuticular  portions  of  which  develop  benzoic  acid. 

It  may 'be  noticed  that  the  urine  of  the  pig  alone  contains 
phosphates. 

Epidermal  Excretions. — Sweat  \%  of  course,  the  chief  substance 
to  be  noted  here.  It  is  commonly  of  either  a  neutral  or  an  alkaline 
nature,  though  sometimes  it  is  acid.  This  latter  characteristic  is 
due  to  the  development  of  fatty  acids  from  decomposition  of  the 
fatty  materials  of  the  sebaceous  glands. 

Sweat  contains  about  I'S  per  cent,  solids,  of  which  two-thirds 
are  inorganic,  and  consist  chiefly  of  alkaline  chlorides.  Small 
amounts  of  urea  are  also  present. 

Sebaceous  secretions  consist  chiefly  of  fats  or  oils,  with  small 
amounts  of  albuminous  matter,  water,  cholestrin,  and  ash  (potas- 
sium salts  principally).  They  are  formed  from  the  metabolism,  or 
breaking  down,  of  protoplasmic  matter  in  the  sebaceous  glands. 

In  connection  with  the  sebaceous  secretions  we  may  notice 
the  '■' suinf'  of  wool,  which,  together  with  other  fatty  products, 
forms  the  ^^ yolk''  Suint  is  a  compound  of  potassium  with  an 
organic  acid,  containing  nitrogen,  of  which  httle  is  known.  It  is 
a  soluble  body,  and  therefore  it  is  in  great  part  removed  by  washing. 
According  to  Warington,  suint  may  amount  to  half  the  weight  of 
the  unwashed  fleeces  of  merino  sheep  \  but  in  sheep  that  have  to 
stand  wind  and  rain,  the  quantity  may  be  15  per  cent.,  or  less. 
Besides  this,  there  is  the  ordinary  fat  of  the  wool,  varying  from 
8  to  30  per  cent,  of  the  fleece. 


124  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Chemistry  of  Respiration. 

Air,  before  being  taken  into  the  lungs,  contains— oxygen,  20*8 
per  cent. ;  nitrogen,  79 'i  per  cent. ;  carbon  dioxide,  "04  per  cent. ; 
together  with  variable  amounts  of  moisture,  and  traces  of  ammonia, 
etc. 

Of  these  substances  the  nitrogen  plays  no  active  part,  merely 
diluting  the  oxygen.  The  carbon  dioxide  also  is  of  no  use  in 
respiration.  Consequently  the  oxygen  is  left  alone  to  perform  all 
changes. 

During  an  inspiration  the  oxygen  of  the  air  comes  into  close 
contact  with  the  blood  in  the  minute  capillaries  of  the  lungs.  The 
red  corpuscles  of  blood,  as  mentioned  elsewhere,  contain  a  body 
known  as  haemoglobin,  the  percentage  composition  of  which  is 
C,  53-85;  H,  7-32;  N,  16-17;  O,  21-84  S.  -39,  Fe,  -43;  with  3  or 
4  per  cent,  of  water  of  crystallization.  It  has  been  attempted  to 
give  it  a  formula,  thus :  C6ooH96oNi54FeS30j79.  Haemoglobin  in 
reality  consists  of  a  mixture  of  hsematin  and  globulin.  Haematin 
by  itself  is  a  dark  brown  amorphous  powder,  having  the  probable 
composition  C32H34N4Fe05.  This  body  performs  the  most  active 
chemical  function  of  respiration,  but  only  on  account  of  the  iron 
it  contains.  By  means  of  the  iron,  the  haematin  forms  a  sort  ot 
loose  chemical  combination  with  the  oxygen  of  the  inspired  air. 

The  blood  after  this  flows  back  to  the  heart,  and  thence 
through  all  the  tissues  of  the  body.  Here  another  change  occurs. 
The  oxygen  is  somehow  or  other  taken  up  by  the  cells  of  the 
muscle,  etc.,  and  replaced  in  the  haemoglobin  by  carbonic  acid 
gas.  The  oxygen  is  used  up  in  the  various  processes  of  oxida- 
tion, chiefly  of  carbon  compounds,  the  result  of  which  are  the 
different  forms  of  energy.  Hence  we  see  how  the  carbonic  acid 
gas  is  obtained. 

While  the  blood  contains  oxyhaemoglobin  it  is  scarlet  in 
colour,  but  when  charged  with  carbon  dioxide,  it  becomes  more 
of  a  purple  hue. 

In  the  lungs  the  COg  is  turned  out  of  the  blood  by  the  oxygen, 
and  the  whole  process  recommences. 

Dry  expired  air  will  be  found  to  contain  about — 

Oxygen.  Nitrogen.  Carbon  Dioxide. 

16-03%  79-55%  3-8% 

It  is  also  well  saturated  with  moisture.  Many  organic  bodies, 
derived  probably  from  the  decomposition  of  materials  entering 
into  the  composition  of  the  tissues,  are  also  present.  Among 
these  may  be  classed  ammonia.  It  is  chiefly  on  account  of  these 
organic  substances  that  the  air  of  rooms  crowded  with  people  or 
animals  has  such  bad  effects. 


CHAPTER   IV. 

AGRICULTURAL   BOTANY. 

A. — Structure  and  Physiology  of  the  PlanU 
The  Vegetable  Cell. 

Plants  as  well  as  animals  commence  life  as  single  cells,  and 
in  the  beginning  all  these  cells  appear  so  much  alike  that  no 
difference  can  be  detected  in  them  either  by  chemical  or  micro- 
scopical means. 

The  embryo  cell  which  produces  a  blade  ot  grass  presents 
the  same  appearance  as  that  which  gives  rise  to  an  oak  tree  or 
develops  into  a  fly,  fish,  bird,  or  dog.  In  the  course  of  develop- 
ment this  resemblance  soon  disappears. 

The  simplest  forms  of  vegetable  life  commence  as  a  single 
cell  and  remain  as  such  throughout  their  existence,  multiplying  by 
simple  division,  while  the  higher  plants  form  colonies  which  differ 
in  structure  from  the  parent  cell.  It  will  be  interesting  to  examine 
the  structure  of  these  simple  one-celled  plants,  because  by  so 
doing  we  get  a  better  idea  of  the  structure  and  physiology  of 
those  which  are  higher  and  more  complicated.  Attention  should, 
therefore,  be  directed  to  the  yeast-plant,  and  the  common  green 
mould  found  on  the  trunks  of  trees  and  damp  palings. 

These  may  be  taken  as  specimens  of  two  great  divisions  of 
plants  :  first,  those  which  are  colourless,  like  the  yeast,  and  are 
called  fungi;  and  second,  those  which  contain  green  colouring 
matter,  like  the  green  mould. 

More  advanced  plants  will  be  found  consisting  of  either  a 
number  of  cells  joined  end  to  end,  and  forming  long  chains  or 
threads,  as  in  the  case  of  green  algae,  like  the  spirogyra,  and  the 
mycelium  threads  of  fungi,  or.  united  together  to  form  a  more 
or  less  compact  mass. 

In  the  simplest  forms  these  cells  all  resemble  one  another, 
but  as  we  ascend  in  the  scale  of  vegetable  life  we  find  that  some 
gradually  become  altered  in  shape  and  chemical  composition,  so 
that  we  have  several  sets  of  cells,  each  set  carrying  on  a  special 


126  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

function.  The  development  of  the  higher  plants  from  the  simple 
ones  may  very  well  be  compared  with  the  development  of  a  civi- 
lized race  from  the  savage  state.  In  the  barbarous  condition  man 
has  to  do  everything  for  himself,  with  his  hand  against  every  man 
and  every  man's  hand  against  him  ;  but  when  men  combine  to  help 
one  another  and  divide  the  work  between  them,  every  operation  is 
done  better.  One  man  attends  solely  to  cultivating  the  ground, 
another  to  making  clothes,  another  to  baking  bread,  etc.  The 
result  is  a  combination  for  mutual  benefit.  It  is  the  same  with 
the  higher  plants,  every  one  of  which,  in  the  first  instance,  starts 
as  a  simple  cell,  primarily  dividing  up  into  a  large  number 
of  similar  cells,  which  then  become  specialized.  They  begin  to 
perform  special  work,  and  their  structure  alters  so  as  to 
especially  suit  the  functions  they  have  to  perform.  Some  on  the 
outside  of  the  plant  take  on  the  office  of  protection ;  these  are 
the  epidermal  cells.  Their  walls  become  toughened  and  thickened, 
and  some  of  them  grow  out  into  prickles,  or  form  a  hairy  coat 
to  protect  from  the  cold,  or  secrete  resinous  juices  to  keep  away 
insects.  Others  become  elongated  and  their  walls  thickened  so 
as  to  give  strength  and  tenacity  to  the  root  and  stem.  These 
elongated  cells  placed  end  to  end  form  the  fibres  of  the  flax 
and  hemp. 

Other  cells  form  vessels  for  the  conveyance  of  water  from  the 
roots  to  the  leaves.  Some  form  storehouses  for  nourishment,  as 
in  the  potato.  Others  in  the  leaf  become  distinct  chemical 
laboratories,  where  the  green  chlorophyll  granules  are  busy 
decomposing  carbonic  acid  gas  by  the  aid  of  sunlight,  and  manu- 
facturing starch  and  sugar  in  a  way  that  has  as  yet  defied  the 
most  able  chemists  to  discover. 

We  may  then  look  upon  the  higher  plants  as  colonies  of 
highly  specialized  cells,  united  together  and  working  for  their 
mutual  benefit,  each  having  its  particular  function  to  perform, 
and  doing  its  duty  in  a  mechanical  and  unvarying  manner^  unless 
prevented  by  disease  from  accomplishing  it. 

Each  passes  through  the  various  stages  of  its  life  history,  per- 
forms its  functions,  and  dies  without  interfering  with  the  general 
welfare  of  the  plant  of  which  it  forms  a  part.  Indeed,  many  cells 
do  not  begin  to  be  of  service  to  the  community  till  after  their 
death;  such,  for  instance,  are  those  forming  vessels  and  woody 
fibres. 

The  cell,  then,  is  the  basis  of  the  structure  of  all  plants ; 
consequently,  it  is  necessary  to  get  a  very  clear  idea  of  its  structure 
and  composition,  as  well  as  of  its  contents. 

In  all  cells,  at  some  time  during  their  growth,  the  following 
structures  may  be  made  out : — 


STRUCTURE   AND   PHYSIOLOGY   OF   PLANTS.  1 27 

T.  The  wall,  consisting  of  cellulose. 

2.  A  granular,  sticky  substance,  protoplasm,  lining  the  wall. 

3.  Imbedded  in  the  protoplasm  is  the  nucleus^  a  specialized 
part  of  the  protoplasm. 

4.  The  sap,  a  watery  fluid  filling  the  interior  more  or  less. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  young  cells  change  very  much  as  they 
get  older.  In  their  early  condition  they  are  comparatively  small, 
the  wall  is  very  thin  and  the  protoplasm  dense,  filling  up  the 
whole  of  the  interior.  As  the  celf  gets  older,  the  walls  thicken ; 
the  sap,  which  at  first  is  distributed  through  the  protoplasm,  collects 
in  -small  drops,  called  vacuoles.  As  it  increases  in  size,  the  drops 
of  sap  coalesce  and  fill  the  central  space,  while  the  protoplasm 
retreats  to  the  wall,  where  it  forms  an  investing  layer.  If  the 
cell  forms  part  of  the  succulent  portion  of  the  plant,  it  remains 
in  this  condition  ;  but  if  it  belongs  to  a  set  forming  tissue  vessels, 
cork,  etc.,  still  further  changes  take  place.  It  may  change  its 
shape,  may  become  very  much  elongated,  the  walls  thickened, 
and  their  chemical  nature  altered,  the  protoplasm  disappears,  and 
the  cell  may  contain  only  water  or  air. 

Protoplasm  generally  presents  itself  as  a  granular  semi-fluid 
substance  with  or  without  a  cell  wall. 

It  must  always  be  remembered  that  the  only  living  part  of 
the  cell  is  the  protoplasm,  and  as  the  whole  plant  is  composed 
of  cells,  it  follows  that  protoplasm  is  the  only  living  part  of  the 
plant. 

Upon  more  careful  examination,  protoplasm  is  found  to 
consist  of  a  fine  network,  enclosing  a  more  fluid  substance  in  its 
meshes,  and  that  its  consistency  varies  with  the  size  of  the 
meshes.  Animal  and  vegetable  protoplasm  are  almost  exactly 
the  same  in  composition.  We  therefore  refer  the  reader  to  p.  114. 

Concerning  the  nature  and  composition  of  starch,  cellulose 
and  chlorophyll,  the  student  should  refer  to  the  chapter  on  the 
chemical  composition  of  plants. 

The  Growings  Point. — If  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  growing 
point  of  any  young  plant  (the  radicle  of  the  bean,  for  example) 
be  examined  under  the  microscope,  it  will  be  found  that  the 
structure  consists  of  a  number  of  cells  separated  from  one  another 
by  walls,  and  containing  protoplasm  and  cell  sap. 

At  the  apex  will  be  found  a  number  of  cells  all  alike,  with 
very  thin  walls.  These  are  capable  of  dividing  by  transverse 
division,  and  in  this  way  the  root  or  stem  increases  in  length, 
but  of  those  left  behind  only  a  small  number  retain  the  power 
of  multiplication,  and  they  form  a  cylindrical  ring  of  cells  be- 
tween the  bark  and  the  wood.     This  is  called  the  cambium  layer. 

It  is  by  the  growth  of  these  cells  every  summer  that  trees 


128  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

increase  in  thickness.  Grasses  and  other  plants  belonging  to 
the  class  of  monocotyledons  have  no  cambium  layer,  and  do  not 
increase  in  thickness  every  year. 

The  remaining  cells  become  altered  as  they  get  older.  They 
have  all  different  functions  to  perform,  and  their  structure 
becomes  modified  accordingly. 

Epidermis. — The  outside  cells  become  epiderrnal  cells.  Their 
function  is  protective,  therefore  their  walls  become  thick,  tough, 
and  impervious  to  water,  the  contents  disappear,  and  they  become 
filled  with  air,  or  become  solid  and  hard,  forming  prickles. 

Vessels. — Some  of  the  cells  join  together  end  to  end,  ^nd 
the  partitions  between  them  being  absorbed,  they  become  vessels. 
Some  of  them  have  special  thickenings.  The  vessels  of  the 
wood  serve  for  the  rapid  ascent  of  the  crude  sap  to  the  leaves 
during  transpiration. 

Woody  Fibres. — Others,  again,  become  very  much  elongated, 
the  walls  greatly  thickened,  and  the  cellulose  is  converted  into 
lignin.     In  this  way  woody  fibres  are  formed. 

Some  cells  act  as  reservoirs  for  starch  and  oil,  as  in  the 
potato  and  linseed. 

Structure  of  the  Root.— The  root  is,  as  a  rule,  the  under- 
ground portion  of  the  plant,  but  as  exceptions  to  this  it  may  be 
stated  that  some  stems,  as  of  the  potato,  are  underground,  and 
some  roots,  as  of  ivy  and  some  orchids,  are  aerial.  The  root 
is  of  a  brownish  colour  usually,  owing  to  the  non-development 
of  chlorophyll  in  its  tissues.  The  main  root  is  commonly  known 
as  the  tap  root;  from  this,  in  dicotyledons,  others  branch  off 
approximately  at  an  angle  of  45°.  After  this  the  order  becomes 
somewhat  irregular.  The  extremities  of  the  rootlets  are  pro- 
tected by  a  root-cap  (pileorhiza)  made  up  of  thickened  cells.  It 
is  immediately  behind  this  cap  that  increase  in  length  takes 
place,  and  this  also  is  the  only  point  for  assimilation. 

Increase  in  width  is  caused  by  the  action  of  the  cambium 
layer,  which  lies  just  beneath  the  cortex,  or  part  usually  classed 
as  bark.  Fresh  rootlets  are  also  immediately  derived  from  the 
cambium  layer,  which  forms  outgrowths  that  push  their  way 
through  the  epidermis. 

Forms  of  Roots. — In  monocotyledons,  e.g.  grasses,  cereals,  etc., 
the  chief  form  of  root  is  fibrous  — that  is,  a  number  of  slender 
branches  are  given  off  without  any  definite  tap.  When  these 
fibres  become  swollen  we  get  tuberculated  forms,  as  in  some 
orchids;  or  nodulose,  as  in  dropwort.  As  examples  of  simple 
tap  root  we  may  take  the  oak.  Sometimes  the  taps  take  pecuHar 
forms,  and  then  receive  distinctive  names  :  when  broad  at  the 
base  and  tapering  to  a  point,  as  in  the  carrot,  it  is  called  conical; 


STRUCTURE  AND   PHYSIOLOGY  OF  PLANTS.  1 29 

if  broadest   in   the  centre,   as  in  the   radish,  fusiform;   when 
globular,  as  in  the  turnip,  it  is  known  as  napiform. 

Functions  of  the  Root. — (i)  To  hold  the  plant  in  the  ground. 

(2)  To  assimilate  nourishment.  This  is  the  chief  function. 
The  substances  absorbed  consist  of  various  salts  in  very  dilute 
solution,  and  only  in  this  form  can  plants  take  up  their  mineral 
food.  The  solution  diffuses  through  the  thin  cell  walls  of  the 
root-hairs,  immediately  behind  the  root-cap.  At  no  other  point 
can  the  process  take  place.  The  solution  then  passes  from  cell 
to  cell,  according  to  the  law  of  osmosis,  or  rises  rapidly  through 
the  vessels  of  the  wood  to  the  leaves  as  crude  sap.  This  rapid 
movement  of  the  crude  sap  only  occurs  during  the  process  of 
transpiration  from  the  leaves,  consequently  it  cannot  take  place 
during  winter,  when  the  leaves  have  fallen. 

It  must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  the  water  in  the  soil 
has  all  the  plant-food  constituents  ready  in  solution,  and  that 
the  root  has  simply  to  absorb  it.  Many  substances,  especially 
phosphoric  acid,  are  rarely  found  in  solution  in  the  soil,  and  it 
seems  that  the  root-hairs  themselves  have  to  come  in  very  close 
relationship  with  the  particles  of  the  soil  before  they  can  obtain 
the  supplies  of  nourishment  which  are  held  in  loose  chemical 
combination  by  some  of  the  constituents  of  the  soil.  The  acid  sap 
that  plants  exude  apparently  dissolves  phosphates  and  carbonates 
of  Ume  and  potash,  so  that  they  can  be  absorbed  with  the  crude 
sap.  This  can  be  easily  proved  by  germinating  seeds  on  a  piece 
of  polished  marble,  covering  them  with  a  very  thin  layer  of  moist 
sand.  It  will  be  found,  after  a  time,  that  the  young  roots  have 
corroded  the  surface  of  the  marble,  dissolving  out  the  carbonate 
of  lime,  and  leaving  minute  grooves  where  they  have  been  in 
contact. 

(3)  To  store  up  nourishment.  This  function  is  not  carried 
out  by  all  plants;  but  in  the  turnip,  carrot,  radish,  mangel, 
etc.,  we  see  very  good  examples.  The  sap,  after  being  elabo- 
rated in  the  leaves,  descends  to  the  root,  and  there  many  of  the 
substances  it  held  in  solution  are  deposited.  They  are  used  up 
by  the  protoplasm  to  build  and  fill  fresh  cells.  Starch  is  the  chief 
material  stored  up  in  this  manner. 

Where  this  function  is  carried  out,  it  usually  shows  that  the 
plant  is  a  biennial — that  is,  it  stores  up  nourishment  one  year  to 
serve  as  food  during  the  flowering  process  next  year. 

Structure  of  the  Stem. — The  stem  has  several  distinctions 
from  the  root:  {a)  it  may  develop  chlorophyll,  {p)  may  possess 
stomata,  {c)  never  has  a  root-cap,  {d)  may  produce  leaves. 

We  will  briefly  notice  the  various  component  parts  of  a  typical 
dicotyledon  stem ;  as  of  an  oak,  for  instance.     In  the  centre  we 

K 


I30  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

have  the  pith,  consisting  of  dead  cells  more  or  less  filled  with  air, 
and  serving  no  function.  Next  to  them  in  order  outwards  is  the 
xylem,  which  forms  the  wood.  It  consists  of  vessels,  sieve-tubes, 
and  fibres,  and,  in  a  tree,  is  seen  to  be  divided  up  by  a  number 
of  circular  "  annular  "  rings.  Outside  the  xylem  is  the  cambium 
ring,  consisting  of  meristem  tissue — that  is,  tissue  capable  of 
growth.  This  is  the  only  growing  part  of  the  stem.  When  the 
bark  is  peeled  oif  a  live  twig  in  spring,  the  cambium  layer  is  the 
sticky  surface  met  with. 

After  the  cambium  layer  comes  the  phloem,  consisting  of  sieve- 
tubes  and  fibres.  This  forms  a  small  ring  just  under  the  bark. 
Lastly,  we  have  the  bark  made  up  of  epidermis,  subepidermis, 
and  cortex.     All  thorns,  hairs,  etc.,  belong  to  the  epidermis. 

From  the  cambium  layer  there  proceed  inwards  a  number  of 
tubes,  known  as  medullary  rays,  which  carry  nourishment  into  the 
xylem. 

Forms  of  Stems. — Stems  may  be  erect,  creeping,  climbing, 
twining,  or  underground.  Among  creeping  stems  we  have  the 
varieties  of  runner  (strawberry),  offset  (houseleek),  stolon  (goose- 
berry), rhizome  (Solomon's  seal). 

Functions  of  the  Stem.— (i)  To  bear  leaves  and  flowers. 

(2)  To  carry  nourishment  from  the  root  to  the  leaves  to  be 
elaborated.  The  crude  sap  ascends  by  the  xylem,  and  descends 
by  the  phloem.  It  ascends  by  the  aid  of  the  vessels  and  sieve- 
tubes  ;  the  parts  of  the  stem  are  supplied  through  the  medullary 
rays,  or  by  passage  from  cell  to  cell. 

(3)  To  store  up  nourishment. 

Structure  of  the  Leaf.— The  leaf  is  formed  in  such  a  way 
as  to  expose  as  great  a  surface  as  possible  to  the  sun  and  atmo- 
sphere. Its  structure  is  best  seen  from  a  transverse  section  under 
the  microscope.  Above  and  below  is  a  layer  of  epidermal  cells, 
enclosing  air;  next  to  them  we  have  a  number  of  cells  rich 
in  protoplasm,  and  containing  green  chlorophyll  granules.  The 
substance  of  the  leaf  is  made  up  of  spongy  parenchymatous  cells, 
with  air-spaces  between  them.  The  lower  surface  is  pierced  by  a 
number  of  small  openings,  called  stomata,  through  which  the 
gases  and  watery  vapour  can  pass.  The  leaf-stalk  divides  up  into 
a  large  number  of  sub-divisions,  which  run  to  every  part  of  the 
leaf.  These  are  the  veins,  and  are  made  up  of  fibres  and  small 
vessels  which  convey  the  crude  sap  to  the  leaf-cells. 

The  Functions  of  the  leaf  are — 

1.  Assimilation. 

2.  Respiration. 

3.  Transpiration. 

4.  To  store  up  nourishment. 


STRUCTURE   AND   PHYSIOLOGY   OF   PLANTS.  13I 

Nourishment  may  be  stored  up  in  the  leaf-stalk,  as  in  the 
rhubarb  ;  in  the  bases  of  the  leaf-stalk,  as  in  the  onion  and  hyacinth ; 
or  in  the  leaf-substance  itself,  as  in  the  aloe  and  agave. 

The  Reproductive  Organs. — The  ultimate  object  of  a  plant's 
existence  is  the  propagation  of  its  own  species,  and  it  is  to  this 
end  that  most  plants  store  up  such  large  amounts  of  food 
material  in  their  roots,  stems,  seeds,  etc. 

Plants  which  perform  the  whole  cycle  of  germination,  growth, 
reproduction,  and  death  in  one  year  are  termed  annuals ;  if  two 
years  are  taken,  they  are  bieiinials  ;  but  if  more  than  this  period 
is  required,  they  are  usually  known  as  perefuiials.  Examples : 
(i)  barley,  (2)  turnip,  (3)  many  grasses. 

Reproduction  may  take  place  asexually  or  sexually. 

Asexually  plants  are  reproduced  (i)  by  cuttings,  as  a  geranium 
cutting ;  (2)  by  grafts,  as  with  the  apple-tree ;  (3)  by  tubers,  as 
of  the  potato;  (4)  by  root-stocks,  as  the  horse-radish,  (5)  by 
tuberous  roots,  as  the  Jerusalem  artichoke ;  (6)  by  bulbs  (axillary 
buds),  as  the  hyacinth ;  (7)  by  runners,  as  the  strawberry. 

In  all  these  cases  the  variety  is  preserved.  The  sexual  mode 
of  reproduction  is  the  method  chiefly  relied  on  by  the  higher 
plants  for  preserving  the  species,  and  for  the  production  of  fresh 
varieties  which  may  be  better  suited  to  any  change  of  climate  or 
circumstances  that  may  have  taken  place,  and  thus  enables  them 
to  survive  in  the  struggle  for  existence. 

A  typical  flower  consists  of  at  least  four  parts.  These  are, 
in  order  from  the  outside,  (i)  the  calyx,  (2)  the  corolla,  (3)  the 
andraecium,  (4)  the  gynaecium.  The  corolla,  when  present, 
usually  consists  of  green  leaves,  or  sepals,  sometimes  scarcely 
noticeable.  Their  prime  function  is  protection.  The  corolla 
is  made  up  of  the  coloured  petals,  the  most  showy  part  of  the 
flower.  It  serves  to  attract  insects.  The  andraecium  is  the 
collective  name  for  the  numbers  of  stamens,  or  male  organs. 
The  gynaecium  is  the  female  part  of  the  plant,  and  is  made  up 
of  a  number  of  carpels,  each  of  which  contains  one  or  more 
ovules,  or  eggs. 

Fertilization  consists  in  the  union  of  the  contents  of  pollen 
grains  (small  bodies  given  off  by  the  stamens)  with  the  egg-cell 
contained  in  the  ovary.  In  comparatively  few  plants  does  the 
pollen  fertilize  the  ovules  on  the  same  flower,  and  consequently 
some  means  must  be  found  for  conveying  it  from  one  plant  to 
another.  There  are  two  chief  methods  :  (i)  by  the  agency  of 
the  wind  (anemophilous  flowers),  as  in  grasses  and  cereals  ;  and 
(2)  by  the  influence  of  insects  (entomophilous  flowers).  In  any 
case  the  pollen  grain  attaches  itself  to  the  stigma,  the  summit 
of  the  lengthened  apex  of  the  carpel.     A  long  tube  grows  out 


132  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

from  it,  and  passes  through  the  tissues  of  the  style,  until  it 
reaches  the  ovary,  or  lowest  part  of  the  carpel.  The  contents 
of  the  pollen-tube  become  incorporated  with  the  protoplasm  of  the 
egg-cell  within  the  ovule.  The  result  of  this  fertilization  is,  that 
the  egg-cell  begins  to  grow,  and  becomes  the  young  embryo 
plant,  while  the  ovule  is  changed  into  a  seed. 

[For  a  fuller  description  of  fertilization,  the  reader  should 
consult  some  work  on  Botany.] 

B. — Farm  Crops, 

Agricultural  Classification  of  Crops. 

For  agricultural  purposes  the  main  crops  may  conveniently  be 
classified  thus  : — 

1.  Root  crops :  white  turnip,  yellow  turnip,  swede,  mangel, 
carrot,  parsnip. 

2.  Tuber  crops :  potato. 

3.  Cabbage  crops  for  forage :  kohl-rabi,  kale,  close-headed 
cabbage,  or  drumhead. 

4.  Mixed  clover  and  grass  crops ^  or  shortly  grass  for  forage^  hay^ 
and  pasture.  The  chief  clovers  are  trefoil,  red,  alsyke,  and  white. 
The  chief  grasses  are  Italian  rye-grass,  perennial  rye-grass,  Timothy, 
and  cocksfoot. 

5.  Cereal  grain  crops  :  barley,  oat,  wheat. 

6.  Leguminous  seed  crops :  bean,  pea. 

7.  Miscellaneous  fodder  crops:  white  mustard,  winter  rye, 
barley,  oats,  etc, 

I.  Root  Crops. 

Duration. — Any  plant  with  a  vegetative  organ  specialized  for 
purposes  of  storage  must  be  of  more  than  annual  duration. 
Thus  root-crop  plants  with  storing  roots  are  all  biennials,  and 
have  two  very  sharply  marked  periods  of  growth  : — 

1.  The  vegetative  period,  or  period  of  storage — first  year, 

2.  The  reproductive  period,  or  period  of  seed-making — second 
year.  Complete  exhaustion  of  the  plant  is  the  consequence  of 
seed-making. 

The  part  used  as  crop  is  the  root,  the  product  of  the  vegetative 
activity  of  the  first  year's  growth.  Crop  maturity  or  perfection 
is  accordingly  reached  when  the  vegetative  processes  are  com- 
pleted, before  softening  and  preparation  for  reproductive  activity 
begins. 

The  time  taken  to  arrive  at  this  crop  perfection  by  the  various 
members  of  the  group  is  the  period  of  vegetation.    The  order  is : — 


FARM  CROPS.  133 

[  White  turnip — shortest  period  of  vegetation,  eight 
Rapid  weeks  or  more. 

Growers     Yellow  turnip — about  four  months. 
.  Swede — five  months  or  more. 

{Mangel — about  six  months,  or  longer. 
Carrot — six  months  or  more. 
Parsnip — longest  period. 

This  period  determines  the  order  of  sowing,  thus  : — 

White  turnip — last  sown. 

Yellow  turnip — a  fortnight  or  a  month  earlier. 

Swede — a  fortnight  earlier  than  yellow. 

Mangel  ] 

Carrot    >  First  sown  in  spring. 

Parsnip  J 

A  short  period  of  vegetation  fits  a  plant  for  minor  or  "  catch 
crop,"  and,  in  the  root  group,  white  turnip  is  most  suitable  for 
this  purpose. 

A  long  period  of  vegetation  means  more  light  and  heat  utilized, 
more  assimilation,  and  consequent  extra  production  of  organic 
substances — in  short,  high  nutritive  value.  Thus  white  turnips  are 
least  nutritive ;  carrots  and  parsnips  most  so.  If  seed,  soil,  and 
climatic  peculiarities,  or  management  shorten  the  period  of  vege- 
tation, crop  value  is  correspondingly  diminished.  Under  such 
circumstances,  the  plant  has  not  sufficient  time  to  fully  utilize  the 
substances  already  extracted  from  the  soil  for  production  of 
nutritive  organic  material. 

Root  Distribution. — There  is  always  a  primary  or  tap  root, 
the  storing  organ  of  the  plant,  and,  accordingly,  the  special  object 
of  the  cultivation.  The  absorbing  roots  are  branched  fibres,  spring- 
ing especially  from  the  thin  lower  end  of  the  tap,  and  spreading 
more  or  less  horizontally  in  the  ground.  The  two  kinds  of  roots 
are — 

1.  The  storing  tap. 

2.  The  absorbing  fibres. 

These  fibres  are  variously  arranged  on  the  tap  : — 

1.  In  two  longitudinal  rows  along  the  tap. 

2.  In  rings  around  the  tap. 

The  two-rowed  arrangement  is  quite  characteristic  of  Cruci- 
ferous roots  (turnip  and  swede)  and  mangels ;  the  ringed  arrange- 
ment equally  so  of  Umbelliferae  (carrot  and  parsnip). 

A  prolonged  period  of  vegetation  means  deeper  root.  Thus, 
turnips  are  shallower  than  swedes,  swedes  than  mangels,  carrots 
than  parsnips.  Period  of  vegetation,  root-depth,  and  drought- 
resisting  power  increase  or  decrease  together.  Drought-resisting 
power  is  a  special  feature  of  the  deepest  forms  which  affect  light 


134  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

soils,  such  as  carrots.  Underground  water  stores  are  at  the 
command  of  the  deep  roots.  The  deep  character  of  the  root 
system  necessitates  deep  cultivation.  In  rotation,  such  plants 
are  rightly  alternated  with  shallow  forms,  and  root  crops  are 
accordingly  interpolated  between  cereals  with  shallow  roots. 

Habits. — Absorptive  Activity, — The  chief  supply  of  soil  materials 
is  wanted  when  most  substance  is  being  laid  down  in  the  body  of 
the  root,  during  the  late  months  of  vegetative  life.  In  this  respect 
roots  differ  quite  from  grain-producers,  which  use  the  soil  at  a 
more  unpropitious  season,  during  early  year.  If  waste  of  manure 
is  to  be  avoided,  this  difference  must  be  carefully  borne  in 
mind. 

The  absorbing  roots  are  dainty  in  their  ways,  inasmuch  as  they 
make,  and  can  make,  no  use  of  insoluble  minerals.  The  fact 
that  insoluble  substances,  such  as  bone-meal^  are,  in  certain  cir- 
cumstances, beneficial  is  no  disproof.  This  peculiarity  necessitates 
the  artificial  addition  to  the  soil  of  readily  available  compounds, 
or  fertilizers,  as  such  compounds  are  termed.  Roots,  cabbages, 
and  potatoes  demand  them  most.  A  well-cultivated  and  well- 
dunged  soil  in  a  warm  climate  requires  artificials  least  of  all,  for, 
in  this  case,  the  soil  itself  becomes  a  manure  factory  in  which  all 
the  fertilizers  are  produced.  Dung  must  therefore  be  lavishly 
applied,  to  meet  the  wants  of  crops  demanding  soluble  substances  ; 
indeed,  most  of  the  farm  dung  is  used  for  roots,  especially  on 
lands  of  lighter  texture,  where  other  dung-requiring  crops  are 
little  grown. 

Growth. — A  plant  grows  in  two  leading  directions  :  the  root 
downwards,  the  stem  upwards.  Root  crops  devote  their  energies 
to  downward  growth  at  first,  to  establish  themselves  deeply 
in  the  ground.  Not  so  the  early  weeds ;  these  rush  away  the 
air  parts,  overtop  and  overshadow  the  crop,  thus  tending  to  choke 
it  out.  Clean  land  is  therefore  the  essential  for  root  production  ; 
from  start  to  finish  cleanness  is  the  unconditional  necessity. 

Tap  Root. — The  tap  root  has  acquired,  by  cultivation,  the 
rank  character  marked  by  scant  fibres,  abundant  water,  immature 
products  of  nitrogen,  and  so  forth.  The  carbohydrates  take  the 
form  of  sugar,  which  is  so  plentiful  that  roots  are  rightly  called 
"sugar  crops."  The  hngth  of  the  period  of  vegetation  naturally 
determines  the  percentage,  thus  : — 

White  turnip— least  sugar 

Yellow  turnip. 

Swede. 

Mangel. 

Carrot. 

Parsnip  — most  sugar. 


FARM   CROPS.  135 

The  percentage  of  dry  matter  follows  the  same  order,  thus  : — 

White  turnip     . .  . .     8  per  cent,  dry  matter. 

Yellow  turnip    ..  •-     9        „  ,, 

Swede     ..  ..  ..  11         ,,  „ 

Mangel 12^,,  „ 

Carrot 15         ,,  „ 

The  percentage  of  nitrogen  follows  the  same  law  in  members 
of  the  same  family,  thus  : — 

White  turnip         ..     o*i6  per  cent,  nitrogen. 
Yellow  turnip        ..     o*2o        ,,  „ 

Swede        ..  ..     0*24        ,,  ,, 

Mangel  and  carrot,  though  containing  more  sugar,  produce 
it  at  less  expenditure  of  nitrogen,  for  the  percentage  of  this  latter 
substance  stands  midway  between  that  of  yellow  turnip  and 
swede. 

Leaves, — The  leaves  are  arranged  as  a  rosette  on  an  ex- 
tremely short  stem  part,  called  "  the  crown  of  the  root,"  although 
a  true  stem.  This  arrangement  reduces  the  distance  between 
place  of  production  (leaf)  and  place  of  storage  (root)  to  a 
minimum ;  most  rapid  communication  is  thus  secured.  The 
swede  leaf  has  retained  the  waxy  skin  of  its  wild  ancestor,  a 
standing  witness  of  hardy  character  and  slow  growth,  as  compared 
with  cruciferous  allies.  As  the  wax  disappears  from  the  surface, 
the  plant  becomes  less  hardy,  vegetates  more  rapidly,  and,  to 
accomplish  this,  produces  more  leaf  at  the  expense  of  the  root 
The  order  for  leaf  surface  is — 

White  turnip — most  leaf,  20  per  cent,  by  weight. 

Yellow  turnip — 

Swede — least  leaf,  14  per  cent,  by  weight. 

Dominant  Manurial  Ingredients.— Roots  of  most  rapid 
growth  require  no  special  stimulus  to  vegetation,  and,  if  light  and 
heat  supplies  are  sufficient,  no  extra  stimulus  to  sugar  formation. 
What  such  rank  productions  do  require  is  more  albumin  and 
protoplasm  to  increase  constitutional  vigour  and  the  working 
power  of  the  whole  machinery  without  disturbing  the  balance 
between  root  and  leaf.  Phosphates  favour  the  production  of 
solid  albumins  and  protoplasm,  and  are  special  manures  for  rapid- 
growing  roots,  the  turnips  and  the  swedes. 

When  vegetative  growth  progresses  too  slowly,  nitrogenous 
applications  stimulate  to  greater  activity,  and  are  the  special 
fertilizers  for  the  slow-growing  mangels  and  carrots.  On  light 
soils,  favourable  to  nitrification,  and  not  suffering  from  poverty — 
a  rare  occurrence — nitrogenous  manures  are  scarcely  necessary, 
even  for  slow  growers. 


136  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

In  the  colder  climate  of  Northern  Britain,  the  vegetative 
activity  of  rapid  growers  proceeds  at  much  slower  rate  than  in 
the  south.  Thus  it  happens  that  in  the  north  mixed  nitrogenous 
and  phosphatic  fertilizers  are  more  in  favour  for  turnips. 

The  ancestry  of  the  crop  also  seems  to  affect  the  nature 
of  the  manure.  Mangel,  for  example,  is  a  direct  descendant 
from  the  wild  sea-beet,  Beta  marifima,  and,  like  its  forefather, 
requires  much  common  salt.  Taken  as  a  whole,  rapid  roots 
are  "  phosphate-demanding  crops,"  and  slow  roots  '*  nitrogen- 
demanding. 

Requirements.— 6"^//.— Soils  of  light  texture,  especially  if 
somewhat  calcareous  and  favourable  to  nitrification,  suit  all  root 
crops,  particularly  those  of  rapid  vegetation,  as  turnips.  Deep- 
rooted  carrots  also  affect  light  land  ]  and  peaty  character  is  no 
drawback,  since  the  plant  uses  comparatively  little  nitrogenous 
matter.  Slow  growers,  like  swede  and  mangel,  preponderate  on 
the  heavier  soils.  In  whatever  soil,  abundant  water  and  fresh  air 
are  very  necessary  for  the  full  crop  of  rank  and  succulent  root. 

Character  in  Relation  to  Soil. — In  relation  to  soil,  roots  are 
(i)  ameliorative,  (2)  cleaning.  The  crop  is  consumed  on  the 
farm,  and,  on  light  land,  usually  on  the  very  field  of  production. 
What  the  animals  retain  is  chiefly  sugar,  made  from  carbon 
dioxide  and  water,  at  no  expense  to  the  land.  The  excreta  of  the 
stock  restore  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  manurial  constituents, 
more  especially  of  nitrogenous  compounds.  Anything  retained 
in  the  animal  body'is  more  than  made  good  by  the  extra  cake  and 
purchased  feeding-stuffs  given  with  the  roots.  A  crop  like  this, 
which  utilizes  soluble  matter  only,  cannot  and  does  not  enable 
the  cultivator  to  realize  the  innate  riches  of  the  soil.  This  is  the 
special  feature  of  amelioration  by  leguminous  plants  and  grasses. 

Successful  growth  necessitates  soil  specially  fit  for  root  life, 
since  the  produce  is  root ;  and  he  who  crops  land  at  profit  must 
at  some  time  or  other  bring  the  soil  into  this  fit  condition.  Suit- 
ability for  root  life  is  attained,  and  attained  best,  in  a  rotation 
when  the  root  crop  is  taken  in  hand.  Then  land  is  cleaned, 
tilled,  and  dunged,  brought  to  a  high  state  of  fertility,  and 
made  most  comfortable  for  root  life  in  general.  Any  crop  which 
accomplishes  this,  which  specially  ameliorates  and  specially 
cleans,  is  called  fallow  crop.  Root  crop,  however,  is  not  a 
complete  renovation ;  its  action  must  be  supplemented  by  grass 
and  clover  production. 

Chemical  Composition. — Chemical  composition  depends,  and 
must  depend  largely,  upon  the  period  of  vegetation.  Percentage 
of  dry  substance,  oi^anic  matter,  sugar,  fat,  all  increase  with  the 
period  of  vegetation.     The  percentage  of  nitrogen,  too,  increases 


FARM  CROPS.  137 

as  the  period  of  vegetation  lengthens  in  members   of  the  same 
family,  and  accordingly  the  albuminoid  ratio  diminishes ;  thus  : — 

Albuminoid  ratio. 
White  turnip     . .  , .  . .  ..1:6 

Yellow  turnip    . .  . .  . .  ..1:7 

Swede  ..  ..  ..  ..     i  :  8*3 

Scantiness  of  fibre  is  intimately  connected  with  the  presence 
of  amides  and  unsaturated  nitrogenous  compounds. 

Manurial  value  increases  with  the  period  of  vegetation  : — 


Turnip   .. 

. .     4s.  od.  per  I  ton  of  roots. 

Swede    . . 

..     4J.  3^.          ,,           „ 

Mangel  .. 

..     5^-  od. 

Parsnip  . . 

"     5^.  3^^- 

The  carrot  is  peculiar,  and  is  valued  at  the  same  rate  as 
turnip;  this  means  that  it  produces  most  organic  substance  at 
minimum  expense  to  the  soil. 

Nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  are,  however,  often 
erratic  in  amount :  the  percentage  depends  on  manure,  on  soil, 
and  on  climate. 

The  dry  matter  contained  in  roots  is  heavier  than  water, 
hence  high  specific  gravity  is  a  rough  index  of  the  solidity  and 
value  of  the  root. 

Period  of  Highest  Nutritive  Value. — The  crop  makes  no 
addition  to  its  substances  after  vegetative  processes  have  ceased  ; 
as  marked  by  change  of  leaf  colour  from  green  to  yellow.  There 
is  now  preparation  for  reproductive  activity — conversion  of  crude 
material  into  nutritive  products,  and  softening  of  the  cell  walls  to 
allow  ready  exit.  During  the  warm  months  of  late  year  most 
addition  is  made,  and  on  the  temperature  which  prevails  at  this 
season  crop  value  greatly  depends.  A  touch  of  frost  may  inter- 
vene and  stop  the  vegetative  processes  in  a  single  night.  Rapidity 
of  growth  or  period  of  vegetation  has  most  to  do  with  frost  action. 
The  law  is  this — the  slower  the  growth  the  less  effective  is  frost 
in  checking  vegetation,  and  bringing  on  premature  ripening.  The 
order  is : — 

White  turnip,  most  readily  affected  by  frost 

Yellow  turnip. 

Swede. 

Carrot  and  parsnip,  least  readily  affected  by  frost 

When  the  thoroughly  ripe  and  soft  condition  is  suddenly 
reached  by  the  crop,  it  cannot  be  fed  off  in  time  to  prevent 
almost  total  loss  due  to  fermentation  and  putrefaction,  set  agoing 
by  fungoid  organisms.  Because  of  this,  rapid-growing  roots  must 
be  taken  in  immature  condition,  not  allowed  to  ripen,  and  quickly 


138  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

fed  off  so  as  to  secure  least  loss.  Succulent  products  cannot, 
from  their  very  succulence,  keep  sound  for  any  length  of  time; 
the  most  watery  must  be  fed  off  first.  In  general,  the  order  in 
which  they  are  consumed  corresponds  with  period  of  vegetation  : — 

White  turnip,  used  first  in  autumn. 

Yellow  turnip. 

Swede,  used  in  winter. 

Mangel. 

Carrot,  used  last  in  spring. 

Mode  of  using  depends  on  the  Nature  of  Land. — On  light  land, 
root  crop  is  fed  off  on  the  field  of  production.  On  heavy  land 
this  cannot  always  be  done,  because  of  the  injury  which  results 
to  soil  from  tread  of  animals.  The  policy  is  thus  to  allow  an  extra 
year  or  two  in  grass  crop,  and  browse  it  at  a  season  when  no  such 
physical  injury  results.  The  depasturing  of  heavy  land  is  thus  equi- 
valent to  feeding  roots  on  light  land.  To  be  preserved  over  winter, 
roots  must  be  protected  from  frost  and  fungi.  To  keep  down  fungi, 
thorough  ventilation  and  prevention  of  heating  are  necessary. 

Chemical  Changes  during  Ripening. — During  the  period  of 
vegetation  the  most  important  chemical  change  is  production 
of  sugar  from  carbon  dioxide  and  water,  under  the  influence  of 
sunlight  and  heat.  The  carbohydrates  show  remarkably  little 
tendency  to  saturate  the  nitrogenous  compounds ;  instead  of  con- 
structing nutritive  albumins,  crude  albumins  (amides)  worthless 
for  nutrition  are  formed.  Supplies  of  phosphatic  and  lime  com- 
pounds favour  albumin  and  protoplasm  formation.  The  propor- 
tion of  fat  is  extremely  small,  ranging  from  o*i  per  cent,  in  rapid 
growers  to  0*3  per  cent,  in  the  slow  forms.  During  after-ripening 
the  cell  walls  change  their  nature,  and  become  more  soluble  and 
more  permeable  from  diastase  formation  and  action.  Amides 
may  also  be  converted  into  albumins.  A  similar  wall-change 
occurs  in  germinating  seeds,  sprouting  potato  tubers,  and  so  forth. 

Principles  of  Cultivation.— Cultivation  requirements  are  easily 
determined  if  the  objects  of  root-growing  are  steadily  kept  in 
view.     These  objects,  so  far  as  the  soil  is  concerned,  are — 

1.  Physical  and  biological  improvement. 

2.  Addition  of  readily  available  materials. 

Root  crops  are  thus  much  more  than  root  producers.  Above 
everything,  they  are  soil  improvers  or  fallow  crops,  since  fallow- 
ing is  merely  another  name  for  physical  and  biological  improve- 
ment of  the  soil  resulting  from  tillage  and  from  dung.  Physical 
improvement  of  soil  means  increased  fineness  of  particles,  and 
consequent  intimate  connection  between  root  and  soil.  To  the 
plant  more  intimate  connection  with  the  soil  means  more  food- 


FARM   CROPS.  139 

making  material  and  more  comfort ;  such  soil,  even  though  poor, 
may  yield  as  if  rich.  Exposure  of  as  large  a  surface  as  possible 
to  winter  frost  by  autumn  cultivation  tends  much  to  realization 
of  this  valuable  accomplishment  by  land.  Improved  biological 
condition  means  — 

1.  Cleanness,  freedom  from  injurious  weed,  seed,  and  insect. 

2.  Increased  supply  of  pure  air  and  water. 

3.  Active  germ  and  root  life. 

Cleanness  is  attained  by  taking  the  weeds  at  their  weakest, 
when  "  drawn  up  "  and  most  superficial  in  position — that  is,  on 
the  stubble,  in  autumn,  immediately  after  removal  of  a  cereal, 
when  they  are  half  starved  and  choked  under  the  growth  of 
the  tall  overshadowing  crop.  Autumn  tillage,  too,  exposes 
injurious  seeds  and  insects  to  winter  cold  and  starving  birds, — 
evidently  most  favourable  conditions  for  destruction  of  such  pests. 

Few  realize  that  an  application  of  farmyard  manure  secures 
abundance  of  air,  water,  and  heat  in  the  soil.  What  is  wanted 
is  interstices  full  of  pure  air,  not  capillary  pipes  plugged  up  with 
poisonous  water.  The  simple  fact  that  land  for  crops  is  drained, 
either  naturally  or  artificially,  to  suck  the  water  out  of  interstices, 
amply  proves  that  soil  pores  must  function  as  air-pipes — not  as 
water-pipes.  Nevertheless,  abundant  water  supply  is  quite  essen- 
tial, and,  if  not  clogging  the  pores,  must  be  within  the  soil  particles 
like  water  within  particles  of  swollen  glue.  Farmyard  dung  acts 
in  this  way,  imbibes  freely,  and  retains  water.  Like  the  drain,  it 
keeps  the  air-pores  free  and  open.  At  the  same  time  the  organic 
matter  in  the  dung  constitutes  the  principal  food  of  soil  germs, 
and  in  the  soil  plays  very  much  the  part  of  sugar  in  the  brewers' 
vat.  The  products  of  the  germ  action  on  the  mixed  dung  and 
soil  are  in  their  turn  partly  the  active  materials  absorbed  by 
plants  for  food-production,  and  partly  poisonous  gases  like  carbon 
dioxide,  which  must  escape  by  open  pores  downwards  into  the 
drains,  or  upwards  by  diffusion  into  the  air;  if  not,  the  roots 
cannot  remain  healthy  and  vigorous.  Taken  as  a  whole,  autumn 
cultivation  and  farmyard  manure,  working  in  combination,  make 
the  soil  a  clean  and  comfortable  habitation,  ventilated  by  air- 
pipes,  warmed  by  germ  activity,  supplied  by  imbibed  water,  and 
rich  in  food  suitable  for  dainty  and  luxurious  plants. 

Spring  cultivation  aims  also  at  the  production  of  the  seed-bed, 
which  must  be — 

1.  Moist  for  seed  germination. 

2.  Fine,  to  prevent  shading  of  the  seedlings  by  clods. 

3.  Clean,  to  prevent  choking  of  the  seedling  by  weeds. 

4.  Rich,  to  hurry  the  tardy  growth  past  early  dangers. 

5.  Deep,  to  form  a  suitable  habitation  for  a  tap  root. 


I40  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

After-cultivation  includes  thinning,  hand-hoeing,  horse-hoeing, 
and  so  forth.  The  other  crops  which  permit  of  cleaning  and 
cultivation  during  growth  are  potatoes,  cabbages,  and  beans.  To 
allow  these  operations  to  go  on,  and  to  secure  free  access  of  light 
on  all  sides,  the  plants  are  drilled  in  rows  about  twenty-seven 
inches  apart.  Hoeing  of  the  ridged  surfaces  above  the  bed 
occupied  by  absorbing  roots  and  dung,  accomplishes  much  more 
than  weed  removal.  The  main  object  is  to  bring  the  unoccupied 
surface  to  a  state  of  maximum  germ  activity — to  use  it  as  a  nitre 
bed.  What  bare  fallow  accomplishes,  can  thus  be  done  better 
under  root  crop.  The  hoe  opens  the  pores,  allows  free  passage 
of  air  and  water,  places  the  soil  germs  in  the  best  feeding-ground, 
and  nitrification  is  most  favoured.  When  a  shower  of  rain 
comes,  the  manufactured  fertilizers  are  washed  out  of  the  surface 
into  the  absorbing-area  beneath,  and  held  there  imbibed  by  dung 
ready  for  utilization  by  the  roots.  This  "  nitrate  catching  "  is  the 
great  advantage  which  the  cropped  fallow  has  over  the  bare 
fallow.  It  is  not,  then,  so  much  the  rain  which  benefits  the  crop, 
but  the  fertilizers  washed  by  it  into  right  position.  It  may 
accordingly  be  taken  as  a  general  rule  that  soluble  nitrogenous 
fertilizers  are  uselessly  applied  to  any  crop  which  is  thoroughly 
cultivated  during  growth,  and  over  which  an  effective  nitre  bed, 
sufficient  for  the  wants  of  the  crop,  can  be  formed.  When  such 
is  not  the  case,  nitrogenous  fertilizers  are  always  useful,  except 
for  leguminous  plants.  Hoeing,  too,  prevents  escape  of  water 
from  the  root-bed  during  time  of  drought,  chiefly  because  of 
diminished  evaporative  surface. 

Capillary  pipes  full  of  water  have  no  existence  in  a  soil  fit 
for  root  life,  and  certainly  none  in  a  dry  surface.  Any  explana- 
tion of  the  action  of  hoe  and  harrow  which  deals  with  pipes  full 
of  water,  has,  and  can  have,  no  foundation  in  fact.  Hoeing^ 
then,  is  equivalent  to  wateri?ig  the  plants  during  a  period  of  drought, 
and,  when  rain  comes,  an  application  of  nitrogenous  and  other 
fertilizers.  In  the  warm  climate  of  England  surface  nitrification 
may  go  on  with  sufficient  rapidity  without  the  special  stimulus  of 
ridge  or  hoe.  There,  turnips  and  rapid  roots  are  grown  on  the 
flat,  and  less  worked  by  the  hoe  than  is  the  case  in  Scotland. 

In  thinning,  distance  left  between  the  plants  depends  upon  the 
period  of  vegetation,  since  this  has  most  influence  upon  the  size 
ultimately  attained.     The  following  distances  are  usually  given  : — 

White  turnip  1 1  inches  between  the  plants. 
Yellow     „      12       „  „  „         ,, 

Swede      „       13      „  „  „         „ 

Mangel    „       14      „  „  „         „ 


FARM   CROPS.  141 

Taken  as  a  whole,  root  cultivation  is  the  most  complicated 
and  the  most  expensive.     Therein  are  involved — 

1.  Preparatory  cleaning. 

2.  Dunging  and  fertilizing. 

3.  Cleaning  and  cultivating  during  growth. 

Influence  of  Climate  on  Perfection  of  Growth. — Moist  at- 
mosphere, in  general,  favours  vegetative  growth,  and  roots  are  no 
exception.  Dry  climates  are  suitable  only  for  the  slow-growing, 
deep-rooted  and  drought-resisting  members  of  the  group,  the 
mangel  and  the  carrot.  Heat  requirements  increase  with  period 
of  vegetation,  thus : — 

White  turnip  j 

Yellow  turnip  [  requiring  least  heat, 

Swede  J 

Mangel 

Carrot     requiring  most  heat. 

ParsnipJ 

Rapid  growers,  requiring  least  heat,  naturally  reach  greatest 
perfection  and  yield  largest  crops  when  grown  in  the  cooler  North. 
Thus  "  fifty  tons  of  turnips  are  as  readily  produced  on  an  acre 
in  Scotland  as  twenty  tons  in  the  South  of  England."  Slow 
growers,  requiring  most  heat,  flourish  in  Southern  Britain,  and  in 
the  North  large  crops  can  only  be  raised  with  exceeding  difficulty 
and  in  the  warmest  seasons. 

The  order  is : — 

White  turnip  \ 

Yellow  turnip  !  most  perfect  in  the  North. 

Swede  ) 

Mangel  ) 

Carrot    >   most  perfect  in  the  South. 

Parsnip  ) 

Alternation  of  rain  and  drought  must  give  the  largest  crop  of 
nitrogen-demanding  roots,  Hke  mangel,  because  of  the  excessive 
nitrification  under  such  cHmatic  conditions. 

Systems  of  Husbandry. — Zig/i^  Land. — On  light  land  root 
crops  may  occupy  one-fourth  of  the  whole  arable  area,  as  in 
the  typical  Norfolk  rotation : — roots,  barley,  clover,  wheat.  As 
the  climate  becomes  moister  and  more  suitable  for  grass,  roots 
are  diminished  to  one-fifth,  one-sixth,  or  one-seventh. 

Heavy  Land. — On  heavy  land,  in  climates  suitable  for  grain- 
growing,  roots  are  reduced  to  one-sixth,  and  the  bean  is  introduced 
thus : — Roots,  spring  cereal,  grass,  winter  cereal,  beans,  winter 
cereal.      As  the   climate   becomes   moister,   grass    is    specially 


142  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

favoured,  and  the  proportion  of  roots  is  now  diminished  to  one- 
seventh  or  one-eighth. 

Rapid-growing  Roots. — If  from  any  cause  root  growth  pro- 
ceeds too  rapidly,  the  proportion  of  organic  matter  and  feeding 
power  diminish.  This  is  a  frequent  case  with  turnip  and  swede 
grown  in  warmer  parts  of  England.  The  stimulants  of  extra 
rapidity,  extra  production  of  stem  and  leaf,  are  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds, heat,  and  moisture.  Now  the  special  object  in  growing 
root-crop  is  root  produce,  not  stem  and  leaf,  hence  nitrogenous 
fertilizers  must  be  used  with  caution,  not  only  to  retain  root  and 
leaf  at  proper  balance,  but  also  to  secure  a  period  of  vegetation 
sufficiently  long  for  nutritive  value. 

Slow-growing  Roots. — If  the  climate  be  rather  slow,  then 
certainly  nitrogenous  compounds  are  beneficial.  Potash  too  has 
beneficial  action,  especially  when  supplies  of  light  and  heat  are 
insufficient,  as  in  a  cold  wet  season. 

Rotation. — Cereals  and  grass  can  utilize  all  the  resources  of 
the  cleanest  and  most  fertile  land ;  these,  then,  most  fitly  follow 
fallow  crop  in  the  rotation.  The  cereal  yields  its  grain  while  the 
grass  is  getting  ready,  and  that  is  why  the  two  crops  occupy  the 
land  together  during  the  year  succeeding  the  fallow.  The  kind 
of  cereal  used  depends  upon  when  the  land  can  be  got  ready 
for  sowing. 

2.  Tuber  Crops. 

Duration. — Potatoes  are  perennial  plants,  immediately  recog- 
nized as  such  by  the  presence  of  storing  organs  of  vegetation, 
namely,  the  stem  tubers.  According  to  period  required  for 
ripening  the  tubers,  the  varieties  are  designated  as  early,  requiring 
about  sixteen  weeks ;  medium ;  or  late,  requiring  twenty-four  weeks. 
Time  of  setting  depends  upon  temperature,  since  the  young  plants 
may  be  destroyed  by  a  touch  of  frost. 

Root  Distribution.— Neither  the  tubers  nor  branches  which 
bear  them  are  roots.  The  true  and  only  roots  are  fibres  produced 
in  tufts  by  the  underground  portion  of  main  stem  and  of  its  tuber- 
bearing  branches.  These  true  roots  spring  from  the  nodes,  and 
branch  little  as  they  go  through  the  ground. 

If  the  potato  plant  has  been  grown  from  true  seed,  formed  in 
the  fruit  or  "  plum,"  there  is  an  additional  root  system  composed 
of  a  tap  with  absorbing  fibres. 

Many  suppose  that  potato  planted  at  an  excessive  depth 
produces  increased  amount  of  tuber.  This  is  a  very  erroneous 
idea;  loss  results  from  extra  deep  setting — loss  of  time;  and 
extra  depth  is  merely  equivalent  to  extra  late  setting. 


FARM   CROPS.  143 

The  character  of  the  underground  stems  which  bear  the  tubers 
varies  thus : — 

1.  Short. 

2.  Medium. 

3.  Long. 

4.  Branched  or  simple. 
The  tubers  vary  thus  : — 

1.  Size — small,  medium,  large. 

2.  Form — round,  elongated  or  kidney,  egg-shaped  ;  the  trans- 
verse section  is  either  circular  or  elliptical. 

3.  Setting  of  the  eyes — deep,  medium,  superficial,  prominent. 

4.  Colour  of  skin  and  flesh — white,  yellow,  red,  blue. 

5.  Skin  surface — smooth,  rough,  netted. 

6.  Contents — wet,  dry,  waxy. 

Habits. — Absorbing  Activity. — Like  root  crops,  potatoes  require 
soil  materials  in  soluble  condition  and  ready  to  hand ;  like  roots, 
too,  they  are  quite  luxurious  feeders,  and  very  much  dung  may 
be  lavished  on  them. 

Tubers. — Rankness  and  succulence  are  characteristic  of  the 
tubers.  In  succulence  they  are  far  behind  roots — containing,  as 
they  do,  one-fourth  of  their  weight  of  dry  substance,  whereas  the 
most  solid  roots,  such  as  mangels,  contain  less  than  one-eighth. 
The  carbohydrates  take  the  form  of  starch,  and  these  are  accord- 
ingly called  "starch-crops."  Yield  is  as  variable  as  period  of 
vegetation. 

Air  Farts. — Air  parts  vary  in  habit  of  growth — compact  or 
loose,  erect  or  spreading,  tall  or  short. 

The  stem  is  slender  or  robust;  the  leaf-colour  light  or  dark 
green  ;  the  leaf-surface  rough  or  smooth. 

The  flowers  are  white,  light  purple,  reddish  purple,  or  purple. 

Multiplication. — The  crop  may  be  produced  in  various  ways  :— 

1.  From  sets. 

2.  From  whole  tubers. 

3.  From  true  seeds  formed  in  the  fruit  or  "plum." 

Potato  sets  are  cut  portions  of  tubers  planted  for  purposes  of 
propagation.  Certain  peculiarities  of  the  tubers  must  be  taken 
into  account,  in  order  to  cut  the  best  sets.  The  buds  at  the 
apical  end  of  the  tuber  (the  rose)  grow  more  vigorously  than  those 
of  the  base  (the  heel) ;  as  is  to  be  expected,  the  apical  buds  are 
specially  prepared  by  the  plant  to  form  the  leading  shoots. 
In  making  sets,  therefore,  the  base  of  the  tuber  may  be  cut  off" 
and  cast  aside.  The  tubers,  too,  contain  a  ring  of  vascular 
bundles  running  longitudinally  from  the  heel,  and  bending  out  to 
supply  the  eyes — a  fact  rarely,  if  ever,  taken  into  account  in  pre- 
paring "sets."      The  apical  end  must  be  cut  longitudinally  to 


144  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

preserve  the  vascular  bundles  intact.  One  or  two  of  the  most 
vigorous  buds  ("  eyes  ")  should  be  left  on  each  set. 

Cuts  from  large  mealy  tubers  favour  the  production  of  a 
large  crop  of  mealy  tubers. 

True  seeds  are  only  sown  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  new 
varieties  which  withstand  the  attacks  of  fungoid  disease. 

Sets  and  whole  tubers  may  be  sprouted  in : — 

1.  Soil  in  field. 

2.  Boxes  in  house. 

The  latter  course  is  adopted  for  safety  and  rapidity  where 
circumstances  and  early  market  demand  it. 

Requirements  and  Dominant  Manurial  Ingredients. — The 
extensive  underground  growth  and  development  of  this  crop  marks 
it  out  as  requiring  a  specially  free  supply  of  soil,  air,  moisture, 
and  heat.  Soil  of  light  texture,  loaded  with  a  moisture-holding 
and  heating  apparatus — dung,  meets  these  physical  requirements 
best.  Warm  soil  not  only  favours  the  underground  growth,  but 
the  extensive  chemical  changes  which  go  on  in  the  tubers  when 
starch  is  manufactured  therein.  The  potato  plant  makes  starch  in 
two  ways  :r— 

1.  From  carbon  dioxide  and  water  in  the  green  parts  exposed 
to  light. 

2.  From  sugar  in  the  underground  tubers. 

Potash  compounds  are  always  required  in  connection  with 
starch  formation,  and  in  the  potato  not  only  is  starch  production 
excessive,  but  it  has  to  go  on  at  two  centres — in  leaf  and  tuber ; 
double  supply  of  potash  accordingly  is  requisite.  Potato  is  thus 
a  "  potash-demanding  crop,"  and  more  especially  so  because  it  is 
usually  grown  on  light  land  poor  in  this  ingredient.  However 
much  potash  may  be  in  the  soil,  that  which  is  soluble  can  alone 
be  used. 

Character  in  Relation  to  Soil. — The  potato  crop  is : — 

1.  Exhausting. 

2.  Cleaning. 

This  is  not  a  true  fallow  crop — the  tubers  are  sold  off  the 
farm.     An  average  crop  of  six  tons  of  tubers  carries  away  : — 


Nitrogen 

.         47  lbs. 

Phosphoric  acid 

2lJ„ 

Potash 

..         76i„ 

The  potato  is  cultivated  on  the  same  principle  as  roots,  and, 
like  roots,  is  a  cleaning  crop,  usually  preceded  and  followed  by 
a  fouling  cereal.     Unlike  roots,  it  is  not  restorative,  and  there 
fore,  as  stated  above,  it  is  not  a  true  fallow  crop. 

Chemical  Composition  of  Tubers. — This  crop  is  less  succulent 


I 

t 


FARM   CROPS.  145 

than  roots,  and  contains  twice  as  much  dry  matter,  albuminoids, 
carbohydrates,  and  fat  as  mangel  although  the  ash  is  practically 
the  same  in  amount. 

Chemical  Changes  in  Ripening. — The  chief  difference  between 
the  ripening  of  this  and  root  crop  is  the  production  of  starch 
instead  of  sugar  in  the  storing  tubers.  This  tuber  starch  is,  of 
course,  made  from  sugar  material  supplied  from  the  leaves. 
Formation  of  starch  granules  is  the  special  business  of  the  starch 
builders  in  the  cells  of  the  tubers.  Potash  and  lime  compounds 
together  aid  the  work  ;  without  the  lime  compound,  dry  quality  can 
scarcely  be  secured. 

Period  of  Highest  Nutritive  Value. — The  crop  ceases  to 
draw  from  soil  and  air  when  the  leaf  begins  to  change  colour,  and 
is  ready  for  lifting  when  the  shaws  have  emptied  into  the  tubers. 
The  corky  skin  of  the  tuber  should  be  firm,  and  not  rub  off  with 
the  fingers ;  firm  skin  is  quite  essential  if  the  potatoes  are  to  be 
kept  in  store. 

Principles  of  Cultivation, — Potato  is  cultivated  on  the  same 
principles  as  roots : — cleaned,  dunged,  and  fertilized,  also  cultivated 
during  growth.  Instead  of  sowing  seed,  sets  are  planted  and  the 
crop  has  to  be  dug  up — very  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  on  wet 
heavy  clay  land.  The  crop  cannot  be  set  till  all  chance  of  a 
"  nip  "  from  frost  has  passed.  In  spite  of  this,  special  earliness 
may  be  secured  by  "  sprouting,"  or  "  greening,"  in  boxes,  before 
planting. 

In  selecting  sorts  for  setting,  the  following  points  of  pedigree 
must  be  attended  to  : — 

1.  Early  maturity. 

2.  Proportion  of  tuber  product. 

3.  Liability  to  disease  :  least  in  new  varieties. 
The  tubers  should  be — 

1.  Of  medium  size. 

2.  Well  formed. 

3.  With  superficial  eyes, 

4.  White  coloured. 

5.  Rough  skinned, 

6.  With  dry  and  mealy,  well-flavoured  contents. 

Care  must  be  taken  during  growth  to  keep  the  tubers  well- 
covered  with  earth,  for  if  light  has  access  the  contents  of  the 
potato  form  green  chlorophyll. 

Influence  of  Climate  on  Perfection  of  Growth. — Perfection 
cannot  be  reached  in  wet  climate  and  season,  because  wet  runs 
the  plant  into  shaw,  and  disease  ravages  the  crop.  By  growing 
early  varieties  disease  may  be  avoided  to  a  great  extent. 

Influence  of  Soil,— If  the  soil  be  persistently  wet,  so  that  air 

L 


146  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

cannot  enter  and  circulate,  or  if  excessive  nitrogenous  food  be 
supplied,  a  small  crop  of  watery  tubers  and  a  large  proportion  of 
air  parts  or  ''shaws"  is  the  result.  Wetness  and  heavy  soil, 
excessive  nitrogenous  food  and  shade,  alike  favour  the  air  parts  at 
the  expense  of  underground  tubers.  Phosphates,  potash  and  lime 
compounds  are  very  essential  for  production  of  dry  tubers  and 
for  checking  excessive  "  shaw  "  production. 

Systems  of  Husbandry. — In  a  system  of  husbandry,  the  potato 
is  best  preceded  by  an  ameliorative  crop  of  grass,  and  followed 
by  an  exhaustive  fouling  cereal  which  uses  the  clean  land  and 
excess  of  manure  left  in  the  ground  or  added  to  it  for  the  special 
use  of  the  cereal ;  thus  : — 

Roots,  cereal,  grass,  grass,  potato,  cereal, 

as  in  the  East  Lothian  six-course  rotation. 

3.  Cabbage  Crops. 

Duration. — The  cabbage  plants  are  biennials,  and  the  object 
of  cultivation  is  a  strong  vegetative  organ — not  root,  however,  but 
stem  as  in  kohl-rabi,  or  leaf  as  in  cabbage  proper.  The  period  of 
vegetation  is  less  for  kohl-rabi,  more  prolonged  for  cabbage. 

Root  Distribution. — The  tap  root  is  comparatively  short  and 
scarcely  enters  the  subsoil.  The  absorbing  roots  are  branched 
fibres  with  a  horizontal  spread,  and  arranged  in  two  rows  along 
the  tap,  as  in  all  cruciferous  plants. 

Habits. — Absorptive  Activity. — IJke  roots  and  tubers,  they 
use  soluble  food,  and  soluble  food  only ;  hence  artificial  ferti- 
lizing of  the  soil  is  advantageous.  They  are  the  most  luxurious 
feeders  of  all,  and  accordingly  require  maximum  quantity  of  dung. 

Storing  Organs, — Storage  of  organic  compounds  in  an  air 
part  is  a  feature  which  distinguishes  cabbage  crops  from  roots  and 
tubers.  Place  of  production  and  of  storage  are  one  and  the  same, 
the  leaf,  in  cabbage  proper  ;  whereas  in  kohl-rabi  the  manu- 
factured compounds  are  transferred  from  the  leaf  into  the  stem. 

Hardihood. — Like  their  wild  ancestor  {Brassica  oleraced)  the 
leaves  have  waxy  skin.  As  with  swede,  so  here,  wax  is  a  sign  of 
hardihood,  of  slow  and  steady  growth.  The  open-headed  cabbage 
(kale)  can  remain  out  all  winter,  but  the  close-headed  (drumhead), 
from  the  peculiar  leaf  arrangement  impressed  upon  it  by  culti- 
vation, is  liable  to  injury  both  from  frost  and  rain.  Kohl-rabi 
is  the  least  hardy  member  of  the  group. 

Growth  Forms. — The  growth  habit  of  the  air  parts  varies  thus :— - 

I.  The  leaves  are  spread  and  not  closely  overlapped  to  form 
a  head — kale. 


FARM  CROPS.  147 

2.  The  leaves  are  close-packed,  erect,  concave,  and  fit  into 
one  another  to  form  a  head — cabbage,  or  drumhead. 

3.  The  leaves  are  open,  but  the  stem  which  bears  them  is 
specially  thickened  for  purposes  of  storage — kohl-rabi.  In  this 
case  the  air  stem  assumes  the  form  taken  by  the  root  of  the 
turnip  and  its  allies. 

Dominant  Manurial  Ingredient. — Luxuriant  growth  of  aerial 
vegetation — stem  and  leaf — is  always  favoured  by  nitrogenous 
compounds,  and  by  moisture  alternated  with  drought ;  nitrogenous 
fertilizers  are  thus  specifics  for  cabbage  crops  which  are  wanted  to 
run  to  stem  and  leaf.  Grown  as  they  are  on  heavy  land,  where 
nitrification  is  not  favoured,  nitrogenous  fertilizers  become  essen- 
tial, and  especially  so  in  wet  seasons.  The  plants  revel  in  such 
food ;  indeed,  cabbages  become  poisonous  if  the  nitrogenous 
applications  are  too  lavish.  In  ordinary  field  cultivation,  this  can, 
however,  scarcely  occur.  Like  slow  roots,  cabbages  are  "  nitrogen- 
demanding  crops." 

Requirements. — To  produce  a  large  leaf  surface  requires  a 
soil  specially  rich  in  water,  since  evaporation  increases  with  the 
size  of  leaf,  and  heavy  soil  is  accordingly  most  suitable.  As 
evaporative  surface  diminishes,  lighter  soils  can  be  used  as  for 
kohl-rabi.  This  latter  form  yields  largest  crops  on  the  black 
peaty  soils  of  the  fens,  which  do  not  suit  root  produce.  Warmth 
of  soil  is  less  requisite  than  for  roots,  because  the  produce  of 
cabbage  crops  is  aerial. 

Character  in  Relation  to  Soil. — Like  roots,  these  are  fallow 
crops,  and  possess  the  two  properties  characteristic  of  such, 
namely — 

r.  Ameliorating  character. 

2.  Cleaning  character. 

Consumption  on  the  farm,  and  nothing  else,  constitutes  the 
ameliorative,  or  restorative,  character  of  these  crops ;  they  must 
always  be  cultivated  so  that  the  land  is  clean  and  kept  clean 
around  them. 

Chemical  Composition.— These  are  much  like  root  crops  in 
composition,  and  contain  about  ten  per  cent,  of  dry  matter. 
Drumhead  cabbage  is  composed  thus  : — ■ 

Water 89*42  per  cent. 

Albuminoids    ..  ..  ..  ..        1-50 

Fats 008 

Carbohydrates  ..  ..  ..  7-01 

Fibres  ..  ..  ..  .,  ..        1*14 

Ash 0-85 

Total  loo'oo 


148  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Period  of  Highest  Nutritive  Value. — The  plants  are  taken 
when  well-grown.  Like  roots,  cabbage  products  are  succulent, 
cannot  be  kept,  and  are  used  green.  They  are  principally  grown 
for  use  in  early  autumn  before  turnips. 

The  chemical  changes  during  ripening  are  of  the  same  nature 
as  in  roots. 

Influence  of  Climate  in  Perfection  of  Growth.— A  temperate 
and  moist  climate  brings  these  crops  to  highest  perfection.  The 
climate  of  Scotland  is  rather  cold  for  kohl-rabi. 

Systems  of  Husbandry. — On  heavy  soils,  in  moist  climate, 
cabbages,  being  fallow  crops,  enter  into  rotation  in  place  of  roots. 
By  their  use,  the  clay-land  farmer  is  enabled  to  secure  longer 
time  and  more  suitable  season  for  thorough  tillage  and  cleaning 
of  his  land,  as  well  as  much  larger  crops.  Cabbages  planted  out 
in  October  are  ready  in  June  or  July;  and  if  planted  out  in 
June  and  July  are  ready  in  December  or  January. 

4.  Grass  Crops,  including  Clovers. 

Duration. — Grasses.  Grass  crops,  after  sowing,  allow  a  season 
to  pass  over  their  heads  before  yielding  the  produce  of  stem  and 
leaf— the  "  forage,"  as  it  is  called  if  cut,  "  herbage,"  if  depastured. 
Late  yield  is  characteristic  of  plants  more  lasting  than  annuals. 
The  seedlings  only  begin  active  vegetation  towards  the  end  of 
summer,  and  produce  the  main  crop  in  the  early  part  of  the  next 
year.  Italian  rye-grass  is  of  shortest  duration,  producing  for  one 
or  two  years.  The  other  grasses  endure  still  longer,  but  lease  of 
life  depends  in  no  small  measure  upon  mode  of  cropping;  if 
allowed  to  seed  freely,  the  plants  are  more  rapidly  exhausted. 
This  is  because  material  for  bud-making  is  diverted  into  the 
seeds;  the  weakened  buds  which  are  left  can  yield  but  poor 
produce. 

Clovers. — The  order  of  duration  of  the  clovers  is^ 

Trefoil — least  lasting,  almost  biennial. 

Red  clover — biennial. 

Alsike  clover — triennial. 

White  clover  — most  lasting,  perennial. 

Root  Distribution. —  Grasses. — Each  shoot  of  grass  is  pro- 
vided with  its  own  tuft  of  fibre  roots,  which  branch  extensively  in 
the  surface  soil.  Length,  depth,  and  amount  vary  very  much, 
and  depend  upon  size  and  amount  of  leaf;  the  depth  more 
especially  depends  upon  the  height  to  which  the  plant  is  allowed 
to  grow  and  the  time  of  flowering.  Large  and  abundant  leafage 
means  long  and  abundant  roots ;  tallness  and  late  flowering,  root 


FARM  CROPS.  149 

depth — for  example,  timothy.  In  general,  the  bottom  and  de- 
pastured grasses  are  shallow  rooters,  while  the  top  species, 
especially  if  allowed  to  grow  tall,  become  more  deeply  set. 

Clovers. — Each  clover  plant  has  a  single  primary  or  tap  root, 
which  grows  vertically  into  the  ground,  and,  as  it  descends,  pro- 
duces successively  deeper  sets  of  lateral  root  fibres.  These  fibres 
spread  outwards  from  the  tap,  branch  freely  and  produce  the 
nodules  or  tubercles  so  characteristic  of  all  leguminous  plants. 
Food  supplied  to  the  leafy  branches  must  pass  to  them  through 
the  tap,  and  through  the  tap  alone ;  in  this  respect  the  clovers 
are  very  different  from  the  grasses.  The  root  habit  of  white 
clover  is  different.  The  stem  creeps  along  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  and,  as  it  advances,  short  root  fibres  spring  from  it,  and 
enter  the  surface  soil,  from  which  the  mineral  matter  passes 
through  the  root  fibre  directly  into  the  stem. 

Order  of  root  depth  is — 

White  clover — shallowest  roots. 

Trefoil. 

Alsike  clover. 

Red  clover — deepest  roots,  often  entering  the  subsoil. 

White  clover,  from  its  shallow-rooted  character,  is  most  in- 
fluenced by  drought.  Depastured,  the  clovers,  too,  are  naturally 
more  shallow-rooted  than  when  allowed  to  make  height  growth. 

Habits. — Absorptive  Activity  of  Grasses. — Grass  roots  are 
voracious  feeders  on  the  insoluble  minerals  of  the  soil.  Nitro- 
genous food  must,  however,  be  provided  in  soluble  form  :  if 
excess  of  nitrogen  is  at  command,  they  overfeed  and  become 
rank;  the  herbage  is  then  unfit  for  animal  food.  When  nitro- 
genous compounds  are  defective,  the  plants  become  fibrous,  less 
nutritive,  and  highly  silicated. 

Absorptive  Activity  of  Clovers. — Like  grasses,  clovers  prey 
extensively  upon  insoluble  minerals,  but,  unlike  them,  prevent 
entrance  of  useless  silica.  Unlike  them,  too,  clovers  obtain 
nitrogenous  matter  from  the  germ  occupants  of  their  tubercles, 
which  in  turn  utilize  the  free  nitrogen  in  the  soil  atmosphere. 
Under  the  influence  of  soluble  nitrogenous  compounds,  these 
are  not  favoured  like  the  grasses;  and  in  mixed  herbage  with 
abundant  nitrogenous  manure  the  grasses  suppress  the  clovers. 
Of  all  the  components  of  grass  crops,  red  clover  is  the  most 
dainty  feeder ;  it  is  specially  particular  as  regards  soil  diet,  and 
makes  free  use  of  soluble  materials. 

Towards  the  end  of  summer,  the  seedlings  begin  to  feed  vigor- 
ously, to  grow,  and  branch  extensively ;  the  least  lasting  (trefoil 
and  rye-grass)  beginning  earliest     Accordingly,  any  dung  for  the 


150  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

especial  benefit  of  the  grass  crop  must  be  put  in  so  as  to  be 
ready  for  use  at  this  time.  From  their  special  mode  of  feeding, 
mixed  grasses  and  clovers  alike  enable  the  cultivator  to  realize  the 
innate  wealth  of  his  land. 

Grass  Growth. — The  seedling  grass  forms  a  set  of  buds  im- 
mediately below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  These  remain  dormant 
until  the  end  of  summer,  when  they  become  active,  and  each 
develops  into  a  leafy  branch  with  a  feeding  apparatus — a  set  of 
root  fibres  springing  from  its  base.  In  immature  condition  these 
branches  pass  the  winter ;  in  spring,  growth  begins  anew,  and  in 
summer,  maturity  is  reached.  Like  the  seedling,  each  of  these 
branches  produces  a  set  of  buds  which  pass  through  the  same 
phases  of  development  as  the  parent.  New  broods  of  branches 
are  thus  coming  forward  for  next  crop,  while  their  parents  are 
cut  down  for  hay  or  depastured  by  browsing  animals.  The  pecu- 
liarity here  is  that  the  progeny  never  catch  up  with  the  parents, 
and  always  remain  a  season  behind.  Annual  grasses,  like  cereals, 
accomplish  the  whole  development  ia  a  single  season,  parents 
and  progeny  coming  into  ear  practically  together.  When  bud- 
making  ceases,  there  is  nothing  left  to  continue  the  growth,  and 
the  end  of  the  plant  is  at  hand.  Among  grasses,  Italian  rye-grass 
reaches  this  period  most  rapidly ;  for  a  year  or  two  it  branches 
and  forms  crops  so  vigorously  that  complete  exhaustion  results. 
Italian  leads  the  short  and  merry  life.  Perennial,  in  spite  of  its 
name,  often  follows  close  upon  it,  and  three  or  four  years  after 
sowing,  mere  remnants  may  alone  be  left.  Those  grasses  which 
shoot  most  freely  and  produce  crops  of  branches  in  most  rapid 
succession,  are  evidently  most  valuable.  Such  are  rye-grass  and 
cocksfoot,  which  yield  abundant  crops  and  after-crops  of  branches 
within  the  year.  After-crops  of  branches,  when  cut,  are  called 
after-math. 

If  the  branches  of  the  grass  are  compacted  into  a  single  close 
tuft,  the  plant  has  little  hold  upon  the  ground,  and  uprooting  by 
frost  or  by  browsing  animals  is  most  easy.  If  the  arrangement  is 
a  loose  one,  and  the  branches  more  creepy  underground,  the  hold 
is  evidently  much  firmer.  Loose  branch  arrangement,  too,  is 
essential,  if  ground  is  to  be  completely  covered  by  grass,  for  bare 
spaces  are  inevitable  between  compact  tufts.  To  get  complete 
sward,  loose  and  tufted  growers  should  be  mixed  together. 

Pasture  Grasses. — Grasses,  especially  suited  for  pasture  pur- 
poses, should  produce  abundant  leafage  close  to  the  ground,  and 
flat  branches  not  liable  to  injury  under  the  tread  of  animals.  Both 
requirements  are  specially  fulfilled  by  perennial  rye-grass,  cocks- 
foot, and  poas. 

Clover  Growth. — During  spring  and  summer  of  the  year  of 


I 


FARM  CROPS.  l^i 

sowing,  the  produce  of  the  clover  is  much  too  scant  for  crop ;  as 
yet  each  plant,  except  the  almost  annual  trefoil,  is  represented 
merely  by  a  single  root  and  shoot  To  yield  full  produce,  many 
leafy  branches  and  roots  to  feed  them  must  develop.  The  buds 
which  make  the  branches  originate  from  the  base  of  the  primary 
shoot,  and  begin  to  develop  as  the  summer  draws  to  an  end.  The 
tap  root  can  alone  provide  the  feeders  for  the  leafy  branches ; 
this  it  does  by  descending  deeper,  and  forming  fibre  outgrowth 
from  its  depths.  During  winter,  feeding  stops,  and  the  branches 
cease  to  grow.  In  early  spring,  however,  development  begins 
again ;  by  summer  the  leafy  branches  reach  the  flowering  stage, 
and  crop  is  ready  for  taking.  Still  further  crop  is  wanted  ;  further 
branches  and  feeders  must  be  produced.  Each  branch  turns 
out  a  brood,  and  the  tap  root  goes  still  deeper  than  before. 
If  the  depths  now  preyed  upon  are  physically  or  chemically  in- 
competent for  root  life,  or  yield  too  little  food  supply,  further 
crop  fails  to  come  forward,  and  the  farmer  says  the  land  is 
'*  clover-sick."  Such  *' clover-sickness"  is,  of  course,  a  result  of 
bad  physical  or  chemical  condition. 

Red  clover  is  the  most  highly  cultivated  form,  the  deepest  and 
most  dainty  feeder,  hence  land  is  most  often  "  sick  "  of  it.  So 
long  as  the  roots  are  in  the  comfortable  and  fertile  surface  soil, 
the  clover  thrives,  but  in  the  subsoil  layers,  the  surroundings  are 
often  unpropitious. 

Thickness  or  thinness  of  the  preceding  cereal  crop  has  much 
to  do  with  success  or  failure  of  clover.  Spots  of  a  field  specially 
thick  with  cereals  bear  stunted  clover ;  on  the  other  hand,  where 
corn  has  been  thin,  clover  is  specially  luxuriant. 

Alsike  grows  on  the  same  principle  as  red  clover,  but  avoids 
untimely  end  by  diminishing  the  length  growth  of  the  tap,  and 
confining  its  ravages  chiefly  to  the  surface  soil,  hence  land  is 
rarely  alsike  "  sick."  White  clover  grows  quite  otherwise ;  it 
runs  its  stem  along  the  surface  of  the  ground,  producing  feeding 
outgrowths  as  it  goes.  It  is  not  at  all  dependent  upon  depth, 
but  merely  surface  richness.  This  habit  of  growth,  combined 
with  perennial  character,  renders  white  clover  the  most  valuable 
for  pasture  purposes.  The  very  tread  of  animals  acts  favourably, 
and  keeps  the  moisture  in  play  in  the  surface  at  free  disposal  of 
the  shallow  roots.  The  best  trodden  portion  of  the  field,  indeed, 
produces  most  clover  for  this  very  reason.  In  the  annual,  or 
almost  annual,  species — trefoil — there  is  little  time  for  descent 
of  root,  and  the  branching  growth  is  all  but  finished  within  a 
single  year. 

Clover  Leaves. — The  blade  of  a  clover  leaf  is  composed  of 
three  distinct  parts  or  leaflets.     Leaf  distinction  is  easy,  thus  : — 


152  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

1.  Leaflets  hairy  on  upper  and  lower  surfaces. 

{a)  Red  clover — leaflets  large,  the  median  sessile. 
{b)  Trefoil — leaflets  small,  the  median  stalked. 

2.  Leaflets  bald;  at  times  hairy  on  lower  surface  only, 

(a)  White  clover — lower  surface  of  leaflets  glossy. 

(b)  Alsike  clover— lower  surface  of  leaflets  dull. 

The  internal  peculiarity  of  the  leaves  of  clovers  and  all  legu- 
minous plants  is  the  oxalate  of  Hme  crystals  in  the  cells.  No 
such  compounds  are  met  with  in  grasses  grown  in  Britain.  For 
this  reason,  lime  compounds  must  be  abundant  in  order  to  produce 
the  largest  crop  of  clover;  and  the  same  applies  to  all  leguminous 
crops. 

Dominant  Manurial  Ingredients. — For  grass  crops  so  far  as 
composed  of  grass,  nitrogenous  food  is  the  dominant  manurial 
ingredient,  since  the  object  is  stem  and  leaf  production.  Without 
adequate  supply,  the  grass  become  fibrous,  and  the  yield  is  also  less. 

The  clover  portion  of  the  crop  is  dominated  chiefly  by  the 
potash  supply,  more  so  in  cold  climates ;  in  warm  climates,  how- 
ever, phosphates  have  much  influence.  Lime  compounds  are 
always  necessary  for  clover  production,  chiefly  to  neutralize  the 
oxalic  acid,  a  poisonous  by-product  resulting  from  the  vital 
activity  of  the  plant.  The  mixed  crop  is  accordingly  "  nitro- 
gen- and  potash-demanding." 

Requirements. — The  component  plants  of  grass  crops  have 
been  so  little  modified  by  the  art  of  cultivation,  that  they  retain 
the  hardihood  and  contented  nature  of  wild  forms.  Red  clover,  as 
already  mentioned,  is  the  most  dainty,  and  least  easy  to  be  satisfied ; 
rye-grasses  and  cocksfoot,  the  most  contented.  Grass  crops,  accord- 
ingly, can  be  taken  on  land  of  all  texture,  of  all  grades  of  richness 
and  fertility.  The  rapid  forms  with  shortest  lease  of  life  naturally 
prefer  light  quick  land.  Such  are  Italian  ryegrass  and  trefoil. 
Soil  of  heavy  texture  suits  perennial  rye-grass,  timothy,  crested 
dogstail,  meadow  fescue,  foxtail,  rough-stalked  meadow  grass, 
and  alsike  clover.  Cocksfoot  suits  all  soils,  and  along  with 
timothy  does  well  on  moorland,  and  this  because  of  the  extra 
abundant  supply  of  feeding  roots.  Heavy  clays  with  innate 
wealth  of  mineral  compounds  surpass  all  others  in  grass  pro- 
duction, and  are  often  laid  under  grass  crop  for  many  years. 

Too  much  water  cannot  be  present,  provided  that  the  soil 
pores  are  in  free  communication  with  fresh  atmospheric  air  to  a 
considerable  depth.  If  not,  however  rich  the  soil,  the  roots 
remain  in  abeyance,  and  the  shoots  are  starved  to  death,  or  linger 
on  in  the  starving  state ;  surface  rooters  alone  survive ;  the  rich 
meadow  dwindles  to  a  poor  pasture,  and  even  the  pasturage  is 
affected,  for  a  mossy  cover  takes  the  place  of  grass.     Any  crop 


FARM  CROPS.  153 

residue  is  little  the  better  for  the  removal  of  the  mossy  cover — 
the  want  is  fresh  air,  in  which  the  feeding  fibres  can  breathe  and 
grow  and  live. 

Character  in  Relation  to  Soil, — Mixed  grass  crops  are — 

1.  AmeHorative  and  dung  the  land  with  residual  roots. 

2.  Additive  of  nitrogen. 

3.  Physical  and  biological  soil  improvers. 

Ameliorative  character  is  very  pronounced,  since  the  produce 
is  used  not  only  on  the  farm,  but,  when  depastured,  on  the  very 
field  of  production,  like  turnips  fed  off  on  light  land.  The 
grazing  animals  may  be  partly  fed  on  purchased  feeding  stuffs, 
and  thus  higher  fertility  is  reached,  since  the  excreta  add  more 
manurial  substance  than  is  carried  away  in  the  animal  body  and 
its  products.  The  great  amelioration  which  results  from  the 
production  of  a  large  quantity  of  a  dung  thoroughly  and  properly 
distributed  throughout  the  soil  and  composed  of  root  residues  is 
often  overlooked.  An  instant's  consideration  shows  that  such 
residue  must  consist  very  largely  of  protoplasm,  *'  the  basis  of 
life,"  and  as  a  general  manure  surely  such  a  mixture  cannot  be 
surpassed.  No  wonder  the  after-crop  succeeds  so  well,  for  the  root 
residue  beats  the  most  skilful  mixture  which  the  farmer  can  make. 

The  clovers  leave  the  land,  after  the  crop,  richer  in  nitrogen 
than  before,  and  this  because  they  take  elementary  nitrogen 
from  the  soil  atmosphere,  and  serve  it  up  in  forms  most  accept- 
able to  other  crops.  The  action  is  due  to  the  nodules  on  the 
roots  of  all  leguminous  plants.  These  nodules  are  supposed  to 
be  caused  by  a  fungus,  and,  when  cut  open,  present  a  fleshy 
appearance.  The  fungus  takes  up  elementary  nitrogen  for  its 
own  use,  manufactures  it  into  organic  compounds,  and  then 
passes  it  on  through  the  cell  walls  into  the  roots  of  the  host. 
This  action  for  the  mutual  good  of  the  two  is  known  as 
"  symbiosis." 

Physical  and  biological  soil  improvement  is  the  necessary 
consequence  of  the  additional  organic  matter  left  as  roots  dis- 
tributed through  the  soil.  By  such  addition,  compactness  without 
hardness  is  gained ;  fresh  water  is  held,  not  in  the  pores,  but 
imbibed  in  organic  matter,  leaving  the  pores  open  to  fresh  air ; 
fertilizers  also  are  kept  in  the  soil,  and  not  run  off"  by  drains. 
Clover  cropped  as  hay,  leaves  more  root  residue  than  when  de- 
pastured, since  the  plant  has  been  allowed  to  make  more  leafage 
and  proportionate  roots  to  meet  the  demand  for  mineral  food 
supply.  Crops  like  grass  and  clover  which  are  returned  to  the 
land,  which  convert  insoluble  minerals  into  available  food,  which 
purvey  additional  nitrogenous  compounds,  and  which  dung  the 
land  with  root  residue,  must  conduce  to  the  very  highest  fertility. 


154  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

and  pave  the  way  for  dainty  feeders  demanding  nitrogen,  such 
as  wheat  and  other  cereal  crops. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  grass  crop  is  the  great  *•  manure  purveyor," 
providing  not  only  extra  nitrogen,  but  more  potash  and  phosphoric, 
acid  in  available  forms.  Under  roots  the  land  is  nitrified; 
under  grass  and  clover  the  minerals  are  made  available,  and 
additional  nitrogen  compounds  manufactured.  At  one  time  the 
field  is  a  nitre  factory ;  at  another  potassic  and  phosphatic 
fertilizers  are  made.  The  work  of  the  root  crop  is  thus 
supplemented  and  completed  by  grass  and  clover;  proper 
cultivation  of  roots  and  grass  underlies  all  successful  and  profit- 
able farming. 

It  is  pure  fancy  to  suppose  that  land  under  grass  is  ''  at  rest." 
Certainly  there  is  rest,  so  far  as  use  of  tillage  implements  upon 
it  is  concerned.  But  when  in  grass  and  clover,  much  more 
potent  mechanisms  than  ploughs,  hoes,  and  harrows  are  at  work, 
and  the  very  antipodes  of  rest,  maximum  -  activity,  indeed 
prevails,  not  only  at  the  surface,  but  in  the  very  depths  of  the 
soil — a  point  of  great  importance  in  connection  with  deep  tillage, 
and  the  labour  bill. 

Chemical  Changes  in  Ripening.— Starch  is  the  fundamental 
product  from  which  all  the  organic  substance  in  grass  and  clover 
is  derived.  It  is  produced  from  carbon  dioxide  and  water  at  no 
expense  to  the  soil  other  than  a  small  percentage  of  potash  (i^ 
per  cent,  in  grass  and  clover  hay).  By  its  union  with  nitrogenous 
compounds  amides  are  first  formed,  and  from  these,  in  turn,  albu- 
minoids. The  albumins  of  clover  may  be  produced  from  elementary 
nitrogen,  but  those  of  grasses  only  from  nitrogenous  compounds 
supplied  by  the  soil  itself.  Soil  phosphates  (about  one-half  per 
cent,  of  hay)  are  also  required  in  connection  with  albumin 
formation.  In  plants  like  grasses  and  clovers,  so  little  modified 
by  cultivation,  amides  tend  to  form  albumins  rather  than  to 
remain  in  unsaturated  condition.  This  is  a  point  of  contrast 
with  root  crops,  and  intimately  connected  with  increased  tendency 
to  fibre  formation.  When  flowering  and  fertilization  have  taken 
place,  the  nutritive  matter  in  stem  and  leaf  streams  into  the 
developing  seeds.  After  this  change,  the  carbohydrate,  left 
behind,  readily  becomes  converted  into  fibre,  as  it  is  no  longer 
kept  in  check  by  amides  and  such  compounds.  Not  only  is 
a  large  amount  of  fibre  formed,  but  the  nutritive  materials  left 
in  the  cells  are  much  more  firmly  imprisoned  than  heretofore,  so 
much  so  that  the  digestive  juice  of  animals  can  extract  extremely 
little.  The  same  fibrous  change  may  occur  before  flowering 
when  the  crop  is  thin,  so  that  light  has  free  access  to  the  stems. 
The    by-product,    oxalic    acid,    forms    abundantly    in    clovers, 


FARM   CROPS.  155 

apparently  in  connection  with  albumin  production.  Lime  must 
accordingly  be  freely  supplied  to  serve  as  an  antidote  to  the 
poisonous  acid,  to  convert  it  into  harmless  oxalate  of  lime. 

Period  of  Highest  Nutritive  Value. — When  the  cell  walls  are 
the  most  permeable  and  the  cell  contents  richest  in  digestible 
food  material,  grass  crops  are  evidently  at  their  highest  nutritive 
value.  The  state  of  perfection  is  usually  reached  when  the  plant 
is  coming  into  flower,  and  before  the  seeds  begin  to  form.  The 
hay  crop  is  accordingly  taken  at  flowering,  which  is  about  a 
month  later  in  the  north  than  in  the  south.  The  usual  time  of 
flowering  for  grasses  is — 

Perennial  rye-grass,  first  week  of  June. 
Italian  „         second     „        „ 

Cocksfoot   .  .      . .  third        „        „ 
Timothy,      . .      . .  first         „     July. 

The  clovers  flower  in  order  of  duration  thus  : — 

Trefoil — earliest. 

Red  clover — with  rye-grass. 

Alsike  and  white — latest. 

When  cut  after  flowering,  the  product  contains  more  fibre 
and  less  digestible  nutriment.  When  taken  before  flowering,  the 
crop  is  very  digestible,  and  contains  more  amides  and  less  fibre. 
High  nutritive  value  is  never  reached  by  grass  plants  grown  in 
unsuitable  soil  and  poorly  fed.  Even  young  produce  grown  under 
such  circumstances  is  fibrous  and  indigestible. 

Chemical  Composition. — The  percentage  of  dry  matter  in  the 
green  herbage  varies  between  20  and  30  per  cent. ;  in  the  hay 
between  84  and  S6  per  cent.     Average  hay  is  composed  thus  : — 

Clover  Hay.      Meadow  Hay. 
Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Dry  matter  84  86 

Ash  7  6^ 

Nitrogen  2  i^ 

Of  the  ash,  about  2  per  cent,  is  lime  in  clover  hay,  and  2  per 
cent,  silica  in  grass  hay. 

The  organic  matter  of  100  lbs.  of  hay  is  composed  thus : — 


Albuminoids 

Carbohydrates 

Fats 

Fibre 


Clover  Hay. 
Per  cent. 

Meadow  Hay. 
Per  cent. 

12-5 
36-0 

26-0 

9-5 

41-5 

26*0 

77-0  795 


156 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


The  albuminoid  ratio  of  hay  is  — 


Alsike  clover 
Red  clover 
White  clover 
Trefoil 


I  :  1-9 

1 : 2'2 
I  :2-3 
1 : 2-4 


Perennial  rye-grass 
Cocksfoot 
Italian  rye-gi-ass 
Timothy 


i:3-8 
I  :  4*o 
1:47 
1 :7-o 


Taken  generally,  the  albuminoid  ratio  is — 


Clovers  . . 
Grasses  ., 
Roots 


I  :  2V 

1:8^ 


Principles  of  Cultivation. — The  Land.—ThQ  object  of  grass 
and  clover  growing  is  to  secure  the  largest  possible  yield  of  most 
nutritive  product.  The  land  7?iust  fulfil  certain  conditions,  and 
be— 

1.  Suitable  for  the  plants  selected. 

2.  Perfectly  clean. 

3.  Well  and  deeply  tilled. 

4.  In  the  highest  state  of  fertility. 

These  conditions  are  best  satisfied  after  root  crop — if  possible 
fed  off  by  sheep — the  only  fit  place  for  grass  in  the  whole  rotation. 
The  simple  fact  that  the  sown  crop  cannot  produce  till  a  year 
has  passed  over  its  head  shows  the  necessity  for  perfect  cleanness. 
If  these  conditions  are  not  fulfilled,  a  large  crop  may  certainly 
be  got,  but  a  crop  of  bad  weeds,  plants  imperfectly  nourished  and 
full  of  fibre,  indigestible,  and  almost  worthless  as  food.  Grass  of 
highest  nutritive  value  is  not  necessarily  that  first  produced.  On 
heavy  land  it  may  be  so,  but  science  and  experience  alike  agree 
that  this  is  not  the  case  on  light  lands. 

The  Seed-bed. — The  seed-bed  must  be  very  fine  ;  if  not,  many 
of  the  seeds  fall  between  clods,  and  lie  too  deep.  From  seeds 
in  this  predicament,  the  plant  product  is  either  weakly  or  killed. 

The  Seed. — The  seed  must  be  properly  proportioned  so  as  to 
accomplish  the  object  in  view.  Putting  seed  into  a  balance  and 
finding  exact  weight  cannot,  and  does  not,  give  any  idea  of  how 
much  of  it  can  grow.  What  is  wanted  is  a  certain  weight  of 
growing  seed.  Actual  experiment  shows  that  the  weight  of 
growing  seed  capable  of  covering  an  acre  is  : — 


Lbs.  of  Growing 
Seed  per  Acre. 
Perennial  rye-grass    ..         40 
Meadow  fescue  . .         37 

Italian  rye-grass         . .         33 
Cocksfoot        . .         .  ,         19 


Lbs.  of  Growing 
Seed  per  Acre. 

Timothy 15 

Red  clover         . .         . .     16 

Alsike     . .  . .  . .       9 

White 8 


The  seed  is  broadcasted  by  machine.     The  covering  ought 
to  be  very  slight,  about  a  quarter,  but  not  over  half,  an  inch, 


FARM   CROPS.  157 

because  the  seeds  do  not  grow  well  when  more  deeply  covered. 
On  heavy  soils  no  covering  is  required — rolling  suffices ;  on  dry 
soils  the  seeds  are  scratched  in  by  a  light  harrow  and  rolled. 
Rolling  is  usually  necessary  to  keep  the  seeds  uniformly  moist 
during  germination. 

Protective  Crop. — The  ingredients  of  the  grass  mixture  are  not 
annuals,  and  accordingly  do  not  develop  crop  during  the  year 
of  sowing.  Under  such  a  crop  the  ground  would  be  very  bare 
and  practically  idle  through  a  season  of  growth.  To  utilize  the 
bare  ground,  to  keep  down  weeds,  and  to  protect  the  seedling 
grasses  from  cold,  an  annual  crop  which  develops  its  branches 
within  the  season  is  sown.  This  protective  crop  must  not  occupy 
the  ground  too  long,  must  overtop  the  grass  seedlings  to  be  a 
sufficient  protection,  and  yet  must  allow  sufficient  light  to  reach 
the  grass.  A  thinly  sown  cereal  meets  the  case.  If  the  protective 
cereal  is  too  thick,  or  happens  to  lodge,  the  clovers  are  more 
seriously  injured  than  the  grasses.  The  grass  mixture  is  either 
sown  at  the  same  time  as  the  cereal,  or  after  it  has  made  some 
progress  in  growth.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the  cultivation  is  quite 
simple,  since  the  work  has  been  done  for  the  root  crop.  A  seed- 
bed is  prepared,  and  the  seed  harrowed  in;  an  application  of  the 
roller  to  the  young  growth  finishes  the  business.  The  great 
difficulty  is  to  have  a  thin  cereal  crop :  the  real  danger  a  thick 
cereal  crop. 

Influence  of  Climate  on  Perfection  of  Growth. — Leaf  and 
stem  production  are  favoured  by  moist  climate  and  by  plenty  of 
rain  spread  over  many  days.  Under  these  conditions  of  climate 
grass  grows  to  highest  perfection — witness  the  moist  and  rainy 
coast  of  Western  Britain.  For  hay-making,  dryness  is  wanted 
when  the  crop  reaches  the  flowering  stage. 

System  of  Husbandry.— Grass  takes  its  place  after  a  crop 
which  ameliorates  and  cleans  the  land,  leaving  it  in  high  fertility. 
The  fit  precursor  is  accordingly  fallow  or  roots,  and  grass  or  clover 
with  its  protecting  cereal  always  follows  this  crop.  A  year,  how- 
ever, elapses  before  the  produce  is  taken ;  thus  a  cereal  holds  the 
land  and  serves  as  a  "nitrate  catcher"  until  the  grass  is  ready  to 
yield.  Most  stress  is  laid  upon  grass  crop  in  moist  climates  and 
on  heavy  lands  rich  in  insoluble  minerals — the  fitting  prey  of 
grass  and  clover  roots.  Under  these  favourable  conditions  grass 
produce  is  taken,  instead  of  for  one,  for  two,  or  three  years  in 
succession.  When  the  conditions  for  grass-growing  are  most 
favourable,  as  on  heavy  soils  in  Western  and  Northern  Britain, 
the  land  may  be  left  in  grass  altogether — in  permanent  pasture, 
as  this  is  called. 

If  nitrogenous  compounds  are  abundant,  the  grass  portion  of 


158  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

the  crop  prevails ;  if  lime  and  potash  compounds  are  abundant 
and  nitrogen  scant,  clover  is  most  favoured,  and  the  grass,  stunted 
and  more  fibrous.  The  fit  successor  for  a  grass  crop,  which 
partially  cleans  the  land  by  shading,  and  which  ameliorates  its 
character  as  regards  nitrogen  and  mineral  compounds,  is  a  fouling 
nitrogen-demanding  cereaL 


5.  Cereal  Crops. 

Duration. — Cereal  plants  develop  all  their  buds  into  branches, 
run  them  into  ear,  and  exhaust  all  in  grain  production  within  a 
single  season  of  growth.  Duration  is,  accordingly,  annual. 
Grain  is  the  object  of  cultivation,  and  the  crop  must  be  allowed 
time,  not  only  for  vegetation,  but  time  for  grain  formation  and 
maturation  as  well. 

The  art  of  the  breeder  has,  in  many  cases,  modified  the 
natural  period  of  vegetation,  spring  to  summer,  and  has  produced 
varieties  with  an  extended  period,  sufficiently  hardy  to  withstand 
the  cold  of  winter.  These  winter  cereals  with  a  lengthened 
period  of  growth,  are  able  to  utilize  more  soil  substance  and 
more  heat  and  light,  to  assimilate  more  carbon  dioxide — to 
produce,  in  short,  more  organic  substance  of  more  suitable  com- 
position for  purposes  of  nutrition. 

The  order  according  to  period  of  vegetation  is  : — 

1.  Spring  cereals — spring  sown. 

(a)  Barley,  shortest  period. 
(d)  Oats. 

2.  Winter  cereals — autumn  sown. 
Winter  wheat — longest  period. 

This  same  represents  order  of  sowing — barley  last,  winter 
wheat  first. 

Root  Distribution.— From  its  base  near,  but  below,  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  each  shoot  of  a  cereal  grass  produces  a  set  of  feeding 
roots.  These  root  fibres  branch  freely,  and  distribute  themselves  in 
the  surface  soil.  The  minerals  absorbed  are  poured  directly  into 
the  leafy  branch ;  there  is  no  intermediate  tap,  as  in  root  crops 
and  leguminosae.  Although  essentially  shallow  rooters,  depths  of 
eighteen  and  even  of  thirty-six  inches  have  been  utilized  by 
cereal  roots.  Wheat,  of  longest  duration,  has  naturally  the  habit 
of  penetrating  most  deeply,  more  so  than  the  quick-growing  barley, 
for  example.  Thus  it  happens  that  if  two  cereal  crops  have  to 
be  taken  in  succession,  wheat  and  barley  are  more  suitable,  since 
the  roots  occupy  different  layers  and  feed  at  different  depths. 


FARM   CROPS.  159 

Order  of  root  depth  naturally  corresponds  with  period  of 
growth,  thus : — 

Barley — shallowest  roots. 

Oats. 

Winter  wheat — deepest  roots. 

The  deeper  the  roots  the  greater  is  the  drought-resisting 
power.  To  secure  full  root  formation,  so  essential  for  vigorous 
growth,  the  young  shoots  must  be  kept  in  most  intimate  contact 
with  damp  earth  at  the  time  of  root-making ;  hence  harrow  and 
roller  are  freely  applied  to  the  young  crop. 

Under  the  influence  of  frost,  surface  soil  if  wet  becomes  puffed 
up  and  hollow.  In  such  ground  shallow  rooters  lose  that  intimate 
connection  with  soil,  and  that  surface  dampness  which  is  so 
essential  for  the  welfare  of  shallow-rooted  plants.  By  a  free  use 
of  the  harrow  and  a  finish  with  the  roller  the  first  injury  may 
be,  to  a  large  extent,  undone. 

Habits. — Abso7'ptive  Activity. — Mineral  food  for  cereal  crop 
is  wanted  from  the  soil  during  the  growing  months  of  early  year 
before  the  flowering  stage  has  passed.  The  feeding  roots  have 
the  power  of  preying  upon  insoluble  minerals  such  as  phosphates 
and  silicates  containing  potash ;  these  are  thus  "voracious  crops." 
The  silica  enters  with  the  potash  and  accumulates  most  of  all  in 
leaf,  though  largely  also  in  the  stem ;  it  serves  no  useful  purpose, 
and  is  mere  ballast  diminishing  the  nutritive  value  of  the  straw. 
From  the  high  percentage  of  silica  these  may  be  called  *'  silica 
crops."     The  order  of  voracity  for  insoluble  minerals  is  : — 

Oat — most  voracious. 

Barley. 

Winter  wheat— least  voracious. 

Soils  poor  for  other  cereals  may  thus  be  rich  for  oat.  Wheat 
is  the  most  highly  cultivated  species  and  the  most  dainty,  requiring 
the  largest  amount  of  soluble  material  and  the  best  land.  The 
voracity  of  cereals  explains  why  they  can  be  grown  for  experimental 
purposes  year  after  year  on  the  same  field. 

All  cereals  must  be  provided  with  soluble  inorganic  compounds 
of  nitrogen,  either  artificially  purveyed  or  placed  at  disposal  by 
the  process  of  nitrification,  as  the  result  of  the  biological  activity 
— past  or  present — of  the  soil  itself.  Thus  cereals  follow  roots 
hoed  specially  for  nitrification,  or  the  nitrogen-purveying  clovers. 
Nitrogenous  fertilizers,  if  applied  to  meet  this  want,  must  be  so 
managed  that  they  occupy  the  feeding  layers  at  the  right  time — 
the   layers  preyed  upon   by  the  feeding  roots,   containing   the 


l60  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

phosphate  and  the  potash  compounds,  the  pure  water  and  the 
fresh  air.  The  artificial  fertilizers  must  not,  as  is  too  often 
the  case,  make  their  way  to  depths  beyond  the  reach  of  comfort- 
able root  life. 

Soil  containing  much  organic  substance  rich  in  nitrogen,  such 
as  root  residue  left  from  grass  and  clover  crops,  displays,  in  early 
year,  the  greatest  biological  activity.  From  land  so  enriched  and 
compacted  by  browsing  animals,  the  largest  yield  of  wheat  is 
got,  because  of  the  compact  condition,  the  abundant  food  at 
command,  and  the  adequate  supply  of  fresh  air  and  water,  all 
together  in  right  and  proper  places,  suitably  proportioned  and 
ready  for  utilization  by  the  crop. 

As  the  young  plant  grows  older  the  feeding-ground  is  changing 
either  horizontally  or  downwards,  thus  : — 

Barley — horizontal  feeding. 

Oat — horizontally  and  downwards. 

Winter  wheat— chiefly  downwards. 

As  the  fibres  grow  and  branch  the  old  parts  become  impotent 
as  food  absorbers,  and  the  young  roots  of  the  system  are  the  only 
feeders.  Barley,  with  its  horizontal  root  spread,  is  always  using 
the  same  layer ;  while  oat,  with  its  penetrating  root,  uses  deeper 
layers  as  it  gets  older.  Thus  it  happens  that  land  may  grow 
young  oat  quite  well,  but  afterwards  refuse  to  bring  it  to  maturity 
because  of  the  extreme  poverty  and  unsuitability  of  the  deeper 
layers  used  during  the  late  and  most  important  period  of  vegetative 
life.  On  oat-refusing  land,  barley  with  its  horizontal  root-spread 
is  the  proper  crop. 

Stem. — Cereal  stems  are  used  as  litter  and  as  food.  The 
stem  takes  the  form  of  a  hollow  straw,  solid  at  the  joints.  Its 
skeleton  is  internal,  of  fibrous  nature,  manufactured  from  carbon 
dioxide  and  water,  not  from  silica.  The  skeleton  should  be  so 
proportioned  that  the  straw  can  bear  the  weight  imposed  ;  about 
40  per  cent,  of  fibre  is  sufficient  to  prevent  the  bending  down  or 
"  lodging  "  of  the  straw,  as  the  farmer  puts  it.  "  Lodging  "  is  the 
inevitable  result  when,  from  over-luxuriance  of  crop,  light  cannot 
reach  the  base  of  the  straw,  since  light  is  specially  necessary  for 
the  production  of  fibrous  skeleton  from  carbon  dioxide  and  from 
water. 

Excess  of  nitrogenous  fertilizers  is  a  potent  cause  of  lodging. 

When  the  stem  is  ripe  it  is  white  coloured,  hence  the  designa- 
tion *' white  crop." 

Branchings  or  **  tillering,^^ — A  cereal  plant  is  composed  of 
a  set  of  leafy  branches  formed  in  quick  succession,  and  hence 
of  slightly  unequal  age.     The  power  of  producing  these  branches 


FARM  CROPS.  l6l 

— "  tillering,"  as  it  is  sometimes  called — is  a  stem  peculiarity;  there 
is  no  such  thing  as  tillering  from  the  true  root  in  cereals.  Power 
of  branching  varies  thus  : — 

Oat — least  branching. 

Spring  wheat. 

Barley. 

Winter  wheat — most  branching. 

The  space  occupied  by  the  plants  depends  upon  branching 
power,  and  the  amount  of  seed  per  acre  is  determined  thereby : — 

Seed  in  Rows. 
Oat       ..  ..  ..  ..      ..     4  bushels  per  acre. 

Spring  wheat  3  ,, 

Barley  2^         „         ,, 

Winter  wheat 2  „         ,, 

Winter  wheat,  if  sown  so  late  that  branching  is  not  induced 
till  spring,  tillers  less  freely,  and  becomes,  so  far  as  branching  is 
concerned,  like  spring  wheat ;  and,  instead  of  two,  three  bushels 
of  seed  must  be  allowed  to  meet  diminished  tillering  power. 

Thick  sowing  also  diminishes  branching  power,  and,  by  using 
an  extra  bushel  or  so  of  seed,  the  crop  may  be  reaped  a  fortnight 
earlier,  since  less  time  has  been  spent  on  branch  production. 

The  branches,  as  already  mentioned,  are  of  slightly  unequal 
age,  and  consequently  the  period  of  maturity  is  also  somewhat 
unequal.  In  general  such  inequality  is  more  marked  the  greater 
the  number  of  branches ;  thus — 

Oat — ripens  most  equally. 

Spring  wheat. 

Barley. 

Winter  wheat — ripens  most  unequally. 

Leaves. — The  leaves  are  long,  narrow,  and  arranged  in  two 
rows;  they  present  a  relatively  small  surface  to  light  and  air. 
The  sheath  part  of  the  leaf  surrounds  the  stem,  and  is  specially 
thickened  at  the  base,  taking  the  form  of  a  knot,  often  described, 
though  quite  erroneously,  as  a  stem  thickening.  The  stem  within 
the  leaf  knot  is  thinner  than  anywhere  else.  Oats  have  often  a 
touch  of  red  colouring  matter  developed  in  the  leaf— a  sign  of 
their  origin  from  a  hardy  stock,  a  hardiness  which  they  still  retain 
above  all  other  cereals. 

Ear, — The  ear  is  simple  and  compact  (barley,  wheat),  or 
branched  and  loose  (oat) ;  bearded  (awned)  or  beardless  (unawned); 
light  or  dark  in  colour.  Loose-eared  cereals,  like  oat,  mature  the 
grains  of  the  same  head  most  unequally. 

Grain. — The  grain  is  naked  (wheat)  or  invested  in  a  husk 

M 


1 62  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

(barley  and  oat) ;  coloured  or  white ;  thick  or  thin,  as  regards 
skin  and  husk. 

All  the  nutriment  is  contained  within  skin  and  husk,  the  fat 
chiefly  in  the  embryo,  the  starch,  etc.,  in  the  endosperm,  and 
albuminoids  in  the  digestive  layer  lining  the  skin  of  the  grain 
The  chief  nutritive  constituent  is  starch. 

Grain  Formation. — The  conditions  for  grain  formation  are — 

1.  The  accomplishment  of  pollination  and  fertilization. 

2.  Filling  up  the  cells  of  the  grain  with  a  solution  of  nutri- 
ment— the  milky  stage. 

3.  Partial  solidification,  from  albumin  deposit  and  starch 
formation — the  yellow  stage. 

4.  Evaporation  of  the  water  by  dry  wind  and  heat,  as  well  as 
conversion  of  amides  into  albuminoids,  to  complete  hardening 
of  the  grain — the  dead  ripe  stage. 

Dry  wind  and  heat  have  therefore  much  to  do  with  the  com- 
plete filling  and  proper  maturation  of  the  grain. 

Dominant  Manurial  Ingredients.— The  natural  tendency  of 
cereal  plants,  grown  in  suitable  climates,  is  to  convert  most  of  the 
valuable  substance  produced  by  stem  and  leaf  into  nutritive  grain, 
and  this  is  indeed  the  reason  why  they  have  been  selected  for 
grain  crops.  Now,  nitrogenous  compounds  favour  stem  and  leaf 
production  as  well  as  branching  power,  hence  under  the  influence 
of  these  fertilizers  there  is  more  material  for  conversion  into 
grain,  and  the  total  produce  is  increased  in  amount.  Cereal 
crop  thus  demands  from  the  soil  relatively  large  amounts  of 
nitrogenous  compounds  in  soluble  form ;  hence,  again,  available 
nitrogenous  compounds  are  the  dominant  manurial  ingredients  of 
this  class  of  crop.  The  voracious  roots  can  make  thoroughly 
good  use  of  the  innate  wealth  of  the  soil,  so  far  as  phosphates 
and  potash  are  concerned,  and  as  a  rule  they  have  plenty  of  time 
to  do  so.  Under  strong  nitrogenous  influence,  the  crop  may  be 
about  a  fortnight  later,  but  sufficiency  of  phosphates  checks  this 
retarding  action  ;  indeed,  grain  and  seed  formation  are  always 
favoured  by  phosphatic  compounds.  The  cereals  are  appro- 
priately called  ''nitrogen-demanding  crops."  The  nitrogen 
demanded  by  them  is  supplied,  at  least  to  a  very  large  extent, 
by  the  dung  applied  to  the  preceding  crop  of  roots,  or  by  the 
residtial  roots  of  grass  and  clover,  together  with  the  droppings  of 
the  animals. 

Requirements. — Soil — The  longer  the  period  of  vegetation, 
the  heavier  is  the  land  which  suits  the  crop : — 

Barley — flight  land. 
Oat. 

Winter  wheat — heavy  land. 


I 


FARM  CROPS.  163 

Barley  grows  quite  well  on  heavy  land;  then  it  is  slower, 
thicker  in  husk,  more  nitrogenous  in  grain  contents,  and  suitable 
for  feeding,  not  for  malting. 

Wheat  preponderates  on  heavy  soils,  often  called  "wheat 
lands,"  by  reason  of  their  special  suitabiHty  for  this  crop.  Of  all 
cereals,  oat  has  the  widest  soil  range  because  of  its  hardihood ; 
its  voracity  suits  for  poor  land,  and  its  penetrating  roots  for  the 
very  heaviest  soil  textures.  For  purposes  of  reclaiming  moor  and 
bog  land,  oat  cannot  be  surpassed. 

Climate. — The  object  of  grain-growing  is  the  production  of 
a  dry  product  which  will  keep  and  sell.  Hence  dry  wind  and 
high  temperature  are  required,  more  especially  for  maturation  in 
July  and  August. 

Varying  as  they  do  in  period  of  growth,  cereals  require 
different  amounts  of  heat,  those  that  grow  longest,  most : — 

Barley — least  heat. 

Oat. 

Winter  wheat — most  heat. 

Barley  can  be  grown  furthest  north,  because  its  short  period 
of  growth  allows  of  sufficient  extension  to  compensate  for 
diminished  temperature.  The  heat  requirements  of  wheat  are 
scarcely  fulfilled  in  northern  Britain,  and  hardly  even  in  the  south. 

Character  in  Relation  to  Soil.— Cereals  are — 

1.  Exhaustive. 

2.  Fouling. 

They  are  exhaustive  because  the  grain  is  sold  off  the  farm. 
Among  all  the  crops  of  a  rotation,  the  exhaustive  character  of 
the  cereals  is  most  marked. 

The  crop  must  be  so  grown  that  light  has  access  to  the  base 
of  the  culms,  and  to  the  ground :  no  cultivation  can  be  carried 
on  after  the  plants  have  passed  their  first  stage  of  growth.  Under- 
weeds,  though  not  destroyed,  are  \»reakened  and  "  drawn  up." 

Cereal  production  thus  involves  the  growth  of  ameliorative 
and  cleaning  crops  requiring  much  dung,  such  as  roots,  grass, 
and  beans;  with  these,  cereals  must  alternate.  This  rule  is 
broken  when  barley,  for  malting,  follows  wheat. 

Chemical  Composition  of  Grain. — Grains  are  dry  products, 
which  contain  water,  imbibed  in  their  organic  substance  to  the 
extent  of  about  15  per  cent. ;  dry  air  cannot  evaporate  this 
imbibed  water.  Chemical  composition  depends  upon  period  of 
vegetation ;  percentage  of  ash,  manurial  value,  albuminoids,  fats, 
nutritive  value,  and  albuminoid  ratio  increasing  with  it  j  thus — 

Barley — least  valuable. 

Oats. 

Winter  wheat — most  valuable. 


1 64  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Selection  has,  however,  modified  the  value  and  composition 
to  a  considerable  extent :  thus,  the  ash  of  wheat  may  be  reduced 
below  that  of  oat,  and  the  albuminoids  of  wheat  in  the  same  way; 
the  fats  may  be  considerably  reduced,  as  in  wheat  and  barley ; 
the  fibre  may  be  reduced,  as  in  wheat  and  barley ;  the  carbo- 
hydrates may  be  increased  at  the  expense  of  albuminoids,  as  in 
the  same  two  crops  ;  and  so  forth. 

The  composition  depends  upon  the  period  of  vegetation,  and 
that  in  turn  upon  the  breed,  the  soil,  and  the  climate. 

Fine  wheat  is  less  nutritive  than  coarse  wheat,  fine  barley 
than  coarse  barley,  and  so  on.  This  explains  why  the  results 
obtained  by  different  authorities  are  so  conflicting ;  composition 
and  nutritive  value  depending  upon  the  breed,  as  well  as  upon  the 
soil  and  climate  in  which  the  sample  analyzed  has  been  grown. 

Variations  within  the  following  limits  occur — 

Ash         I J  to    3  per  cent. 

Nitrogen  ..  ..  ..         i|  to    2        ,, 

Albuminoids  (N  X  6-25)         ».  9'37  to    12-5    ,, 

Fats        1-5    to   6         „ 

Carbohydrates 56*00  to  66        ,, 

Fibre 3-00  to    9        „ 

The  albuminoid  ratio  often  is — 

Barley  ..         ..         ..     i  :  6*8  lowest  ratio. 

Oat I  :67 

Winter  wheat  ..         ..     i  :  5*4  highest  ratio. 

Composition  of  Cereal  Straw. — Like  grain,  straws  are  dry 
products,  and  contain  from  fourteen  to  fifteen  per  cent,  of  imbibed 
water.  Chemical  composition  depends  upon  period  of  vegetation  ; 
percentage  of  ash,  manurial  value,  albuminoids,  fats,  nutritive 
value,  and  albuminoid  ratio  increasing  with  it.  Selection  has 
considerably  modified  the  composition,  especially  of  wheat ;  its 
straw  has  least  ash,  least  manurial  value,  least  nitrogen  and 
albuminoids,  least  nutritive  value,  most  carbohydrates,  and  lowest 
albuminoid  ratio.  Breeders  have  taken  care  to  secure  varieties 
of  wheat  which,  properly  grown,  leave  least  valuable  material  in 
the  straw. 

The  variations  are — 

Ash         4  to  S  percent. 

Albuminoids     ..          ..          ..  3  to  5  ,, 

Fats I  to  2  „ 

Carbohydrates 38  to  35  „ 

Period  of  Highest  Nutritive  Value. — A  cereal  crop  is  known 
to  be  dead-ripe  when  the  green  straw  has  passed  through  the 


FARM  CROPS.  165 

yellow  colour,  and  become  white.  The  grains  have  just  solidified 
when  the  straw  is  becoming  yellow,  but  they  are  harder  when  it 
has  become  white. 

For  sowing  or  malting  purposes,  grain  should  be  taken  when 
thoroughly  mature,  because  of  better  germination  and  extra 
production  of  diastase.  Accordingly,  barley  for  malting  should 
be  cut  when  the  grain  is  quite  hard  and  the  straw  white.  For 
flour  or  meal-making,  the  crop  should  be  taken  when  the  grains 
have  solidified,  before  they  become  hard.  Loss  of  grain  through 
shedding  is  thus  avoided,  and  straw  of  higher  nutritive  value  secured. 

Chemical  Changes  in  Ripening. — Ripening  starts  when 
transfer  of  material  from  stem  and  leaf  to  grain  begins.  At 
this  period  there  is,  accordingly,  great  change  in  the  situation 
and  chemical  condition  of  the  various  components  of  the  plant. 
Substances  formerly  kept  separate,  now  act  and  react  freely 
upon  one  another:  thus  chlorophyll,  in  stem  and  leaf,  played 
upon  by  acid,  begins  to  change  from  green  to  yellow  and  from 
yellow  to  white  substances  as  the  reaction  approaches  completion  ; 
the  condition  of  the  chlorophyll  is  indeed  the  indicator  of  the 
degree  of  ripeness. 

Much  material,  formerly  in  solid  form,  is  converted  into  a 
fluid  stream  composed  of — 

1.  Water,  phosphates,  and  potash  compounds. 

2.  Sugar  very  largely,  and  fats. 

3.  Organic  substances  containing  nitrogen — amides  and  albu- 
mins. 

The  sweet,  milky  fluid  makes  its  way  into  the  developing 
grain,  and  gorges  the  tissues  in  the  interior;  this  is  the  milky 
stage.  The  fat  is  principally  laid  down  in  the  embryo,  while  the 
albumin  is  precipitated  chiefly  in  the  cells  of  the  endosperm  by 
evaporation  of  water  from  the  exterior  of  the  grain.  In  the 
endosperm,  too,  the  starch  builders  are  at  work,  transforming 
the  sugar  into  solid  starch  granules.  At  this  stage,  the  grain  is 
partially  solidified  from  the  albumin  deposit  and  starch  formation, 
the  straw  is  yellow.  More  water  is  evaporated,  and  albumins 
deposited  largely  in  the  digestive  layer  next  the  skins.  Maturation 
is  now  complete,  the  grain  is  perfectly  solid  and  hard,  and  the 
straw  white. 

As  the  grain  is  being  matured,  the  straw  loses  the  nutriment 
it  formerly  held.  When  the  amides  have  gone  from  the  straw, 
sugar  and  nutritive  carbohydrates  are  still  left  behind;  these, 
now  no  longer  kept  in  check  by  amides,  rapidly  become  con- 
verted into  fibre.  To  secure  nutritive  straw  the  crop  is  cut  when 
the  amides  have  entered  the  grain — that  is,  when  the  ear  is 
beginning  to  turn  yellow. 


1 66  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Principles  of  Cultivation.— The  principles  underlying  the 
production  of  the  best  and  largest  crop  are  extremely  simple. 
On  light  land,  the  wheat  crop  may  with  advantage  be  slightly 
dunged  after  grass.  Preparation  of  seed-bed,  sowing  and  harrow- 
ing in  the  seed,  and  a  few  turns  of  the  roller,  during  early  growth, 
complete  the  cultivation.  The  seed  must  be  thoroughly  ripe,  as 
heavy  as  possible,  properly  selected,  and  come  from  the  most 
suitable  soil  and  climate. 

The  soil  must  be  clean,  well  tilled,  and  deeply  cultivated,  so 
that  the  plant  roots  are  comfortably  quartered,  neither  injured 
by  wet  nor  drought,  well  supplied  with  fresh  air,  and  adequately 
provided  with  manurial  ingredients.  Compact  condition  of 
the  land  is  very  necessary  to  protect  the  shallow  roots  from 
drought. 

The  seed  should  be  sown  in  rows  to  secure  the  best  depth 
and  most  uniform  germination,  to  allow  light  to  have  freer  play 
upon  the  strawy  stem,  and  to  lessen  the  danger  of  "  lodging." 
By  sowing  in  rows,  one-third  of  the  seed  is  saved. 

The  crop  must  not  be  too  heavily  dunged ;  if  so,  it  is  en- 
dangered by  lateness,  and  is  more  liable  to  lodge.  Phosphates 
are  always  safe  manures  for  cereals. 

The  proper  place  in  rotatioft  is  after  roots,  grass,  or  beans,  all 
of  which  may  be  suitable  preparatory  crops.  Barley  for  malting 
may,  at  times,  follow  wheat  on  land  over-rich  in  nitrogenous 
compounds. 

Influence  of  Climate  on  the  Perfection  of  Growth. — Barley, 
although  capable  of  growing  furthest  north,  is  thereby  rendered 
unfit  for  malting.  The  cell  walls  of  the  husk  become  too  thick, 
and  the  contents  too  nitrogenous. 

Oat  reaches  greatest  perfection  in  Scotland,  and  ripens  its 
grain  in  moist  climate. 

Wheat,  requiring  the  highest  temperature,  can  scarcely  be 
grown  to  perfection  except  in  the  south.  Wheat  and  malting 
barley  are  the  prevailing  crops  of  the  south  and  south-east. 

The  general  effect  of  moist  or  of  cold  climate  is  to  diminish 
the  proportion  of  grain,  and  to  increase  the  straw. 

Combined  Influence  of  Soil  and  Climate.— (a;)  On  Systems  of 
Husbandry. — The  dry  climate  of  Eastern  Britain  is  most  suitable 
for  grain-growing ;  barley,  oat,  wheat  is  the  general  order  from 
north  to  south.  Barley  and  oat  prevail  on  lighter  land ;  on 
heavy,  wheat.  In  moister  climate,  and  on  the  toughest  soil,  oat 
is  the  most  suitable  species. 

Species  and  varieties  with  bearded  or  with  coloured  ears 
are  most  primitive  and  most  hardy,  more  leafy  in  their  nature, 
stronger  in  straw,  and  exact  least  from  soil  and  climate.    Coloured 


FARM   CROPS.  167 

grains,  thick  skins, "and  husks  are  also  indicative  of  hardy  and 
less  exhausting  character. 

As  the  period  of  vegetation  lengthens,  the  proportion  of 
straw  to  grain  increases ;  thus — 

Barley         . .      . .  . .     50  per  cent,  of  straw  by  weight. 

Oat  63  ,,  ,,  „ 

Winter  wheat     ..         ..67  „  ,,  ,, 

The  tendency,  too,  of  lengthened  period  is  to  increase  total 
weight  of  crop,  and  to  produce  grains  containing  more  nitrogenous 
compounds,  thicker  in  skin  and  husk. 

The  great  principle  underlying  cereal  cultivation  is  alternation 
with  ameliorative  crops — that  is,  with  roots,  grass,  or  beans.  Thus 
on  light  land  the  rotation  is — roots,  grain,  grass,  grain ;  on  heavy 
land — roots,  grain,  grass,  grain,  beans,  grain.  In  districts  suitable 
for  the  crop,  it  occupies  half  the  arable  area. 

{b)  On  Malting  Barley. — For  fine  malting  barley  the  grain 
should  be  uniformly  ripened ;  should  contain  as  much  starch  as 
possible,  and  a  minimum  amount  of  nitrogenous  compounds, 
especially  of  amides,  which  cause  troublesome  fermentation. 
Colour,  of  course,  depends  upon  the  nature  of  these  contents,  and 
is  accordingly  an  important  indicator  of  malting  quality.  For 
malting  purposes,  too,  a  thin  husk  is  very  necessary,  not  only 
because  the  proportion  of  starchy  contents  is  greater,  but  because 
of  the  more  uniform  and  rapid  germination  of  such  grains,  since 
rate  of  water  entrance  during  germination  is  determined  by 
strength  of  skin  and  husk. 

To  secure  these  points  of  character,  the  sowing  must  not  be 
too  thick  ;  the  period  of  vegetation  must  be  as  short  as  possible — 
that  is,  the  climate  must  be  warm  and  dry,  the  soil  of  light  but 
compact  texture,  and  not  too  rich  in  nitrogenous  compounds. 
Thorough  maturation  must  be  reached  before  cutting. 

{c)  On  Nutritive  Value  of  Oat  and  Wheat. — For  high  nutritive 
value,  the  period  of  growth  should  not  be  passed  over  too  hastily. 
There  can  be  no  danger  of  this  in  the  case  of  wheat  grown  in 
Britain ;  but  with  oat  it  is  otherwise.  In  the  moist,  cold  climate 
of  Scotland,  on  rich  land,  the  oat  ripens  slowly,  and  has  time  to 
consume  and  incorporate  in  its  substance  much  nitrogen.  Under 
these  conditions,  there  is  sufficient  time  for  maturation ;  highest 
proportion  of  allDuminoids  and  highest  nutritive  quality  are  thus 
got.  It  is  different  with  wheat.  Its  finest  qualities  can  only  be 
brought  out  on  land  comparatively  poor  in  nitrogen,  in  warm, 
dry  climate.  In  flour-making,  the  digestive  layer,  rich  in 
albuminoids,  is  removed  with  the  bran,  and  most  of  the  fat  with 
the  embryo  plant.  Thus  the  finest  wheat-flour  is  of  lower  nutri- 
tive value  than  oatmeal. 


l68  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

(d)  On  Nutritive  Value  of  Straw. — When  from  any  cause  the 
period  of  vegetation  is  prolonged,  bulk  and  nutritive  value  of 
straw  are  greater;  for  example,  oats  grown  in  the  cold  moist 
climate  of  Scotland.  The  less  the  grain  product,  and  the  less 
mature  at  cutting,  the  more  nutritive  is  the  straw.  Malting 
barley,  for  example,  is  most  mature  at  cutting,  and  produces  the 
largest  proportion  of  grain,  accordingly  the  straw  is  least  nutritive. 
Bean  straw  is  usually  much  more  nutritive  than  that  of  cereals. 

The  order  usually  is — 

Bean  straw — most  nutritive. 

Oat  straw. 

Wheat  and  barley  straw — least  nutritive. 

6.  Leguminous  Seed  Crops. — Beans. 

Duration. — Beans  have  no  organ  of  vegetation  used  specially 
for  storage,  and  no  reserve  stock  of  buds ;  accordingly  they  are 
of  annual  duration.  Some  varieties  are  more  hardy  and  stand 
a  mild  winter.  Those  are  autumn  sown.  Two  kinds  are  thus 
distinguished — 

1.  Spring  bean — sown  in  spring. 

2.  Winter  bean — sown  in  autumn. 

The  spring  bean  is  sown  specially  early ;  this  can  be  done 
with  impunity,  as  the  seed  germinates  at  low  temperature,  and  the 
seedling  is  little  liable  to  frost  injury.  The  period  of  growth  is 
long,  often  about  eight  months,  hence  the  early  sowing. 

The  autumn-sown  beans  are  usually  ready  for  harvest  in 
August,  while  the  spring  crop  is  ripening. 

Eoot  Distribution. — The  root  system  is  composed  of  an 
elongated  tap,  which  usually  descends  into  the  subsoil  with  abun- 
dant feeding  fibres,  arranged  in  several  longitudinal  rows  along 
its  sides.  Among  cultivated  plants,  beans  and  clover  are  the 
"  miners  "  which  exploit  the  subsoil  with  their  deep  roots.  The 
fibres  are  branched  and  loaded  with  the  nodules,  or  tubercles, 
so  characteristic  of  leguminous  roots. 

The  proportion  of  root  to  air  parts  is  remarkably  high — i  to  3, 
as  against  i  to  9  in  vetch.  This  high  proportion  of  root  specially 
rich  in  nitrogenous  compounds  renders  beans,  like  clovers, 
fit  precursors  for  wheat  and  cereal  crops  in  general. 

Habits. — Feeding. — Three  features  connected  with  the  feeding 
are  of  special  importance  : — 

1.  The  peculiar  power  of  fully  satisfying  nitrogenous  wants 
from  the  free  and  uncombined  nitrogen  contained  in  the  atmo- 
sphere of  the  soil. 


FARM   CROPS.  169 

2.  The  extraordinary  voracity  for  insoluble  minerals,  such  as 
phosphates,  and  silicates  containing  potash. 

3.  The  surface  soil  is  less  utilized  than  the  deep  layers  and 
subsoil. 

From  these  characteristics,  beans  and  leguminous  crops  are 
rightly  called  "  the  stone-breakers  and  miners."  The  extent  to 
which  beans  prey  upon  insoluble  minerals  can  only  be  compared 
with  the  similar  property  of  wild  grasses  and  cereals,  such  as 
oats.  There  is  this  important  difference,  however :  grasses  take  in 
useless  ballast  in  the  shape  of  sihca,  but  beans  and  leguminosse 
keep  such  rubbish  out,  and  are  non-siUcated  crops ;  this  has  much 
to  do  with  the  higher  nutritive  value  of  the  latter.  As  in  oats, 
so  here,  voracious  feeding  is  associated  with  large  produce.  Thus 
a  good  crop  of  oats  or  beans  yields  alike  i  ton  of  grain  and 
i-|^  tons  of  straw.  The  excess  of  straw  over  grain  is  determined 
in  both  cases  by  the  long  period  of  vegetation ;  and  if  by  any 
cause,  such  as  excessive  nitrogenous  manure,  or  wet,  or  cold, 
this  period  is  further  lengthened,  the  straw  is  proportionately 
increased. 

Stejii. — The  stem  is  stout  and  firm,  consequently,  so  far  as 
tendency  to  "lodge"  is  concerned,  dung  can  be  applied  as 
lavishly  to  bean  as  to  root  crops.  When  ripe,  the  stem  becomes 
black ;  hence  the  name,  "  black  crop." 

Leaves. — The  leaves,  broad  and  compound,  expose  a  large 
manufacturing  surface  to  light  and  air — a  character  in  perfect 
harmony  with  the  large  amount  of  root.  The  leaf  cells  contain 
abundant  crystal  contents — crystals  of  oxalate  of  lime.  Legu- 
minosae  are,  accordingly,  hme  plants.  The  lime  is  not  to  be 
regarded  as  a  nutriment,  however,  but  rather  as  an  antidote  to 
oxahc  acid,  poison  produced,  and  necessarily  produced,  by  the 
vital  activity  of  the  plant  itself.  If  lime-supply  is  insufficient  to 
neutralize  the  acid,  poisoning  is  the  result. 

Flowers. — The  flowers  are  not  aggregated  into  an  ear ;  some 
are  very  low  on  the  stem,  others  quite  high.  Lower  flowers  are 
evidently  older  than  those  above ;  hence  flowering  and  ripening 
are  very  irregular.  To  give  these  lower  flowers  equal  chance  of 
reaching  maturity,  light  must  have  free  access,  and  this  is  one 
chief  reason  for  not  sowing  beans  too  thickly. 

Seed. — No  grain-fruit  is  produced  by  bean  crop,  but  a  true 
seed,  if  the  terms  "  fruit "  and  "  seed  "  are  used  in  botanical  sense. 
In  agriculture,  "grain"  and  "seed"  are  synonymous  terms. 
Accordingly,  beans  are  usually  called  *' grain  crops"  or  *' corn 
crops,"  since  the  grain  or  corn  is  the  special  object  of  the  culti- 
vation. The  embryo  within  the  seed  contains  all  the  nutriment ; 
the  seed  skin,  which  envelops,  has  no  nutritive  value.     In  cereal 


170  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

grains,  on  the  other  hand,  the  embryo  contains  quite  a  diminu- 
tive portion,  chiefly  fat,  and  the  main  nutriment  is  in  endosperm, 
a  structure  unrepresented  in  the  bean.  Albumin  is  the  chief 
constituent,  and  the  albuminoid  ratio  is  accordingly  remarkably 
high — I  :  3  as  against  i  :  6  in  cereal  grain. 
Seed  formation  requires  — 

1.  Insect  agency  for  fertilization. 

2.  Filling  the  embryo  with  a  mixed  solution  of  albumin, 
asparagin,  sugar,  fat,  etc. 

3.  Partial  soHdification  by  deposit  of  albumin  and  conversion 
of  sugar  into  starch. 

4.  Drying  by  evaporation,  and  further  hardening  by  formation 
of  albumin. 

Insects,  heat,  and  dry  wind  are  external  necessities  for  seed- 
production  and  maturation. 

Dominant  Manurial  Ingredient. — With  beans  a  large  crop  of 
seed  is  procured  without  nitrogenous  fertilizers.  Something  other 
than  nitrogenous  compounds  must  now  be  used — something  which 
favours  the  vegetative  processes  without  giving  undue  prominence 
to  the  straw.  Potash  compounds  favour  the  manufacturing  opera- 
tions carried  on  in  the  leaf  workshops,  and  quite  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  the  case,  so  far  as  dominant  ingredient  is  concerned. 
Beans  are  thus  appropriately  called  ''potash-demanding  crops." 
To  aid  the  conversion  of  the  manufactured  products  into  seeds, 
phosphates,  if  at  all  defective  in  the  soil,  may  also  be  used  with 
advantage.  Bean  roots  are,  however,  most  voracious,  and  have 
plenty  of  time  for  the  exercise  of  this  talent;  fertilizers  are 
impotent  to  increase  the  crop  in  a  soil  with  innate  richness.  In 
cold  climate  and  season,  however,  potash  fertilizers  are  un- 
doubtedly advantageous. 

Requirements. — To  satiate  the  appetite  for  insoluble  minerals 
and  for  water,  heavy  land — from  its  special  suitability  called 
"  bean  land  " — is  very  necessary.  The  water  ought  to  be  imbibed 
in  the  soil-particles  and  not  in  the  pores  plugging  them  up ;  this 
chiefly  for  the  reason  that  the  plant  wants  nitrogen  from  the  soil 
atmosphere.  Too  loose  a  texture  is  injurious  rather  than  beneficial, 
because  of  the  more  active  nitrification  and  diminished  water 
supply  under  such  conditions.  Sufficiency  of  lime  to  neutralize 
the  oxalic  poison  in  stem  and  leaf  is  also  requisite. 

Character  in  Relation  to  Soil. — Beans  are — 

1.  Exhaustive. 

2.  Additive  of  nitrogen  and  ameliorative. 

3.  Cleaning,  or  may  be  used  as  such. 

Beans  are  rightly  called  "  exhaustive  "  when  the  soil  produce 
is  sold  off  the  farm.     The  produce  of  seed  per  acre  carries  away 


FARM  CROPS.  171 

about  21  lbs.  of  phosphoric  acid  and  25  lbs.  of  potash.  The  bulk 
of  this  material  has,  however,  been  drawn  from  the  depths,  not 
from  surface  soil. 

Although  exhaustive,  as  just  explained,  the  crop  leaves  the 
land  much  richer  in  nitrogen  than  before,  and  this  because  the 
plants  have  been  supplied  from  the  elementary  nitrogen  of  the 
soil  atmosphere.  Beans,  like  clover,  are  the  **  nitrogen  purveyors  " 
of  the  farm.  Much  of  this  nitrogen  is  left  behind  in  the  large 
root  residue  contained  in  the  surface  soil. 

These  surface  residues — the  crop  straw  and  fallen  leaves — 
also  contain  much  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  in  readily  available 
form,  gathered  together  by  the  deep  roots  in  the  subsoil.  It  is 
a  fundamental  principle  of  profitable  farming,  that  soil  capital — 
more  especially  that  in  the  deeper  layers,  out  of  ordinary  range — 
should  be  in  circulation,  not  dormant  and  lying  idle.  Bean  crop 
accomplishes  this,  transfers  insoluble  minerals  from  subsoil,  and 
places  them  in  available  forms  in  the  soil  itself.  Leguminous 
crops  thus  enable  the  farmer  to  realize  the  latent  wealth  of  the 
soil  and  of  the  air  which  it  contains ;  these  purvey  suitable  com- 
pounds for  the  other  crops  of  the  rotation.  For  this,  if  for  no 
other  reason,  such  crops  must  be  specially  attended  to  by  the 
successful  cultivator.  From  this  point  of  view  beans  may  well  be 
regarded  as  ameliorative. 

Beans  can,  if  desired,  be  cultivated  like  root  crops,  so  as  to 
leave  the  land  clean  and  free  from  weeds.  They  can  be  grown 
best  on  condition  that  the  land  is  clean  and  kept  clean — at  least 
during  early  life ;  for,  like  root  crops,  they  attend  specially  to  down- 
ward growth  at  first,  and  afterwards  extend  themselves  in  the  up- 
ward direction.  When  this  has  taken  place,  the  large  leaf  surface 
shades  the  ground,  and  tends  to  suppress  bottom  vegetation. 

If  the  bean  seeds  are  consumed  on  the  farm,  and  if  the  crop 
is  kept  clean  by  cultivation,  it  may  rightly  be  regarded  as  a  fallow, 
ameliorating  and  cleaning  the  land  like  root  crop  itself.  If  clean- 
ness is  not  specially  kept  in  view,  bean  is  no  fallow  crop,  but  a 
fouling  crop  like  corn. 

In  rotation,  cleaned  beans  fitly  alternate  with  shallow- feeding 
and  fouling  crops,  requiring  much  available  nitrogen,  such  as 
cereals. 

Chemical  Composition.— ^^^^.— Bean  seeds,  like  cereal  grains*, 
are  dry  products,  and  contain  15  per  cent,  of  imbibed  water.  Ash, 
about  3  per  cent,  is  composed  chiefly  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash,  I  per  cent.  each.  Nitrogen,  4  per  cent.,  is  twice  as  much 
as  in  cereals;  and  the  albuminoid  ratio  is  i  :  2. 

Straw.— A\r-^ry  straw  contains  from  14  to  15  per  cent,  of 
water.     The  ash,  4  to  5  per  cent.,  is  composed  chiefly  of  potash 


172  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

and  of  lime.  Fibre  is  usually  less  than  in  cereal  straw,  and  the 
albuminoid  ratio  very  much  higher.  Time  of  cutting  determines 
nutritive  value. 

Period  of  Highest  Nutritive  Value.— The  crop  should  be 
taken  when  the  lowest  pods  turn  black — before  they  open  and 
discharge  their  seed.  In  England  the  leaves  are  allowed  to  fall 
and  the  stem  to  blacken  before  harvesting ;  in  Scotland  reapers 
begin  sooner— before  the  stem  darkens,  when  the  hilum  (eye)  of 
the  seed  gets  black.  In  the  former  case  the  straw  must  evidently 
be  much  less  nutritive  than  in  the  latter,  since  there  is  little  amide 
left  behind  to  keep  fibre-formation  in  check. 

Changes  in  Ripening. — The  changes  are  of  the  same  nature 
as  in  cereals.  In  the  seed  there  is  much  more  albumin  to  be 
dealt  with,  and  the  place  of  storage  is  the  embryo  itself;  the 
embryo  alone  constitutes  the  whole  nutritive  part  of  the  seed. 
Ripening  after  cutting  consists  in  the  conversion  of  residual 
amides  into  albumins.  A  year  in  stack  is  said  to  be  necessary 
to  allow  thorough  ripening  of  the  beans. 

Principles  of  Cultivation.— Beans  are  cultivated  either  on  the 
same  principles  as  roots  or  as  cereals.  The  seeds  are  sown  in 
rows,  often  20  or  30  inches  apart,  to  allow  thorough  cleaning 
and  hoeing,  as  well  as  free  access  of  light  on  all  sides.  Cleaning 
operations  must  cease  when  flowering  begins. 

Farmyard  manure  is  an  immense  advantage  to  a  crop  like  this, 
taken  on  a  heavy  soil,  not  so  much  because  of  food  material  supplied 
to  the  roots,  but  rather  because  the  dung  imbibes  into  itself  the 
water  contained  in  the  pores  of  the  soil,  and  leaves  them  free  and 
open  to  the  air.  Fresh  water  in  the  soil  is  a  fundamental  neces- 
sity for  all  crops,  but  more  especially  for  a  crop  like  this,  which 
benefits  by  the  nitrogen  of  the  soil  atmosphere.  Ten  to  fifteen  tons 
of  dung  per  acre  may  be  applied,  according  to  the  condition  of 
the  land.  Fineness  of  seed-bed  is  disadvantageous  rather  than 
otherwise  for  the  large  seed,  and  consequently  large  seedling,  of 
the  bean — a  fortunate  circumstance  in  connection  with  early  sow- 
ing on  heavy  land.  Taken  as  a  whole,  bean  cultivation  consists 
in  tilling,  dunging,  fertilizing,  and  cleaning  during  early  occupation. 
Influence  of  Climate  on  Perfection  of  Growth. — A  seed-bed 
yielding  an  air-dry  product  necessitates  a  dry  atmosphere  during 
the  maturation  period.  If  drought  and  heat  prevail  during 
flowering,  the  flowers  quickly  shrivel  up,  and  have  much  less 
chance  of  insect  fertilization ;  as  a  consequence,  fewer  seeds  are 
formed  in  the  pod,  and  diminished  crop  results.  If  wet  and  cold 
prevail,  the  vegetative  period  is  prolonged  and  the  proportion  of 
straw  to  seed  increased. 

Systems  of  Husbandry.— On  heavy  land,  in  dry  climate,  beans 


FARM  CROPS.  173 

are  very  essential  in  rotation,  and  fitly  find  a  place  between  the 
cereal  grain  crops  (suitable  for  heavy  land),  such  as  wheat,  or,  if 
the  climate  is  colder,  oat.  Grass  in  dry  climate  is  not  specially 
favoured,  and,  instead  of  an  extra  year  in  grass,  beans  are  often 
taken.  Not  only  may  this  be  after  grass,  but  between  grain 
crops;  thus — roots,  barley,  grass,  wheat  or  oat,  beans,  wheat. 
If  the  land  is  rich  in  nitrogenous  compounds,  maturity  is  more 
slowly  reached,  and  the  proportion  of  straw  increased  at  the  expense 
of  seed ;  hence  the  best  position  in  rotation  is  after  a  nitrogen- 
demanding  crop.  Phosphates,  however,  favour  the  production 
of  albumins,  and  keep  due  check  upon  nitrogenous  action.  By 
the  growth  of  beans,  the  intervals  of  recurrence  of  clover  and  of 
roots  are  lengthened. 

The  pea  serves  a  similar  function  on  light  land;  its  straw 
is  less  fibrous  and  more  nutritive  than  that  of  bean. 

7.  Minor  Crops  used  for  Forage. 

Forage  crops  produce  stems  and  leaves,  either  mown,  made 
into  silage,  or  fed  upon  the  land.  From  the  nature  of  their  pro- 
duce all  are  ''nitrogen-demanding,"  except  leguminosse.  They 
are  used  in  two  ways  : — 

1.  In  place  of  roots. 

2.  As  catch-crops. 

The  place  of  rapid-growing  roots,  such  as  turnips,  may  be 
taken  by  rape,  and  this  is  accordingly  sometimes  classed  with 
root,  or,  better,  with  cabbage  crops,  from  similarity  of  cultivation 
and  of  produce. 

On  heavy  clays,  roots  are  often  very  inconvenient,  and  forage 
crops  of  vetches,  or  mixtures  of  beans,  oats,  and  vetches  may 
take  the  place  of  the  fallow  crop  (roots).  After  removal  of 
the  early  forage  the  land  can  be  cleaned  and  prepared  for  wheat. 

Many  of  these  minor  crops,  from  the  extreme  rapidity  of 
growth,  are  well  fitted  for  interposition  between  two  main  crops ; 
such  are  called  "catch,"  "stolen,"  or  "stubble"  crops.  The 
forage  "catch"  crop  is  sown  in  early  autumn,  and  fed  off  in 
spring ;  the  land  is  then  prepared  for  roots.  Thus  two  crops  are 
taken  in  a  single  season.  This  can  only  be  done  to  advantage 
on  light  land,  which  is  easily  cleaned,  and  in  warm,  mild  climates, 
as  in  the  south  of  England.     The  crops  used  in  this  way  are : — 

1.  Forage  cereals — winter  rye,  winter  barley,  winter  oat. 

2.  Forage  Leguminosce — vetches  and  crimson  clover. 

3.  Forage  Cruciferce — white  mustard. 

In  the  Norfolk  rotation  the  "catch "comes  in  thus — roots, 
barley,  grass,  wheat ;  catch-crop,  roots,  barley,  eta 


174  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

It  is  very  evident  that  no  catch-crop  can  be  taken  on  the 
barley  stubble;  the  land  is  already  in  crop — the  grass  for  next 
year. 

Forage  Cereals. — In  order  of  rapidity,  these  cereals  stand 
thus : — 

Winter  rye — most  rapid. 

Winter  barley. 

Winter  oat — least  rapid. 

These  plants  are  not  sufficiently  hardy  to  withstand  a  severe 
winter ;  hence  they  are  only  grown  in  the  extreme  south.  Kye 
is  hardiest  of  the  three,  and  has  a  wider  range. 

Leaf-distinction  is  easy ;  thus — 

1.  Base  of  blade  eared — barley, 

2.  Base  of  blade  earless. 

(a)  Sheath  downy ;  leaf-blade  red — rye, 

{b)  Sheath  bald ;  blade  with  little  or  no  red — oats. 

Forage  Vetches.— The  period  of  vegetation  is  about  five 
months.  The  crop  must  accordingly  be  sown  as  early  in  August 
as  possible,  if  intended  for  use  in  May.  Vetches  may,  of 
course,  be  sown  at  different  times  throughout  the  year,  to  produce 
a  succession  of  forage.  On  heavy  land  they  may  occupy  the 
place  of  roots ;  in  such  a  case  the  land  must  be  specially  cleaned 
for  the  following  wheat  crop.  The  plant  is  deep-rooted,  and  feeds 
largely  from  subsoil  layers. 

The  stem  produces  scant  fibres,  so  scant,  indeed,  that  an 
external  support  is  needed  to  hold  the  plant  up  to  light  and  air — 
the  leaf  has  special  tendrils  for  the  purpose.  This  poverty  of 
fibres  is  here,  as  in  the  pea,  a  sign  of  extreme  nitrogenous  rich- 
ness, and  necessitates  growth  in  mixture  with  supporting  plants, 
such  as  rye  and  oat.  Nitrogenous  richness,  together  with  the 
remarkable  power  of  using  insoluble  minerals,  indicates  special 
suitability  for  making  best  use  of  rich  land  containing  lime. 
Manurial  value  is  very  high.  Vetches  yield  an  after-crop  of 
branches,  and  in  this  respect  differ  from  true  annuals. 

Crimson  Clover. — The  period  of  vegetation  is  about  four  or 
five  months.  For  use  in  May,  sowing  may  take  place  in  Septem- 
ber. This  plant  lacks  the  hardiness  of  winter  vetch,  and  can 
be  grown  only  in  the  south,  where  the  winter  is  sufficiently  mild ; 
cold  is,  indeed,  the  bane  of  crimson  clover. 

The  roots  are  shallow  and  confine  their  ravages  to  the  surface 
soil.  This  shallow-rooted,  top-heavy  species,  with  large  leaf 
surface  evaporating  much  water,  requires  a  soil  of  specially 
compact  texture,  if  uprootal  is  to  be  avoided  and  successful  growth 
attained.     A  white,  chalky  soil  cannot  grow  the  plant  at  all 


SEEDS.  175 

Sufficient  heat,  water,  and  compact  land  are  the  keys  to  suc- 
cessful cultivation.  Time  of  cutting  is  very  important ;  the  plant 
rushes  into  flower,  and  drains  the  nutriment  into  the  forming  seeds 
with  remarkable  rapidity.  Rapid  fibre-formation  in  the  stem  is 
the  result,  and  the  crop  must  be  taken  when  the  flower  heads  begin 
to  show.  Only  a  single  cut  can  be  got  from  this  clover — a 
character  indicative  of  a  true  annual. 

White  Mustard. — A  good  crop  may  be  got  in  five  or  six 
weeks. 

The  roots  are  deep,  and  feed  chiefly  in  the  deeper  layers  of 
soil  and  subsoil.  When  sown  broadcast  it  shades  the  land  very 
completely,  starving  out  weeds.  It  is  not  hardy  against  winter 
frost,  and  can  only  be  sown  in  spring,  or  in  August  to  be  ready 
by  October. 

Rape. — A  good  crop  may  be  got  in  three  months.  The  hardy 
species,  winter  rape,  produces  bald  leaves  with  waxy  skin.  Sum- 
mer rape  has  rough  hairs  on  the  leaf,  but  no  wax.  The  plants 
are  deep-rooted,  the  tap  root  entering  the  subsoil,  and  dividing 
into  several  branches  or  fangs.  Leafage  is  remarkably  abundant, 
and  likewise  the  feeding  roots, — two  points  of  contrast  with  its 
turnip  allies.  Being  provided  with  abundant  feeders,  this  plant 
can  grow  on  poor  land,  such  as  peaty  fens,  unsuited  to  many 
other  crops.  It  differs  from  a  true  annual  in  yielding  an  after- 
crop of  branches,  or  aftermath. 

Rape  can  be  fed  off"  clay  land  by  sheep  in  July,  August, 
September,  and  October,  at  a  time  when  no  physical  injury  to 
the  texture  results  from  tread,  and  at  a  time  which  meets  the 
requirements  of  wheat. 

C— Seeds. 
Conditions  regulating  the  Vital  Power  of  Seeds. 

Vital  Power— Grerminative  and  Vegetative. — A  seed  is  said 
to  have  vital  power  when  it  can  pass  through  the  phase  of  growth 
called  germination.  The  characteristic  feature  of  this  germinating 
period  is  that  the  infant  plant  or  embryo  feeds  on  a  mixture  of 
pre-formed  organic  compounds  stored  within  the  seed  for  this 
specific  purpose.  During  this  phase  of  life,  the  embryo  plant  is 
comparable  to  the  infant  mammal  feeding  on  the  milk  drawn 
from  the  mother's  breast. 

The  vegetative  phase  of  growth  succeeds  germination.  Organic 
nutriment  within  the  seed  has  now  been  consumed,  and  the 
seedling  product — equipped  with  vegetative  organs  for  the  purpose 
—  uses  extraneous  supplies  of  inorganic   material  drawn  partly 


1/6  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

from  the  soil  and  partly  from  the  air  :  from  these,  organic  foods 
are  manufactured.  Source  of  food  supply  is,  indeed,  the  chief 
distinction  between  germination  and  vegetation. 

It  is  wrong  to  suppose  that  germination  must  be  finished 
before  vegetation  begins— the  processes  in  point  of  fact  overlap 
one  another ;  before  germination  is  complete  the  vegetative  phase 
has  been  entered  upon.  It  is  therefore  the  object  of  agricultural 
practice  to  sow  seeds  at  such  a  depth  in  the  ground  that  the 
conditions  of  successful  vegetation  are  realized  before  germination 
is  complete.  When  this  is  not  accomplished,  loss  of  plants  is 
the  inevitable  result 

During  the  period  of  germination  the  whole  seedling  is  in  the 
most  tender  condition,  and  is  most  susceptible  to  disease ;  hence 
the  vigour  and  rapidity  displayed  at  this  time  must  be  taken  into 
account  if  a  correct  judgment  regarding  subsequent  vegetative 
power  is  to  be  formed.  To  prevent  disaster  and  to  secure  full 
and  vigorous  crops,  seeds  of  the  strongest  vitality  must  be  sown ; 
the  seedlings  must  be  complete  and  functionally  active  in  all  their 
parts,  any  imperfections  in  these  respects  must  seriously  diminish 
the  resultant  crop. 

Construction  and  Properties  of  Germinating  Seed.— The  parts 
of  a  mature  seed  are  : — 

1.  The  coat. 

2.  The  food  store  ]  a    a        ,.    .. 

3.  The  embryo      }  Seed  contents. 

It  need  not  concern  us  here  whether  the  food-store  is  con- 
tained within  the  embryo  itself  or  within  the  special  tissue  called 
"endosperm."  It  may,  however,  be  pointed  out  that  in  the 
former  case  there  is  no  premature  birth  of  the  embryo,  as  in  the 
latter. 

The  seed  must  be  so  constructed  that  external  water  and  air 
can  pass  through  the  coat  and  enter  into  the  component  cells  of 
the  food-store  and  of  the  embryo.  When  water  is  absorbed  the 
seed  becomes  turgid,  and  is  said  to  be  swollen.  This  purely 
mechanical  process  of  swelling  is  the  necessary  precursor  of 
germination ;  nevertheless  it  is  wrong  to  conclude  that,  because 
the  seed  swells,  it  must  be  capable  of  producing  a  plant ;  some- 
thing more  than  water  and  air  absorption  is  necessary,  if  the 
embryo  is  to  pass  from  the  dormant  into  the  active  condition  of 
life. 

Chemical  changes  connected  with  the  nutrition  of  the  embryo 
must  take  place.  This  series  of  changes  is  initiated  by  the  forma- 
tion of  digestive  juice  from  the  contents  of  a  special  layer  of  cells, 
called  by  Haberlaudt  the  "digestive  layer."  In  the  grain  of 
wheat,  for  example,  the  digestive  juice  is  formed  from  the  contents 


SEEDS.  17; 

of  the  layer  of  cells  lying  immediately  within  the  skin — usually 
called  "  aleuron  cells  " — and  the  same  is  the  case  with  all  grass 
plants.  When  the  digestive  juice  and  water  pass  into  the  cells 
of  the  food-store,  the  insoluble  organic  food  stuffs  contained 
therein  are  gradually  attacked,  and  converted  into  soluble  com- 
pounds capable  of  passing  through  the  cell  walls.  In  solution, 
the  organic  food  stuffs  pass  out  of  the  store  cells,  enter  into  the 
body  of  the  embryo,  serve  for  its  nutrition,  and  become  incor- 
porated in  the  substance  of  the  various  parts  of  the  seedling 
plant. 

The  embryo  must  be  capable  of  undergoing  development, 
growth,  and  change  of  form.  For  the  consummation  of  this 
series  of  morphological  changes  the  embryo  requires  to  be  living, 
capable  of  absorbing  water  and  becoming  turgid,  capable  of 
utilizing  the  organic  nutriment  for  growth,  and  capable  of 
breathing  air. 

The  three  fundamental  properties  of  a  germinating  seed 
are — 

1.  It  swells. 

2.  It  digests. 

3.  The  embryo  develops. 

What  Germination  is. — The  process  of  germination  is  merely 
the  accomplishment  of  these  changes. 

1.  Mechanical  change — swelling. 

2.  Chemical  change — food  digestion. 

3.  Morphological  change — embryo  development. 
External   Conditions  necessary  for  Germination. — To  call 

these  properties  of  germinating  seed  into  action  certain  external 
conditions  must  be  fulfilled.  Water  is  necessary  for  swelling, 
digestion,  and  development.  The  quality  of  water  supplied 
exerts  considerable  influence,  as  is  often  noticeable  in  the  case  of 
seeds  germinated  in  an  artificial  apparatus.  Hard  water,  for 
example,  contains  lime  salts.  Those  salts  may  form  a  coating  on 
the  seed  skin  comparable  to  the  incrustation  in  a  kettle ;  when 
this  takes  place  the  whole  process  of  germination  is  stopped.  So 
far  as  germination  is  concerned  the  object  is  to  supply  the  seed 
with  the  purest  water  possible — rain  water  meets  the  require- 
ments of  the  case. 

Air  is  necessary  for  the  development  of  the  embryo,  and  for 
other  purposes  connected  with  digestion.  If  the  embryo  cannot 
obtain  a  supply  of  air  containing  oxygen,  breathing  is  impossible, 
and,  as  a  consequence,  development  is  brought  to  a  standstill. 
A  supply  of  pure  air  is,  indeed,  the  key  to  successful  germination. 
If  the  air  is  vitiated  with  carbonic  acid  gas  the  plant  is  poisoned. 
During  germination  large  quantities  of  this  poison  are  evolved 

N 


178  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

from  the  seeds — not  only  from  the  seeds,  but  from  all  decaying 
organic  matter  in  their  neighbourhood.  Proper  ventilation  of  the 
seed-bed  must  therefore  be  secured  in  order  to  have  strong  and 
healthy  seedlings.  Agriculturalists,  as  a  rule,  pay  too  little  atten- 
tion to  the  composition  of  the  soil  atmosphere,  not  only  during 
germination,  but  also  during  vegetation. 

Heat  is  necessary  for  chemical  change  and  for  development. 
The  rapidity  of  germination  depends  upon  the  temperature  :  each 
species  has  its  peculiarity  in  this  respect.  That  temperature  at 
which  germination  is  most  rapid  is  called  **  optimum  ;  "  below  and 
above  this  lie  the  minimum  and  maximum  temperatures  at  which 
germination  is  possible.  The  germination  temperatures  for  wheat 
are — optimum,  83°  Fahr. ;  minimum,  41° ;  maximum,  108°.  When 
seeds  are  germinated  in  an  artificial  apparatus,  the  temperature  is 
kept  constant  at  70°  Fahr. — a  very  favourable  degree  of  heat  for 
most  seeds. 

It  is  often  stated  that  seeds  cannot  germinate  in  Hght,  but  such 
is  not  the  case.  Many  suppose  that  seed  is  buried  in  the  ground 
to  keep  it  out  of  the  light ;  the  real  object  is  to  secure  uniform 
moisture  and  warmth. 

The  conditions  necessary  for  germination  are — 

1.  Pure  water. 

2.  Pure  air. 

3.  A  certain  temperature. 

Character  and  Quality  of  Seed. 

Commercial  Seed. — Commercial  seed  has,  in  general,  the 
following  composition  : — 

A.  Seeds  true  to  kind. 

a.  Mature  j  NorgerSing. 
k  Immature — chaff. 

B.  Impurities. 

C.  Adulterants. 

D.  Doctored  seed. 

Germinating  and  Non-Germinating  Seed.— The  character  of 
germinating  seeds  has  been  already  dealt  with  :  they  swell,  they 
digest  the  stored  food,  they  develop  the  embryo.  Mature  seeds 
which  do  not  germinate  want  one  or  more  of  these  properties,  and 
may  accordingly  be  divided  into  three  groups : — 

1.  Hard  seeds — cannot  swell,  or  swell  with  extreme  slowness. 

2.  Dyspeptic  seeds — cannot  form  digestive  juice. 

3.  Dead  seeds — cannot  develop  the  embryo. 

^'Hard  seeds"  swell,  if  at  all,  very  slowly,  because  of  the 


I 


SEEDS.  179 

abnormally  dense  coat,  which  retards  the  entrance  of  water.  Such 
seeds  may  lie  for  months,  even  years,  in  the  soil  before  germina- 
tion takes  place,  some  never  germinating  at  all.  In  a  wet  season 
the  percentage  of  hard  clover  seeds  is  usually  very  high;  the 
white  of  1891,  for  example,  often  contained  20  per  cent.  hard. 
When  ** hardness"  is  the  only  defect  it  may  be  partially  remedied 
by  scratching  or  making  a  break  in  the  skin.  In  purchasing 
clover  seeds,  it  is  advisable  to  require  from  the  seller  a  guarantee 
of  the  actual  percentage  of  germination,  and  to  have  the  percentage 
of  hard  seeds  stated  separately.  If  the  hard  seeds  are  included  in 
the  germination,  as  is  becoming  the  custom,  the  farmer  is  liable 
to  be  misled. 

Grass  seeds  harvested  in  a  wet  season  are  most  liable  to 
dyspepsia.  The  digestive  layer  beneath  the  skin  is  discoloured, 
abnormal  in  composition,  and  forms  little,  if  any,  digestive  juice. 

A  dead  embryo,  incapable  of  development,  may  often  be 
identified  by  its  discolouration,  thus  : — 

Dead  wheat  embryo — brown,  reddish-brown,  etc. 

Dead  barley       „  brownish,  bluish,  dark-coloured,  etc 

Dead  oat  „         brownish  yellow,  reddish  brown,  etc. 

The  only  certain  method  of  distinguishing  the  germinating 
from  the  non-germinating  seeds,  is  to  test  the  matter  by  actual 
germination  in  an  artificial  apparatus. 

Immature  Seed. — Chaff. — There  are,  of  course,  grades  of  im- 
maturity, but  here  the  term  immature  is  applied  only  to  those 
representatives  of  seeds  which  have  not  developed  an  embryo 
plant.  Immaturity  is  only  of  practical  import  in  the  case  of  grass 
seeds.  It  often  happens,  as  in  meadow  foxtail,  for  example,  that 
a  large  percentage  of  what  looks  like  seed  is  merely  a  husk  com- 
posed of  glumes  and  pales,  with  no  true  seed  in  the  interior.  This 
chaff,  as  it  is  called,  cannot  by  any  possibility  germinate,  and 
seed  containing  a  large  proportion  must  have  low  germinating 
power.  When  testing  seeds,  some  botanists  pick  the  chaff  out 
with  the  impurities  before  setting  the  seed  in  the  germinator.  The 
percentage  of  germination  of  grass  seeds  has,  therefore,  little 
meaning  unless  the  buyer  knows  exactly  how  the  chaff  has  been 
estimated.  This  should  always  be  specially  borne  in  mind  when 
purchasing  grass  seeds. 

Impurities. — By  impurities  is  meant  all  foreign  ingredients 
naturally  occurring  in  the  seeds  purchased.  Foreign  ingredients 
include  everything  which  is  not  the  genuine  seed ;  whether  more 
or  less  valuable  than  the  genuine  seed  is  matter  of  indifference. 
Broken  seeds  though  genuine,  and  those  evidently  rotten  and 
decayed,  are  to  be  regarded  as  impurity.     Some  botanists  also 


l8o  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

regard  chaff  of  the  genuine  seeds  as  impurity.     The  following  is  a 
general  classification  of  the  most  frequent  impurities  : — 

1.  Dust,  dirt,  stones. 

2.  Seeds — not  genuine,  weeds,  etc. 

3.  Broken  seeds. 

4.  Chaff  of  genuine  seed. 

5.  Seeds  of  parasites,  e.g,  dodder  in  clover  and  Timothy. 

6.  Diseased  seeds  containing  fungi  or  insects. 

Seed  Testing. — A  glance  at  the  composition  of  commercial 
seed  shows  that  it  must  often  be  far  from  perfect.  The  degree  of 
perfection  is  capable  of  fairly  accurate  measurement,  and  no  one, 
however  experienced,  can  determine  by  mere  weighing  or  in- 
spection how  much  effective  seed  he  has  actually  sown,  or  what 
its  money  value  ought  to  be,  unless  special  tests  have  been  applied. 
The  farmer  too  often  forgets  this,  and  imagines  that  he  accom- 
plishes his  purpose  by  sowing  so  many  pounds  or  so  many  bushels, 
as  the  case  may  be.  Evidently  the  amount  of  crop  does  not 
depend  upon  the  total  amount  of  seed  sown  ;  that  portion  of  the 
seed  which  germinates  is  alone  effective  for  crop  production. 

Two  tests  must  be  applied  to  the  seed  before  the  quantity  to 
be  sown  can  be  known  : — 

1.  Purity  test. 

2.  Germinative  test. 

Purity  Test. — When  the  sample  contains  dust,  dirt,  and 
stones,  purity  is  best  determined  by  weight.  The  total  weight 
of  the  sample  is  taken.  Dust  and  dirt  are  separated  out  by  means 
of  a  sieve;  other  impurities  are  removed  by  hand.  The  pure 
portion  of  the  sample  is  then  weighed.  Simple  calculation  gives 
the  percentage  weight  of  impurity.     Thus— 

Total  weight         100  grains. 

Weight  of  pure  portion   . .         . .       88  grains. 

Weight  of  impurities      ..         ..       12  grains. 

The  percentage  of  impurity  is  in  this  assumed  case  12  per 
cent,  and  the  purity  88  per  cent. 

It  is,  as  a  rule,  advisable  to  state  the  percentage  of  foreign 
seeds  present  by  number^  not  by  weight.  To  do  this  an  average 
sample  is  taken,  say  500  seeds  in  all.  These  are  looked  over 
under  a  lens,  and  the  foreign  seeds,  say  60  in  number,  are  picked 
out.  If  60  foreign  seeds  are  contained  in  500  seeds  of  the 
sample,  the  percentage  impurity  by  number  is  evidently  12  per 
cent.,  and  the  purity  88  per  cent. 

When  purchasing  seeds  the  buyer  must  know  whether  the 
purity  has  been  measured  by  weight  or  by  number^  and,  in  the 


SEEDS.  I8l 

case  of  grass  seeds,  whether  chaff  has  been  included  in  the 
impurity. 

Germination  Test. — In  connection  with  germination  it  is 
necessary  to  remember  that  the  pure  portion  of  a  sample  alone  is 
tested.  Many  suppose  that  if  the  germination  is  high,  say  loo 
per  cent.,  the  seed  must  be  perfect  or  nearly  so.  The  purity  may 
at  the  same  time  be  very  low,  say  ten  per  cent.  In  this  assumed 
case,  the  figure  expressing  germination  loo  per  cent,  merely  refers 
to  one- tenth  of  the  whole  sample,  and  gives  no  information 
whatever  regarding  the  remaining  nine-tenths.  It  is,  therefore, 
quite  important  to  know,  not  only  the  percentage  of  germination, 
but  also  the  percentage  of  purity. 

In  testing  germination,  an  average  sample  of  loo  genuine 
seeds  is  taken.  This,  with  a  duplicate  hundred,  is  placed  in  a 
germinating  apparatus,  and  the  seeds  as  they  grow  are  counted 
off.  The  result  of  the  duplicate  tests  ought  not  to  differ  by  more 
than  3  per  cent. 

In  sending  seed  or  corn  to  a  botanist  for  testing,  the  utmost 
care  must  be  taken  to  secure  a  fair  and  honest  sample.  In  the 
case  of  grass  seeds,  the  sample  would  be  drawn  from  the  centre 
of  the  sack  or  bag,  and  in  all  cases  from  the  bulk  delivered  to  the 
purchaser.  If  anything  supposed  to  be  injurious  or  useless 
exists  in  the  com  or  seed  selected,  samples  should  also  be 
sent. 

When  possible,  at  least  one  ounce  of  grass  and  other  small 
seeds  should  be  sent,  and  two  ounces  of  cereals  or  larger  seeds. 
The  exact  number  under  which  the  seed  has  been  bought  (but 
preferably  a  copy  of  the  invoice)  should  accompany  the  sample. 

Grass  seeds  should  be  sent  at  least  four  weeks,  and  clover 
seeds  two  weeks,  before  they  are  to  be  used. 

Quality  of  the  Germinating  Seeds. — The  quality  oi germiftating 
seed  depends  mainly  upon  the  following  factors : — 

1.  Pedigree. 

2.  Age. 

3.  Size  and  weight  of  each  seed. 

4.  Weight  per  bushel. 

5.  Smell. 

Pedigree  and  age  are  dealt  with  separately. 

Theory  and  practice  alike  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
largest  and  heaviest  seeds  yield  the  best  and  largest  crops. 
Increased  size  and  weight  means  increased  seed  contents — that  is, 
more  food,  and  a  larger  embryo. 

Weight  per  bushel,  when  it  increases  with  the  size  and 
weight  of  the  individual  seeds,  gives  some  idea  of  the  quality. 
This  is,  as  a  rule,  the  case  with  cereal  and  other  grasses.     The 


1 82  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

percentage  of  water  in  the  seed,  however,  interferes  with  the 
result.  Samples  containing  a  high  percentage  of  chaff  and 
immature  seeds  must  have  low  weight  per  bushel. 

A  musty  smell  signifies  that  the  seed  is  fungated,  and  the 
produce  may  be  more  or  less  unhealthy.  A  rancid  smell  from  oily 
seeds  indicates  age. 

Pedigree  Seed. 

Influence  of  Pedigree  on  Seed  Quality. — A  seed  has  the 
property  of  transmitting  to  its  produce  certain  peculiarities  of  its 
parents — that  is  to  say,  certain  characteristics  are  hereditary,  and 
capable  of  propagation  by  seed.  These  hereditary  qualities 
become  more  and  more  fixed  when  perpetuated  through  a  long 
series  of  generations.  There  is  always  a  tendency  to  revert  to 
the  original  form,  but  this  tendency  becomes  less  after  a  time. 
A  great  deal  depends  upon  soil  and  climate :  it  is  vain  to  expect 
the  best  seed  from  parents  imperfectly  nourished  by  the  soil, 
and  unfavourably  situated  as  regards  climate.  Hence  cultivation 
under  the  most  favourable  conditions  is  the  key  to  the  production 
of  improved  seed  of  the  best  quality.  The  breeder  of  pedigree 
seed  has  not  only  to  cultivate  as  perfectly  as  possible ;  he  must 
at  the  same  time  select  parents  with  the  most  desirable  and  most 
suitable  properties.  By  steadily  pursuing  this  policy  for  a  series 
of  years,  the  cultivator  fixes  these  valuable  properties  in  the 
embryo  of  the  seed. 

Methods  for  securing  Pedigree  Quality. — In  practice  four 
methods  are  employed  for  the  production  of  pedigree  seeds. 
These  are — 

1.  Cultivation  in  suitable  soil  and  climate. 

2.  Artificial  selection. 

3.  Variation. 

4.  Crossing. 

Cultivation. — Cultivation  has  for  its  object  the  most  perfect 
nutriment  of  the  plants,  and  to  secure  this  three  points  must  be 
specially  attended  to  : — 

1.  Tillage. 

2.  Mode  of  sowing. 

3.  Manuring. 

The  soil  should  be  free  from  weeds,  and  as  deep  as  possible* 
Freedom  from  weeds  allows  the  plant  to  become  most  luxuriant 
and  most  fertile,  while  depth  of  soil  regulates  the  water  supply, 
and  prevents  injury  from  excessive  or  diminished  supply  of 
moisture.  The  seed  should,  as  a  rule,  be  sown  in  rows ;  maximum 
light  is  thus  secured,  and  assimilation  is  at  its  best.    The  manures 


SEEDS.  183 

should  be  so  proportioned  that  the  vegetative  organs  are  not 
excessively  developed;  in  the  case  of  cereals,  for  example,  too 
much  farmyard  manure  diminishes  the  yield  of  seed.  The 
largest  and  best  grain  crop  is  obtained  by  the  use  of  fine  bone 
meal. 

Selection. — Hallett  and  Hunter  were  the  first  to  adopt  the 
method  of  selection,  and  they  applied  it  with  the  greatest  success 
to  the  cereal  crops.  The  best  fields,  the  best  ears,  and  the  best 
grains  are  selected.  The  grains  are  sown  under  the  most  favour- 
able conditions.  From  the  produce,  the  best  grains  are  again 
selected ;  by  continuing  the  selection  and  cultivation  for  six  years, 
Hunter  increased  the  number  of  grains  per  ear  of  wheat  from 
90  to  124.  A  certain  permanence  is  thus  given  to  the  selected 
peculiarity,  and  pedigree  seed  obtained.  These  pedigree  seeds, 
Uke  pedigree  animals,  require  strong  and  healthy  parents  as  well 
as  care  and  attention,  if  good  points  are  to  remain  fixed 
(See ''Change  of  Seed"). 

Commercial  pedigree  seed  is  not  obtained  by  hand  picking, 
but  the  selection  is  simply  made  by  appropriate  cleaning  and 
sieving  machines.  The  mesh  of  the  sieve  determines  the  size  of 
the  seed  selected. 

Variation. — It  often  happens  that  when  a  number  of  plants 
belonging  to  the  same  species  is  examined,  some  exhibit  special 
peculiarities,  and  are  called  "sports."  Among  wheat  plants, 
for  example,  some  may  have  branching  ears ;  others,  pecuUarities 
of  colour,  and  so  forth.  If  seeds  of  such  "  sports  "  are  selected 
and  properly  cultivated  for  a  series  of  years,  a  seed  may  be 
secured  in  which  a  certain  degree  of  fixity  is  given  to  a  character, 
apparently  accidental  and  of  no  permanence.  Patrick  Sheriff 
was  the  first  to  apply  this  method  to  the  production  of  new 
varieties.  It  must  be  clearly  understood,  however,  that  sportive 
character  is  a  sign  of  a  new  breed,  and  its  absence  of  a  fixed  and 
established  variety. 

Crossing. — For  seed  production  the  co-operation  of  father 
and  mother  is  absolutely  necessary.  Unless  sperms  from  the 
sire  enter  and  impregnate  the  eggs  of  the  mother,  no  embryo 
plant  can  be  produced.  The  pollen  grain,  when  sown  on  the 
stigma  of  the  pistil,  produces  the  father  and  his  pollen  tube 
contains  the  sperm  or  male  elements.  In  the  embryo  sac  of 
the  ovule  lies  the  mother  with  her  egg.  The  embryo  is  the  child 
formed  from  the  blended  egg  and  sperm,  and  the  resultant  seed 
is  the  ovule  containing  mother  and  child.  This  being  so,  it  is 
evident  that  fathers  and  mothers  may  be  selected  from  suitable 
plants,  and  the  blended  product  of  the  sexual  act — the  embryo — 
combines   in   one   the  characters   of  both   parents.     The  great 


1 84  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

advantage  of  crossing  is  that  the  known  and  suitable  characters 
of  different  plants  are  mixed  together  and  fixed  on  one  individual. 
This  method,  when  properly  carried  out,  affords  the  greatest  scope 
for  the  production  of  new  breeds  of  pedigree  seed.  The  following 
cases  may  be  mentioned : — 

1.  Crossed  varieties  of  the  same  species  give  new  varieties, 

2.  Crossed  species  give  species  hybrids. 

3.  Crossed  genera  give  genera  hybrids. 

The  cereals  in  cultivation  are  fixed  varieties  of  old  breeds. 
In  recent  years,  however,  Messrs.  Gartess,  of  Newton-le-willows, 
have  succeeded  in  producing  and  in  fixing  many  new  cereal 
breeds  obtained  by  crossing. 

Conditions  which  determine  Effect  of  Age. — Seeds  kept  for 
a  series  of  years  gradually  lose  vitality  and  germinating  power ; 
the  very  sound  of  "old  seed"  is  ominous  to  the  farmer.  Never- 
theless, aged  seeds  may  be  capable  of  germination,  as  has  often 
been  proved  by  growing  plants  from  old  herbarium  specimens. 

The  rate  at  which  vitaUty  diminishes  depends  mainly  upon 
these  three  factors  : — 

1.  The  character  of  the  season  and  the  ripeness  of  the  seed 
when  harvested. 

2.  The  percentage  of  water  on  the  seed. 

3.  The  place  of  storage. 

If  imperfectly  ripened,  germination  falls  off  very  rapidly 
with  age ;  and  the  following  example,  given  by  Professor  Nobbe, 
illustrates  this. 

Red  Clover.  Germination.  Hard  Seeds.        Rotten  Seeds. 

Fre<5h  seed  /  ^^P^  ^^  ^^  ° 

l'resnseea|y^j.jpg  48  12  40 


Same  seed 

four  years 

old 


Ripe  58  2  40 

Unripe  6  2  92 


The  extremely  high  percentage  of  rotten  seeds  in  the  unripe 
four-year-old  sample  tells  its  own  story. 

It  is  well  known  that  seeds  stored  away  in  wet  condition 
become  heated.  The  meaning  of  this  is  that  oxidation  and 
chemical  change,  putrefaction  and  decay  are  going  on.  Deterio- 
ration— not  only  rapid  but  complete — is  inevitable  under  such 
circumstances,  inasmuch  as  the  healthy  seeds  are  attacked  and 
inoculated  by  contagion  from  their  rotting  neighbours.  Thoroughly 
dried  seed  has  these  advantages : — 

I.  It  keeps  well. 

a.  It  germinates  most  rapidly  in  the  seed-bed. 

In  accordance  with  the  above,  the  seed-store  should  be  dr}"", 
well   ventilated,  and  cool ;  under   these  conditions,  the  growth 


SEEDS. 


185 


of  fungi  and  germs  is  checked,  and  chemical  change  remains  in 
abeyance. 

Quantitative  Decrease  in  Germinating  Power. — It  is  often 
assumed  that  when  seed  has  reached  a  certain  age  the  power  of 
germination  is  lost.  The  following  is  often  said  to  be  the 
maximum  age  at  which  germination  is  possible  : — 

Wheat         ..         ..  ..         ..  3  years. 

Oats,  rye,  barley    ..  ..  ..  2    ,, 

Turnips        3     „ 

Clovers  and  grasses  ..  ..  2    ,, 

Experiment,  however,  proves  that  any  general  rule  must  be 
more  or  less  fallacious ;  actual  germination  is  the  only  true  and 
certain  test,  as  shown  by  the  following  examples  given  by 
Professor  Nobbe : — 


Fresh  Seed. 

Same  Seed  Three 
Years  Old. 

Percentage  of  Germination. 

Percentage  of  Germination. 

Rye 

Turnips 
Red  clover 
Timothy  grass 

86 

83 

26 

59 

Qualitative  Changes  of  Old  Seeds. — When  seeds  become  old, 
they  lose  the  fresh  appearance  of  youth,  and  often  assume  a  darker 
or  browner  colour — the  result  of  internal  chemical  changes.  The 
symptoms  of  age  are  very  marked  in  the  case  of  clovers — the  aged 
betray  themselves  by  their  shrivelled  appearance,  their  comparative 
roughness  and  want  of  gloss,  their  darker  colour,  and  so  forth. 
Colour  change  not  only  affects  the  seed,  but  extends  to  the 
internal  parts,  involving  even  the  embryo  itself. 

The  colour  test  of  age  is  not  immediately  applicable  to  "  grass 
seeds"  inclosed  in  a  husk  of  glumes  and  pales.  Within,  the 
grain  may  be  quite  blackened  and  decayed,  although  no  sign 
of  this  is  visible  on  the  husk  itself.  An  error  is  sometimes  made 
in  judging  Meadow  Foxtail  by  the  colour :  when  mature,  foxtail 
seed  has  a  dark  colour,  but  many  prefer  the  lighter  samples,  not 
knowing  that  light  colour  is,  in  this  case,  a  sign  of  immaturity 
rather  than  of  freshness. 

Influence  of  Age  on  the  Produce.— As  might  be  expected, 
changes  in  the  seed  induced  by  age  are  not  without  marked 
influence  on  the  produce,  often  very  decidedly  for  the  worse. 
The  period  of  germination  is  unnecessarily  prolonged — the 
swelling,   chemical    change,    and    embryo    development    being 


1 86  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

remarkably  sluggish.  Time  is  thus  lost  at  the  very  beginning, 
and  the  prolonged  period  of  germination  necessarily  increases 
liability  to  disease,  inasmuch  as  during  this  phase  of  its  life  the 
plant  is  in  the  most  tender  and  susceptible  condition.  Many 
of  these  weaklings  must  succumb  to  disease,  and  spread  the 
germs  which  they  brew,  broadcast  upon  their  more  healthy 
neighbours,  which  in  turn  succumb.  It  is,  therefore,  a  most 
reprehensible  practice  to  mix  old  seed  with  fresh  :  no  farmer 
and  no  seedsman  should  under  any  circumstance  do  this. 

Although  age  has  put  its  mark  upon  the  seed,  vitality  may  not 
be  completely  destroyed.  When  the  embryo  is  affected,  the  first 
part  to  go  is  that  lying  below  the  cotyledons — the  "  radicle  "  it  is 
called.  This  destructive  effect  of  age  is  striking  when  old  turnip 
and  clover  seeds  are  germinated  in  an  artificial  apparatus.  The 
seed  germinates,  it  is  true,  but  the  seedling — if  seedling  it  can  be 
called — wants  the  parts  developed  from  the  radicle,  viz.  the 
hypocotyl  region  of  the  stem  and  the  primary  root.  The  same  is 
the  result  in  the  field,  if  the  cotyledons  reach  the  light, — a  lucky 
accident,  since  they  want  the  apparatus  for  lifting  them  up  (the 
hypocotyl) ;  the  seedling  may  struggle  along,  and  substitute 
adventitious  roots  for  the  tap  destroyed  by  age. 

The  deteriorating  effects  of  age  on  the  produce  may  be 
summarized  thus : — 

1.  Excessively  slow  and  prolonged  germination. 

2.  Liability  to  disease. 

3.  Certain  parts  absent,  e.^.  tap  root. 

4.  Plants  relatively  small  and  late. 

To  secure  seed  free  from  these  drawbacks,  the  purchaser  must 
require  from  the  seedsman  a  guarantee  of  germination,  and  check 
this  by  a  new  trial. 

In  some  cases  it  is  not  advisable  to  sow  seed  which  is  too 
new,  because  it  is  too  rapid  of  growth  and  tends  to  revert  to  the 
original  form.  Excessive  rapidity  gives  a  tender  plant,  more 
liable  to  disease  than  one  which  grows  more  slowly  and  perfects 
itself  as  it  grows.  New  swede  seed,  for  example,  yields  a  poorer 
and  more  diseased  crop  than  seed  two  years  old. 

Old  Seed  for  Breeding  Purposes. — Old  seed  may  be  used  by 
the  breeder  for  the  production  of  a  vigorous  and  healthy  race. 
Weaklings  are  killed  off  when  the  seed  has  been  kept  for  a  sufficient 
length  of  time,  and  some  which  survive  the  ordeal  may  produce 
plants  specially  vigorous  and  strong. 

Change  of  Seed— why  necessary. — An  agricultural  plant  may 
be  regarded  as  a  quantitative  machine,  capable  of  turning  out 
definite  quantities  of  starch  or  sugar,  fat,  and  albumen,  in  amounts 
varying  with  the  species.     Crop  perfection  is,  however,  rarely,  if 


SEEDS.  187 

ever,  reached,  partly  because  of  season  and  climatic  peculiarities, 
partly  because  of  the  more  or  less  unsuitable  proportion  of  available 
minerals  in  the  soil ;  that  is  to  say,  the  plants  are  imperfectly  cared 
for  and  imperfectly  fed.  Soil  defects,  though  to  a  large  extent 
under  control,  cannot  be  cured  till  the  farmer  ceases  to  use 
quantities  of  manure  calculated  by  rule  of  thumb.  He  must  first 
know  the  true  composition  of  his  soil — not  only  the  amounts, 
but  the  nature  of  the  available  stuffs  which  it  contains.  So  long 
as  he  works  upon  the  principle  that  plants  select  their  food,  and 
bases  his  manure  quantities  upon  the  wide  limits  allowed  by 
Liebig's  law  of  minimum,  or  takes  them  at  random,  so  long  must 
the  cost  of  production  be  unnecessarily  high,  and  the  yield  of 
crop  far  below  that  which  is  attainable.  Under  these  circum- 
stances of  defective  and  one-sided  nutrition,  the  seed  product, 
like  the  parent  plants,  must  be  affected  j  indeed,  it  is  matter  of 
common  experience  that  seed  sown  for  a  series  of  generations  on 
the  same  land  becomes  less  and  less  productive.  Prolonged 
exposure  to  constant  climatic  and  soil  defects  fixes  certain  imper- 
fections in  the  plants  and  in  the  seeds,  imperfections  which  become 
intensified  in  course  of  time.  To  all  appearance,  the  seed  is  as 
good  as  at  first,  but  the  crop  diminishes  and  disease  prevails. 

The  simplest  remedy  is  to  give  the  seed  a  change  of  soil  and 
climate — a  change  of  such  a  nature  that  improvement,  not  deteriora- 
tion, is  the  result.  In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  experi- 
ment can  alone  determine  which  soils  are  most  suitable  foi 
securing  and  bringing  back  maximum  vigour  and  productiveness. 

Change  of  seed  is  necessary  under  the  following  circum- 
stances : — 

1.  When  the  yield  is  decreasing  without  apparent  cause. 

2.  When  a  better  variety  can  be  got  than  that  habitually 
grown. 

3.  When  the  seed  is  diseased  or  inferior  in  quality. 

4.  When  the  season  is  unfavourable  for  proper  maturation. 
For  one  or  other  of  these  reasons  seed  should  be  changed, 

but  not  because  others  do  so.  The  object  in  view  is  to  secure  a 
larger  and  better  crop,  and  the  change  has  no  meaning  unless 
this  is  assured.  The  first  trials  ought  to  be  made  on  a  small 
scale,  and  when  actual  experiment  proves  the  advantage  the 
amount  can  be  increased. 

Adulterants  and  Doctoring  of  Seed.— By  adulteration  is  meant 
the  addition  of  something  to  the  seed  for  the  purpose  of  gain ; 
by  doctoring,  artificial  treatment  for  the  same  purpose.  Grass 
and  clover  seeds,  being  comparatively  small  and  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish, are  most  liable  to  these  sophistications.  The  following 
cases  may  occur : — 


1 88  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

1.  Cheaper  worthless  seed  is  added  to  or  substituted  for  more 
valuable. 

2.  Doctored  stones  are  added,  e.g,  stone  clovers. 

3.  Artificial  colour  is  produced. 

4.  Bad  smell  is  removed  by  sulphuring,  etc. 
The  most  frequent  substitutions  are — 

a.  Perennial  rye-grass  for  meadow  fescue. 

b.  Worthless  aira  for  golden  oat-grass. 

c.  Slender  foxtail  or  Yorkshire  fog  for  meadow  foxtail. 

d.  Smooth-stalked  for  rough-stalked  meadow  grass. 

e.  New  Zealand  tall  fescue  {Fesiuca  arundiiiacea)  for  tall  fescue 
(Festuca  elatior), 

J.  Common  bent,  etc.,  for  florin. 

g.  Anthoxanthum  puelii  for  Anthoxanthum  odoratum. 

These  seeds  are  distinguished  thus  : — 

Perennial  rye-grass  :  stalk  broad,  flat,  tapered  to  base,  no 
flange  at  its  apex. 

Meadow  fescue  :  stalk  narrow,  round,  not  tapered,  flanged. 

Wavy  hair  grass  :  awn  basal,  straight. 
Golden  oat-grass  :  a'W7i  dorsal,  bent. 

Slender  foxtail :  hair  on  the  margins,  visible  to  the  naked  eye, 
soft  and  smooth  to  the  touch. 

Meadow  foxtail :  hair  not  noticeable ;  hard  and  rough. 
Yorkshire  fog :  aw7i  scarcely  visible. 
Meadow  foxtail :  aw7i  as  long  as  the  body  of  the  seed. 
Smooth-stalked  meadow  grass!  °"'y  distinguished  under  the 
Rough-stalked  meadow  gLs|™-°-°P,V'"«y    by    the 

Anthoxanthum  puelii :  colour,  brown. 
Anthoxanthum  odoratum  :  colour,  almost  black. 

Artificial  colour  is  given  to  seed  in  the  following  ways  : — 

a.  By  sulphuring — bleaching  with  fumes  of  sulphurous  acid 
gas  (SO2). 

b.  By  deposition  of  colouring  matter  on  the  surface  of  the  seed. 

c.  By  heating. 

White  clover  is  sulphured  to  give  it  a  light  colour  and  fresh 
appearance.  '*  Sulphuring "  is  readily  detected  by  putting  the 
seed  in  a  test-tube  with  pure  hydrochloric  acid  and  pure  zinc. 
Slight  heat  is  applied  to  the  tube,  and  if  the  seed  has  been 
"  sulphured,"  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  (HgS)  is  evolved.  A  strip 
of  blotting-paper  moistened  with  acetate  of  lead  is  held  over  the 
mouth  of  the  tube,  and  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  immediately 


WEEDS.  189 

betrays  its  presence  by  the  formation  of  black  sulphide  of  lead  on 
the  blotting-paper. 

Artificial  colouring  matter  is  readily  detected  by  rubbing  the 
seed  with  a  white  moist  cloth.  The  natural  colouring  matter 
is  in,  not  on  the  skin,  and,  of  course,  cannot  be  rubbed  oif  like 
the  superficial  matter  which  has  been  put  on. 

Heat  is  used  for  giving  a  darker  colour  to  the  seed  of  Aiithox- 
aniJnim  pueliij  so  that  they  may  resemble  those  of  Afit/ioxanihum 
odoraiujfi, 

D.—  Weeds. 

A  "  weed  "  has  been  briefly  defined  as  a  plant  out  of  place. 
Morton,  in  his  "Cyclopaedia  of  Agriculture,"  states  that  a  weed  is 
any  plant  different  from  the  crop,  and  growing  with  the  crop  to  its 
hindrance.  From  this  we  see  that  plants  which  may  be  desirable, 
say,  in  pasture,  may  be  ranked  as  worthless  or  even  injurious  on 
arable  land.  Our  food  crops,  in  order  to  bring  them  to  their 
present  state  of  perfection,  have  been  for  a  long  period  cultivated 
under  the  most  favourable  circumstances.  They  have  been  pro- 
tected from  the  other  undesired  natural  vegetation,  and  hence 
would  not  flourish  when  taken  from  the  care  of  man  and  submitted 
to  the  test  of  the  "survival  of  the  fittest."  The  weeds  have 
various  means,  either  by  their  seed,  manner  of  growth,  or  other 
characteristics,  by  which  they  become  propagated  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  overpower  the  more  cultivated  and  delicate  plants  in 
the  natural  state  of  affairs. 

Any  observer  will  have  noticed  that  on  certain  land  and  under 
certain  conditions  particular  kinds  of  weeds  flourish  more  than 
others.  Again,  it  will  be  seen  that  their  habit  of  growth  and 
other  characteristics  vary  very  much.  We  will  now  consider  a  few 
points  of  interest  with  regard  to  the  common  farm  weeds. 

Botanical  Position. 

Nearly  every  order  has  certain  members  which  rank  as  weeds. 
In  the  table  at  the  end  of  this  chapter  will  be  found  a  list  of  the 
chief  plant  pests,  arranged  under  their  various  natural  orders. 

Soils  and  Situations  suitable  to  Various  Species. 

Just  as  some  crops  thrive  better  upon  a  particular  class  of  land, 
so  weeds  have  their  peculiarities  with  regard  to  the  land  on  which 
they  grow  best.  The  state  of  the  soil  with  regard  to  moisture 
affects  them  quite  as  much  as,  if  not  more  than,  the  cultivated 


IQO  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

plants.  The  natural  vegetation  is  also  often  an  excellent  guide 
to  the  state  of  fertility  of  the  land.  Many  weeds  are  only  found 
growing  when  the  soil  is  barren;  others  require  the  reverse 
conditions. 

We  will  now  give  examples  of  the  weeds  found  on  the  various 
classes  of  soils.  Some  grow  naturally,  but  others  only  after 
cultivation. 

On  good  clay  land  we  find  : — 

Wild  angelica,  great  spearwort,  common  sorrel,  queen-of-the- 
meadow,  corn  cockle,  nipplewort,  wild  chamomile,  broad-leaved 
dock,  groundsel,  common  sow-thistle. 

On  clays  of  little  depth  grow  : — 

Tussock  or  tufted  hair-grass,  corn  horse-tail,  knot-grass,  biting 
buttercup,  charlock  or  wild  mustard,  coltsfoot. 

On  deep  clay  loams  the  chief  weeds  are  : — 

Scarlet  pimpernel,  greater  knap-weed,  toadflax,  redshank, 
bladder-campion,  black  mustard. 

On  thin  clay  loams,  besides  many  of  the  above,  there 
occur : — 

Rest-harrow  and  hare's-foot  trefoil. 

On  sandy  loams  with  stiff  subsoil  there  are  found  : — 

Mugwort,  corn  marigold,  toad-rush,  common  soft  rush,  silver- 
weed,  wild  radish  or  runch,  sheep's  sorrel. 

Besides  these,  we  find  on  loams  generally : — 

Fool's-parsley,  brome-grasses,  shepherd's  purse,  spurges, 
fumitories,  purple  dead-nettle,  groundsel,  charlock,  chickweed, 
sow-thistle. 

On  sandy  loam,  with  light  subsoil,  besides  many  in  the  last 
list,  the  following  may  appear  : — 

Corn  centaury  (blue-bottle),  lady's-mantle,  knapweed  (hard- 
head), corn  thistle,  yellow  bedstraw,  corn  gromwell,  corn  mint, 
ragwort,  field  madder. 

Upon  sandy  soils  generally,  as  well  as  many  of  the  above, 
there  may  be  found  these  common  weeds  : — 

Bent  grass,  sandworts,  hemp-nettle,  wall-barley,  common  red 
poppy,  common  knawel,  corn  spurrey.  The  viper's  bugloss  also 
grows  on  sandy  soils,  but  is  not  common. 

On  the  lighter  drifting  sands  grow  : — 

Sand  carex  or  sedge,  sea  lyme-grass,  sand  wheat-grass,  hard 
fescue,  yellow  bedstraw. 

On  gravelly  land  the  weeds  differ  a  little  from  those  on  sands. 
There  may  be  found  : — 

Common  bent-grass,  silver  hair-grass,  thyme-leaved  sandwort, 
soft  brome-grass,  goosefoots,  hard  fescue,  hawkweeds,  poppies, 
knot-grass. 


WEEDS.  191 

When  the  gravels  are  damp,  as  by  the  sides  of  rivers,  there 
occur,  besides  many  of  the  above  : — 

Sharp-flowered  rush,  toad  rush. 

Alluvial  soils  bear  the  following  common  weeds  when  in  a 
wet  state : — 

Marsh  bent-grass,  common  reed,  reed  meadow  grass,  round- 
headed  rush.  % 

On  limestone  soils  there  abound  : — 

Creeping  bent-grass,  upright  brome-grass,  musk  or  nodding 
thistle,  greater  knapweed,  wild  chicory,  wild  scabious,  field 
madder,  penny-cress,  coltsfoot. 

The  following  weeds  are  characteristic  of  chalky  soils  : — 

Pasque  flower,  stone  parsley,  woolly-headed  thistle,  yellow- 
wort,  flea-wort,  hawk's-beard,  ploughman's-spikenard,  dyer's-weed. 

Besides  the  soil,  the  situation  affects  the  kinds  of  weeds. 
Some  flourish  only  on  wet  land,  others  on  dry;  some  at  high 
elevations  where  many  would  perish.  Certain  weeds  grow  luxu- 
riantly only  on  rich  soils,  where  they  crowd  out  many  species, 
which  consequently  only  show  themselves  to  any  extent  on  poor 
land.  Pastures  and  arable  fields,  again,  have  their  respective 
weeds ;  and  the  hedges,  woods,  roadsides,  etc.,  are  the  particular 
abodes  of  certain  of  our  vegetable  foes. 

Among  the  weeds  which  may  be  taken  as  signs  of  good  land 
are : — 

Stinking  chamomile,  fat-hen  or  goose-foot,  Good-King-Henry, 
traveller's-joy,  fumitory,  goose-grass  (cleavers),  dandelion,  corn 
sow-thistle,  chickweed. 

The  weeds  indicative  of  poor  land  are  very  numerous,  and  are 
mentioned  in  the  table  at  the  end.  The  ox-eyed  daisy  and  lady's- 
mantle  show  very  poor  soil. 

Peats  have  their  peculiar  vegetation.  When  dry,  there  may  be 
seen : — 

Dog  bent-grass,  common  ling;  cross-leaved  heath,  fine-leaved 
heath. 

When  wet,  there  also  occur  the  cotton  grass,  cranberry, 
and  spotted  orchis;  when  cultivated,  the  following  weeds 
flourish : — 

Wild  oats,  soft  brome-grass,  goose-grass,  field  scorpion-grass. 

In  the  table  at  the  end  of  this  chapter  will  be  found  particulars 
as  to  the  favourite  soil  or  situation  of  most  of  our  common  weeds. 

Manners  of  Multiplication. 

Weeds  are  multiplied  in  a  variety  of  ways,  the  chief  of  which 
will  now  be  considered.    Thus  they  may  spread  : — 


192  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE, 

(i)  by  self-sown  seed. 

(2)  by  winged  seed. 

(3)  by  seed  sown  with  that  of  various  crops. 

(4)  by  being  present  in  manure. 

(5)  by  self-division. 

1.  This  is  the  natural  method  of  nearly  all  plants  for  self-pro- 
pagation, and  the  energy  is  usually  concentrated  upon  the  act  of 
flowering  and  seeding.  With  annual  plants  this  takes  place  in  the 
first  year  of  their  growth,  which  is  also,  as  a  rule,  their  last.  They 
grow  rapidly,  and  usually  produce  a  large  amount  of  seed,  after- 
wards dying  completely  down.  These  plants  form  a  fairly  large 
percentage  of  the  whole.  The  amount  of  seed  which  they  produce 
is  usually  larger  than  that  of  perennials.  Thus  each  charlock 
plant  has  been  estimated  to  produce  four  thousand  seeds.  If 
these  and  all  their  descendants  grew  and  were  as  fertile,  then  four 
years  afterwards  we  should  have  256,000,000,000,000  seeds — 
quite  enough  to  take  all  the  profit  out  of  many  farms. 

Another  class  of  weeds  are  known  as  biennials.  They  are  not 
very  numerous,  chiefly  because  of  the  odds  they  have  to  fight 
against.  During  their  first  year  they  store  up  nourishment  in  their 
roots,  leaves,  or  stems ;  and  in  the  succeeding  year  develop  a 
flower-stalk,  and  bear  seed. 

In  the  third  class  are  the  perennials,  i.e.  those  plants  which 
exist  for  several  years.  They  usually  become  of  stronger  growth 
than  the  others ;  and  though  they  do  not  generally  produce  so 
many  seeds  each  time,  yet  in  the  end  they  leave  quite  enough 
descendants. 

Seeds  do  not  always  germinate  soon  after  they  are  sown,  but 
may  lie  dormant  for  several  years,  covered  perhaps  by  too  great 
depth  of  soil.  When  favourable  conditions  arise — say,  the  land  is 
trench-ploughed — then  they  burst  forth  in  abundance,  and  have 
led  to  the  idea  held  by  some  farmers  that  weeds  are  the  direct  out- 
come of  the  soil.  Charlock  in  particular  is  capable  of  existing  for 
many  years  without  germination. 

2.  The  beautiful  appendages  to  the  *' seeds"  of  many  compositae 
(thistles,  dandelions,  etc.)  will  have  often  been  noticed.  By  their 
aid  the  seeds  are  wafted  for  long  distances ;  and  a  farmer  with 
naturally  clean  land  may  get  it  weedy  through  seeds  being  blown 
to  it  from  woods  and  waste  places. 

3.  Since  the  rules  as  to  purity  of  seed  have  been  established 
by  the  various  great  Agricultural  Societies,  impure  seed  is  not 
so  often  sold.  It  was  a  source  of  two  losses  to  the  farmer — 
(a)  he  paid  for  seed  he  did  not  want,  {b)  the  seeds  of  weeds 
germinated  and  grew  quite  as  well,  as  a  rule  better,  than  the 
crop,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  smothered  it. 


WEEDS.  193 

4.  Too  often  weeds  are  thrown  upon  the  dung-heap,  in  the 
belief  that  they  will  there  decay.  Many  may  perhaps,  but 
others  sometimes  begin  to  grow  again,  and,  where  they  are 
furnished  with  thick  tap  roots  containing  nourishment,  they  may 
perfect  their  seed  and  again  prove  a  nuisance.  The  refuse  seeds 
after  threshing  are  sometimes  thrown  on  the  manure-heap,  or  may 
be  given  to  the  poultry.  In  the  latter  case,  the  larger  proportion 
simply  pass  through  the  alimentary  canal  uninjured.  The  manure, 
in  both  cases,  is  spread  over  the  land,  and  a  good  crop  of  weeds 
often  results.  The  remedy  would  be  to  burn  the  weeds  and 
their  seeds,  though  the  former  might  be  destroyed  in  a  compost. 

5.  Couch-grass,  coltsfoot,  and  a  few  other  creeping  weeds 
are  propagated  in  this  manner.  Couch-grass  does  not  so  often 
flower,  though  it  may  be  found  in  hedges  flowering  sometimes, 
the  head  resembling  perennial  r}'e-grass.  Coltsfoot,  however, 
produces  plenty  of  seed,  and  has  the  peculiarity  that  it  flowers 
early  in  the  year,  before  its  leaves  hav^e  appeared.  It  is  not  very 
prominent  then,  and  often  escapes  detection.  But  besides  the 
production  of  seeds,  they  send  out  long  creeping  underground 
stems,  from  the  nodes  of  which  leaves  are  again  given  off.  Thus 
large  patches  of  these  weeds  rapidly  form,  and  such  operations  as 
ploughing  and  harrowing  do  more  harm  than  good  by  simply 
cutting  up  one  plant  into  several.  Each  of  the  pieces  is  capable 
of  growing  and  forming  another  patch.  The  grubber  is  the  most 
useful  implement  to  employ  in  these  cases,  as  it  drags  the  weeds 
out,  breaking  them  as  little  as  possible. 

Methods  of  Growth. 

The  various  forms  of  weeds  may  be  conveniently  arranged 
under  the  following  headings:  (1)  Erect  weeds;  (2),  Climbing 
and  twining;  (3)  Running;  (4)  Underground;  (5)  Spreading; 
(6)  Deep-rooted  ;  (7)  Parasitic. 

1.  Erecf  Weeds. — In  this  group  are  included  those  weeds 
which  have  erect  stems,  and  no  great  expanse  of  leafage.  They, 
consequently,  are  not  very  injurious  individually,  not  taking  up 
much  room  nor  overshadowing  the  crop  to  any  great  extent. 
When  the  crop  is  young  they  may  act  detrimentally,  especially 
to  a  root-crop ;  but  this  is  chiefly  from  their  vast  numbers. 
They  are  easily  uprooted,  but,  to  compensate  for  this,  their 
seeding  capacity  is  large. .  They,  consequently,  should  be  pulled 
up  before  they  flower.     Among  this  group  may  be  placed — 

Shepherd's  purse,  common  cudweed,  bitter  flax,  penny-cress,  etc. 

2.  Climbing  and  Twinijig  JVeeds,  though  not  very  common, 
are  a  great  nuisance,  as  they  prevent  at  least  part  of  the  crop  from 

o 


194  Advanced  agriculture. 

growing  well.  They  either  wind  their  stems  round  the  other  plants, 
or  wrap  their  tendrils  round  them,  and  thus  pull  themselves  up. 
The  bramble  climbs  by  the  aid  of  its  prickles.  In  this  class  are  : — 
Corn  bindweed,  great  bindweed,  goose-grass,  birdlip  (corn 
bedstraw),  hairy-vetch. 

3.  Running  Weeds  do  harm  chiefly  by  covering  ground  which 
might  be  occupied  by  more  useful  plants.  They  spread  rapidly, 
and  are  very  bad  when  sown  down  with  clover  or  such-like  crop. 
They  may  not  show  much  the  first  year,  but  afterwards  grow 
quickly.     As  examples,  may  be  given  : — 

Silver-weed,  running  crowfoot. 

4.  Underground  Weeds  have  creeping  stems,  which  grow  under 
the  surface.  They  are  very  troublesome,  as  the  stems  are  easily 
broken  up,  and  then  each  piece  forms  a  separate  plant.  In  this 
group  are  : — 

Corn-thistle,  corn  bindweed,  corn  horsetail,  yellow  toadflax, 
bracken-fern,  couch-grass,  coltsfoot. 

5.  Spreadiftg  Weeds  do  injury  by  covering  the  ground  with  the 
leaves,  keeping  out  the  light  from  the  useful  plants.  They  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes,  according  as  they  spread  their  large 
leaves  over  the  ground,  or  trail  them  along  the  surface.  In  the 
first  group  are  : — 

Burdock,  butter-bur,  broad-leaved  plantain,  docks,  coltsfoot. 
In  the  second  lot  are  found — 

Goosefoots,  ground-ivy,  white  dead-nettle,  broad-leaved 
toadflax. 

6.  Leep-rooted  Weeds,  when  firmly  established,  are  sometimes 
difficult  to  eradicate.  They  have  a  deep  tap-root,  from  which 
numerous  rootlets  usually  branch.  Among  this  class  may  be 
given  : — 

Burdock,  spear-thistle,  wild  carrot,  common  marsh-mallow, 
wild  parsnip,  common  dock,  field  dock,  ragwort. 

7.  Parasitic  Weeds  are,  happily,  not  very  common.  Among 
them  may  be  mentioned  : — 

Clover  dodder  {Cuscufa  trifolii),  flax  dodder  (C  epilinum)^ 
greater  dodder  (C  Europcea),  tall  broom-rape  {Orobranchc  elatior), 
lesser  broom-rape  {O.  minor),  branched  broom-rape  ((9.  ramosa). 

The  mistletoe  ( Viscuni  album)  is  a  partial  parasite  on  some 
trees,  such  as  the  oak,  apple-tree,  etc. 

The  Dodders.  (Natural  order  CuscutecB). — The  seeds  of  the 
clover  dodder  are  small,  rather  flat,  often  wrinkled,  and  are  of 
a  pale-brown  colour.  As  they  may  be  readily  separated  from 
clover  seed,  there  is  no  excuse  for  a  seedsman  who  has  any  in  his 
samples.     The  form  and  life  of  all  three  dodders  are  very  similar  \ 


WEEDS.  195 

the  first  grows  on  flax,  the  second  on  hops  and  nettles,  the  last 
on  clover.  They  are  annuals,  and  must,  therefore,  grow  afresh 
each  year  from  seed.  The  seeds  consist  of  fleshy  albumin,  in 
which  is  coiled  a  spiral,  thread-shaped  embryo.  In  spring  this 
germ  begins  to  grow,  and  a  long  straight  thread  is  sent  out.  As 
soon  as  the  dodder  touches  the  host-plant,  it  winds  itself  round 
the  stem,  keeping  its  left  side  innermost.  Should  it  not  meet 
with  any  suitable  plant  it  soon  dies.  In  the  ordinary  case  it 
throws  out  wart-like  suckers,  where  it  touches  the  stem  of 
the  host.  They  then  suck  out  the  juices  of  the  host,  gradually 
weakening  it,  until  it  is  thoroughly  exhausted.  The  growth  of  the 
parasite  is  rapid.  The  stem  is  long,  thread-like,  has  no  true  bark, 
and  is  of  a  pinkish  colour.  No  leaves  are  present,  or  they  are 
represented  only  by  minute  scales.  Bunches  of  small  reddish 
flowers,  similar  in  shape  to  those  of  the  bindweed,  occur  at 
intervals  on  the  stems.  Each  flower  produces  four  seeds.  When 
pulled  by  the  hand  the  plant  is  found  to  be  sticky,  and  has  a 
faint  aromatic  odour. 

The  Broom-rapes.  (Natural  order,  Orohranched). — The  first 
two  attack  clover,  the  third  is  parasitic  on  hemp.  The  O.  minor 
is  the  most  common.  The  seed  is  sometimes  accidentally  sown 
with  that  of  clover.  They  germinate  and  become  attached  to  the 
roots  of  the  crop.  The  stem  has  an  underground  swelling,  from 
which  proceed  a  few  roots,  attached  to  those  of  the  clover.  The 
stem  is  erect,  thick,  and  fleshy,  bearing  small,  colourless,  pointed 
scales  instead  of  leaves.  It  is  from  six  to  ten  inches  high,  and 
is  at  first  a  yellowish-brown  colour,  turning  darker  in  shade  with 
age.  At  their  free  ends  are  borne  the  flowers,  which  are  of 
dirty  white  colour.  They  produce  oblong  capsules,  full  of 
numerous  minute  seeds,  very  dark  in  colour.  They  have  a  thick, 
pitted,  irregular  covering.  The  O.  elatior  has  a  stem  often  one 
and  a  half  inches  in  circumference,  and  eighteen  inches  or  even 
more  in  height 

Extirpation  of  Weeds. 

The  first  point  is,  of  course,  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  the 
seeds  of  weeds  from  being  carried  on  to  the  land.  The  screen- 
ings from  threshings  should  be  burned,  and  on  no  account  put 
on  the  manure- heap.  Again,  the  weeds  that  are  growing  should 
not  be  allowed  to  seed.  They  should  be  cut  down  or  uprooted 
before  they  flower.  If  the  weeds  are  only  of  annual  duration,  the 
land  may  in  this  way  soon  be  cleaned,  though  cutting  down  may 
cause  them  to  become  biennial. 

If  annual  weeds  are  well  kept  down  to  begin  with,  until  the  crop 


196  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

is  of  a  good  height,  they  can  easily  be  kept  in  check  afterwards, 
and  a  good  ploughing  after  the  crop  has  been  removed  will  often 
free  the  land  entirely.  Should  the  cleaning  processes  be  slovenly 
carried  out,  however,  the  weeds  will  often  overpower  the  crop. 

Root  crops  and  fallows  afford  good  opportunities  of  cleaning 
land,  and  should  be  taken  full  advantage  of.  With  the  latter, 
hoeing  should  commence  early,  and  to  favour  this,  sowing  on 
ridges  is  often  carried  out.  Carrots,  on  the  flat,  are  sometimes 
overgrown  by  weeds,  as  their  small  leaves  do  not  always  show 
sufficiently  to  allow  the  hoe  to  get  to  work  in  time. 

Biennial  weeds  need  special  attention.  If  the  crowns  be 
only  partially  cut  off,  they  often  send  out  a  large  number  of  stems. 
The  flowers  on  these  are  not  generally  so  luxuriant  as  when 
uninjured,  yet  altogether  they  produce  a  larger  number  of  seeds. 
Again,  when  pulled  up  and  thrown  on  the  dung-heap,  their  thick 
tap  roots  contain  enough  nourishment  to  enable  them  to  seed. 

The  plough  is  a  very  good  means  of  getting  rid  of  most  weeds 
on  arable  land.  By  cutting  those  with  tap  roots  under  the  surface 
they  are  soon  destroyed.  With  couch  and  similar  weeds  the 
results  are  by  no  means  so  good,  and  the  grubbers  do  better  work. 

Hoeing  destroys  many  weeds.  This  is  the  best  way  to  clear 
out  most  of  those  with  tap  roots,  which,  it  must  be  remembered, 
should  be  cut  below  the  crown.  A  good  method  to  get  rid  of 
couch,  coltsfoot,  and  such-like  weeds,  which  generally  grow  in 
patches,  is  to  go  over  the  ground,  fork  in  hand,  and  dig  out  all  the 
specimens  found. 

Many  of  the  larger  weeds  need  to  be  dealt  with  individually. 
Some,  such  as  the  dock  and  knapweed,  have  often  to  be  pulled 
up  by  hand.  For  many  of  the  perennial  weeds  the  spud  has  to 
be  often  used,  and  the  plant  may  be  wholly  dug  out.  Thistles, 
docks,  and  knapweeds  require  this  treatment  for  their  removal. 
Thistles  need  cutting  below  the  surface  of  the  ground ;  docks  are 
to  be  wholly  dug  out.  When  pulling  out  weeds  it  is  best  to 
commence  work  after  a  slight  shower. 

On  pastures  the  weeds  are  disposed  of  by  digging  them  up  and 
by  frequent  cutting,  which  prevents  seeding  and  gradually  weakens 
the  vitality  of  the  plants.  A  luxuriant  growth  of  grass  to 
a  great  extent  will  overpower  the  weeds,  and  hence  the  good 
done  in  this  respect  by  a  dressing  of  nitrate  of  soda  on  behalf  ot 
the  grasses,  or  of  phosphates  and  potash  salts  for  the  clovers. 
When  land  has  been  annually  cut  for  hay  for  a  long  time,  many 
weeds  may  become  extinct  by  turning  into  pasture  for  a  few  years. 

Liming  often  reduces  the  numbers  of  weeds,  and  drainage  is 
an  excellent  means  of  getting  rid  of  many.  Something  has  been 
said  on  this  in  the  chapter  on  "  Drainage." 


WEEDS.  197 

Green  manuring  smothers  the  weeds.  It  is  referred  to  in 
"  General  Manures." 

The  parasitic  weeds  need  special  treatment.  With  clover 
dodder  it  has  been  recommended  to  eat  off  the  crop  with  sheep 
as  soon  as  bare  patches  begin  to  show.  Then  plough  the  land 
deeply,  and  do  not  take  the  same  crop  for  many  years  afterwards. 
This  allows  the  dodder  seed  time  to  die.  On  no  account  should 
action  be  delayed  until  the  seed  be  ripened,  or  the  land  will  get 
thoroughly  foul.  It  is  of  no  use  harrowing  the  clover  to  get  out 
the  dodder ;  the  pest  is  simply  spread.  Watering  with  a  solution 
of  ferrous  sulphate  (i  lb.  to  i  gallon)  has  been  recommended. 
It  is  injurious  to  the  dodder,  but  does  not  harm  the  clover. 

Broom- rape  is  very  difficult  to  deal  with  when  once  rooted. 
It  must  be  pulled  up  with  the  hand,  but  the  prevention  of  the 
sowing  of  the  seed  with  that  of  the  crop  is  the  chief  point  to  be 
attended  to. 

Natural  Methods  of  Extirpation.— Were  there  not  some  natural 
means  by  which  the  numbers  of  weeds  were  reduced,  the  farmer 
would  stand  a  poor  chance.  If  all  the  seeds  produced  were  to 
form  fresh  plants  there  would  soon  be  a  regular  wilderness  of 
weeds,  but  happily  they  do  not.  Vast  numbers  are  destroyed  by 
birds  and  changes  of  weather.  Frosts  kill  very  many ;  other 
seeds  may  drop  into  unfavourable  situations  and  not  be  able 
to  grow. 

Weeds  in  a  Useful  Sense. 

Weeds  must  not  be  considered  as  always  harmful  When  the 
land  is  growing  no  crop,  as  after  harvest,  they  might  well  be 
allowed  to  flourish  were  it  not  for  the  difficulty  of  afterwards 
getting  rid  of  them.  Their  use  consists  chiefly  in  preventing  to 
some  extent  the  loss  of  nitrates  by  drainage  water.  They  hold  part 
of  this  in  their  tissues,  and  also  do  not  allow  the  land  to  be  so 
readily  washed  with  the  rain.  The  labour  involved  in  afterwards 
cleaning  the  land,  however,  overbalances  any  benefits  received, 
and  weeds  must  always  be  looked  upon  as  pests  to  be  destroyed 
at  every  opportunity  and  in  any  manner  possible. 

Harm  done  by  Weeds. 

This  may  be  classed  under  the  following  heads — (i)  They 
occupy  ground  which  should  be  covered  by  the  crop.  (2)  They 
take  the  soil-substances  which  would  go  to  make  a  good  crop, 
consequently  the  yield  is  lessened.  (3)  They  may  overshadow 
the  more  valuable  plants  and,  by  keeping  out  the  air  and 
sunlight,  cause  a  poorer  growth.     (4)  They  may  cling  to  the 


198 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


Other  plants  and  prevent  their  full  development.  (5)  They  may 
act  as  parasites.  (6)  Their  seeds  may  lessen  the  value  of  the 
produce.  Most  of  these  points  have  been  considered,  but  a 
few  remarks  may  be  made  on  the  sixth.  It  is  chiefly  among 
corn  that  the  ill  effects  of  some  weeds  are  visible.  Among  the 
weeds,  which  are  thus  so  objectionable,  are  darnel  {Loliiim 
temuknium),  corn-cockle  {Agrostemma  giihago),  garlic  (Allium 
oleraceuni)^  bitter  flax  {Linum  catharticum),  melilot  {Melilotus 
officinalis)^  goose-grass  {Galium  aparine).  The  first-named  is 
said  to  have  poisonous  intoxicating  efl'ects,  and  the  last,  when 
present  in  quantity,  may  render  oats  unfit  for  feeding  to  horses. 
Bitter  flax  is  said  to  cause  purging  and  scurvy  in  cattle.  The 
other  seeds  impart  disagreeable  flavours  to  grain,  and  may  prevent 
it  being  made  into  flour. 

We  now  give  a  Table  of  the  Principal  Weeds,  arranged  accord- 
ing to  their  natural  orders,  and  with  a  few  particulars  about  each. 


Botanical  Name. 


Boraginacece. 
Echium  vulgare 
Lithospermum  arvense 
Lycopsis  arvensis 
Myosotis       „ 


,,        palustris 

Symphytum  officinale 
„  tuberosum 

Camj>anulaceie. 

Campanula  hybrida 
„        patula 
,,        rotundifolia 

Jasione  montana 
Caryophyllacece. 

Agrostemma  githago 

Arenaria  tenuifolia 


Cerastium  arvense 

„        triviale 

Lychnis  diurna 
„      flos-cucuH 
,,  ^   vespertina 
Sileae  inflata 
Spergula  arvensis 
Stellaria  glauca 
„      media 


Common  Name. 


Viper's  bugloss 

Gromwell 

Bugloss 

Field  forget-me- 
not  or  Scorpion 
grass 

Common  forget- 
me-not 

Common  comfrey 

Tuberous      „ 

Harebell 


Sheep's-bit 

Corn  cockle 
Sandwort 


chick- 
chick- 


Mouse-ear 

weed 
Mouse-ear 

weed 
Red  campion 
Ragged  robin 
White  campion 
Bladder  campion 
Corn  spurrey 
Stitchwort 
Chickweed 


Soil  or  Situation 
most  suitable. 


Colour 
of  the 
Flower. 


Upland  cornfields 
Cornfields 


Damp  places 


Cornfields 

Pastures 

Dry  banks 

Dry  hilly  pastures 

Cornfields 
Sandy  land 

Cornfields 

Pastures 

Hedges,  cornfields 
Wet  pastures 
Sandy  land 
Damp  loams 
Wet  sandy  land 
Moist  meadows 
Arable  land 


Blue 

White 

Blue 


Yellow 


Violet 
Blue 


Purple 
Purple 

and 

white 
White 


Red 
Rose 
White 
White 


lit 

u 

6-7 

B. 

5-6 

A. 

6-7 

A. 

5-7 

A. 

7-8 

P. 

5-6 

P. 

6-7 

P. 



A. 

7-8 

B. 

7-9 

P. 

6-7 

B. 

6-7 

A. 

6-8 

A. 

S-8 

P. 

5-9 

A. 

6-7 

P. 

5-7 

P. 

7 

A. 

6-8 

P. 

7-8 

A. 

6-7 

P. 

2-1 1 

A. 

*  The  numbers  express  the  months  of  the  year,  Jan.  i,  Feb.  a,  etc. 

*  A,  annual ;  B,  biennial ;  P,  perennial. 


WEEDS. 


199 


Botanical  Name. 

Common  Name. 

Soil  or  Situation 
most  suitable. 

Colour 
of  the 
Flower. 

.§J2.S 

Chenopodiacece. 

Chenopodium  album 

White  goosefoot 
Good  King  Henry 

Waste  places 

Green 

7-8 

A. 

„           bonus  Hen- 

Good  land 

» 

6-8 

P. 

ricus 
„            rubrum 
Compositce. 
Carduus  acaulis 

Red  goosefoot 

Waste  places 

» 

8-9 

A. 

Stemless  thistle 

Upland  pastures 

Purple 

8-9 

P. 

„      arvensis 

Creeping      „ 
Woolly-headed 

thistle 
Musk  thistle 

Borders  of  fields 

7-8 

P. 

„      eriophorus 

Chalk  pastures 

M 

8 

B. 

„      nutans 

Waste  places 

7-8 

B. 

„      palustris 

Marsh      „ 

Moist  pastures 

„ 

r« 

B. 

„      pratensis 
Sonchus  arvensis 

Meadow  „ 

»»          » 

,, 

6-8 

P. 

Sow-thistle 

Cornfields 

Yellow 

8 

P. 

,,       oleraceus 

,,         (annual) 

6-8 

A. 

Achillea  millefolium 

Yarrow 

Pastures 

White 

6-9 

P. 

Anthemis  arvensis 

Com  camomile 

Cornfields 

„ 

6-7 

A. 

„        cotula 

Stinking     ,, 

,, 

i> 

V 

A. 

„        nobilis 

True            „ 

Gravelly  pastures 

8-9 

P. 

Arctium  lappa 

Burdock 

Waste  places 

Purple 

7-8 

B. 

Artemisia  absinthum 

Wormwood 

f»        >. 

Yellow 

7-9 

P. 

„        vulgaris 

Mugwort 

Sandy  soils 

)i 

7-9 

P. 

Bellis  perennis 

Daisy 

Pastures 

White 
and 

3-12 

P. 

Centaurea  cyanus 

Corn  blue-.bottle 

Cornfields 

yellow 
Blue 

7-8 

A. 

nigra 

Knapweed 

Pastures 

Purple 

8-9 

P. 

„        scabiosa 

Greater  knapweed 

Damp  loam 
Cornfields        and 

>» 

n 

P. 

Chrysanthemum   leucan- 

Ox-eye  daisy 

White 

6-8 

P. 

themum 

poor   clay    pas- 
tures 

ray 

Chrysanthemum  segetum 

Com  marigold 

Cornfields 

Yellow 

6-8 

A. 

Cichorium  intybus 

Wild  chicory  ;  suc- 

Sandy land 

Blue 

7-8 

P. 

Crepis  foetida 

cory 
Hawks-beard 

Chalky  land 

Yellow 

^l 

B. 

Gnaphalium  uliginosum 

Marsh  cudweed 

Wet  sandy  soils 

„ 

7-8 

A. 

Hieracium  pilosella 

Hawkweed 

Dry  pastures 

„ 

^1 

P. 

Inula  conyza 

Ploughman's-spike- 
nard 

Chalky  pastures 

»» 

7-8 

B. 

„    pulicaris 

Flea-bane 

Moist  meadows 

Yellow 

7-8 

P. 

Lapsana  communis 

Nipplewort 

Arable  land 

>} 

6-7 

A. 

Leontodon  taraxacum 

Dandelion 

Moist  pastures 

»» 

r«° 

P. 

Matricaria  chamomilla 

Wild  camomile 

Cornfields 

White 

6-8 

A. 

Petasites  vulgaris 

Butter-bur 

Wet  meadows 

Lilac 

4 

P. 

Senecio  Jacobea 

Ragwort 

Pastures 

»» 

7-9 

P. 

;,      vulgaris 

Groundsel 

Cornfields 

tt 

I-I2 

A. 

Tragopogon  pratensis 

Goat's  beard 

Pastures 

>• 

6 

B. 

Tussilago  farfara 

Coltsfoot 

Marls 

II 

3-4 

P. 

Convolvulacea. 

P. 
P. 

Calystegia  sepium 

Greater  bindweed 

Hedges 

White 

6-8 
6-7 

Convolvulus  arvensis 

Small 

Cornfields 

Pink 

Cruciferce. 
AUiaria  officinalis 

Garlic  mustard 

Hedge  banks 

White 

5-6 

B. 
A. 
P. 
A. 
A. 
A. 

Capsella  bursa-pastoris 

Shepherd's -purse 

Cornfields 

„ 

3-10 

Cardamine  pratensis 

Lady's-smock 

Moist  meadows 

Purple 

n 

Cochlearia  officinalis 

Scurvy  grass 

Seashore 

White 

Iberis  amara 

Candytuft 

Cornfields 

Yellow 

5-^8 

Raphanus  raphanistrum 

Wild     radish      or 

II 

runch 

A. 
A. 

Sisymbrium  officinale 

Hedge  mustard 

Commons 

»» 

5^8 

Sinapis  arvensis 

Charlock  ;        wild 

Cornfields 

mustard 

Cyperacece. 

Carex,  sp. 

Sedges 

Wet  places 

— 

5-8 

P. 

20O 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


Botanical  Name. 

Common  Name. 

Soil  or  Situation 
most  suitable. 

Colour 
of  the 
Flower. 

'Si;  . 

ij 

Dipsacece. 

Scabiosa  arvensis 

Field  scabious 

Damp  loam 

Violet 

8-IO 

p. 

„        succisa 

Devil's-bit  scabious 

Pastures 

J, 

8-10 

p. 

Ericacece. 

Calluna  vulgaris 
Erica  tetralix 

Ling  ;  heath 

Heaths 

Rose 

6-7 

p. 

Cross-leaved  heath 

Uplands 

„ 

7-9 

p. 

Equisetacece. 

Equisetum  arvense 

Corn  horse-tail 

Wet  fields 



3-4 

p. 

,,        palustre 

Marsh      „ 

Marshes 

— 

6-7 

p. 

Fumariacece. 

Fumaria  officinalis 

Fumitory 

Arable  land 

Rose 

5-8 

A. 

Gentiaftacea;. 

Erythraea  centaurium 

Common  centaury 

Pastures 

^^ 

7-8 

A. 

Gentiana  campestris 

Field  gentian 

Dry  uplands 

Purple 

9 

A. 

Geraniacece. 

Geranium  pratense 

CranesbiU 

Cornfields 

Rose 

6-7 

A. 

„       columbinum 

„ 

Moist  pastures 

Blue 

6-7 

P. 

Graminece. 

Agrostis  canina 

Dog's  bent-grass 

Wet  soils 



6-7 

P. 

,,        vulgaris 

Common  bent-grass 

Sandy  land 

— 

6-7 

P. 

Aira  caespitosa 

Tussock-grass 

Pastures 

— 

6-7 

P. 

Avena  fatua 

Wild  pats 

Cornfields 



8 

A. 

Briza  media 

Quaking-grass 

Poor    damp    pas- 
tures 

— 

6-7 

P. 

Bromus,  sp. 

Brome-grasses 

Meadows,  etc. 



6-7 

AorH 

Holcus  lanatus 

Yorkshire  fog 

Light  land 

_ 

6-7 

P. 

Lolium  temulentum 

Darnel-grass 

Cornfields 

— 

6-9 

A. 

JuncacecE. 

Juncus,  sp. 

Rushes 

Moist  land 

— 

— 

P. 

Labiatte. 

Galeopsis  ladanum 

Hemp-nettle 

Cornfields 

Rose 

8-9 

A. 

Lamium  album 

White  dead-nettle 

Waste  land 

White 

5-9 

P. 

„       amplexicaule 

Henbit    „      „ 

Cornfields 

Rose 

5-8 

A. 

„       purpureum 

Red         „      „ 

Waste  places 

Purple 

5 

A. 

Mentha  arvensis 

Corn  mint 

Cornfields 

Rose 

6-9 

P. 

Nepeta  glechoma 

Ground  ivy 

Hedge  banks 

Blue 

4-5 

P. 

Prunella  vulgaris 

Self-heal 

Damp  pastures 
Cornfields 

Violet 

7-8 

P. 

Stachys  arvensis 

Corn  woundwort 

Purple 

8-9 

A. 

Legtiminosecp. 

Melilotus  officinalis 

Melilot 

Cornfields 

Yellow 

6-7 

B. 

Ononis  arvensis 

Rest-harrow 

Poor  pastures 

Rose 

6-8 

P. 

Sarothamnus  scoparius 

Broom 

Stony  land 

Yellow 

5-6 

P. 

Ulex  Europseus 

Whin,  furze,  gorse 

'  <>        >i 

>» 

2-7 

P. 

Vicia  cracca 

Hedge  vetch 

Hedges 

Blue 

6-8 

A. 

„     hirsuta 

Hairy  tare 

„ 

„ 

6-8 

A. 

Liliacece. 

Allium  oleraceum 

Garlic 

Cornfields 

Green 

7 

P. 

„    vineale 

Crow  garlic 

Meadows 

Flesh 

7 

P. 

Linacece. 

colom- 

Linum  catharticum 

Bitter  flax 

Light  land 

White 

6-8 

A. 

OnagraceiB. 
Epilobium  hirsutum 

Hairy  willow-herb 

Moist  land 

Red 

7-8 

P. 

„        parviflorum 

Lesser      „      ,, 

>»      i» 

,, 

7-8 

P. 

Papaveracece. 

Papaver  dubium 

Smooth-headed 
poppy 

Cornfields 

Scarlet 

6-7 

A. 

„      rhoeas 

Corn  poppy 

„ 

„ 

6-7 

A. 

Plantaginacece. 

Plantago  lanceolata 

Narrow-leaved 
plantain  (ribwort) 

Pastures 

6-7 

P. 

,,       major 

Broad-leaved  plan- 
tain 

Pastures           and 
roadside 

6-8 

P. 

WEEDS. 


20 1 


Botanical  Name. 

Common  Name. 

Soil  or  Situation 
most  suitable. 

Colour 
of  the 
Flower. 

m 

a 

Plantago  media 

Hoary  plantain 

Pastures 

5-9 

p. 

Primnlaceoe. 

Anagallis  arvensis 

Scarlet  pimpernel 

Cornfields 

Scarlet 

6-7 

A. 

Primula  veris 

Cowshp 

Pastures 

Yellow 

— 

Polygonacece. 

Polygonum  amphibium 

Redshank 

Wet  land 

Rose 

7-8 

P. 

„        aviculare 

Knot-grass 

Moist  land 

White 

7 

P. 

Rumex  acetosa 

Sorrel 

Everywhere 

— 

5-7 

P. 

,,      acetosella 

Sheep's  sorrel 

Dry  banks 

— 

5-7 

P. 

,,      crispus 

Curled  dock 

Everywhere 

— 

6-8 

P. 

„      obtusifolius 

Common  „ 

M 

— 

7-8 

P. 

Ranunculacece. 

Adonis  autumnalis 

Com     pheasant's- 

Cornfields 

Scarlet 

5-10 

A. 

Anemone  Pulsatilla 

eye 
Pasque-flower 

Chalky  pastures 

Violet 

4-5 

P. 

Myosurus  minimus 

Mouse-tail 

Cornfields 

Yellow 

5 

A. 

Ranunculus  acris 

Biting  buttercup 

Pastures 

,, 

6-7 

P. 

„         arvensis 

Com 

Cornfields 

,, 

5 

P. 

„         bulbosus 

Bulbous     „ 

Pastures 

„ 

6 

P. 

„        repens 

Creeping  „ 

>> 

„ 

6-3 

P. 

, ,         ficaria 

Pilewort 

Hedge  banks 

Ochre 

4 

P. 

!  Thalictrum  flavum 

Meadow  rue 

Moist  meadows 

7 

P. 

Rosacecp. 

Agrimonia  Eupatoria 

Agrimony 

Borders   of   corn- 
fields 

Yellow 

6-7 

P. 

Alchemilla  arvensis 

Lady's-mantle 

Cornfields 

Green 

5-8 

A. 

1           „        vulgaris 

M               »> 

Dry  pastures 

„ 

6-8 

P. 

Comaridum  palustre 

Cinquefoil 

Boggy  places 

Purple 

6-7 

P. 

Potentilla  anserina 

Silverweed 

Moist  land 

Yellow 

^7 

P. 

Spirea  ulmaria 

Queen       of       the 
Meadow 

Moist  meadows 

White 

6-7 

P. 

Rulifuea. 

Galium  aparine 

Goose-grass  ;  clea- 

Fields and  hedges 

»» 

5-8 

A. 

„     palustre 

vers 
Bedstraw 

Moist  meadows 

„ 

7 

A. 

,,     tricorne 

Birdlip 

Cornfields 

If 

7 

A. 

Sherardia  arvensis 

Field  madder 

Sandy  land 

Pink 

4-10 

A. 

Scroph  ulariacecp. 

Antirrhinum  orontium 

Snapdragon 

Cornfields 

Purple 

7-9   . 

A.  or 
B 

Digitalis  purpurea 
Euphrasia  officinalis 

Foxglove 

Hedge  banks 

,, 

6-7 

P.' 

Eye-bright 

Pastures 

White 

7-9 

A. 

Pedicularis  palustris 

Lousewort 

Wet  pastures 

Purple 

^7 

A. 

Rhinanthus  Crista-galli 

Yellow  rattle 

Meadows 

Yellow 

6 

A. 

Veronica  agrestis 

Field  speedwell 

Cornfields 

Blue 

4-9 

A. 

„        hederifolia 

Ivy-leaved     speed- 
well 
Common  speedwell 

.. 

" 

5-8 

A. 

„        officinalis 

Poor  land 

„ 

6-8 

A. 

Solanacece. 

Atropa  belladonna 

Deadly  nightshade 

Waste  places 

Violet 

6 

P. 

Hyoscyamus  niger 

Henbane 

>>         >» 

Straw 

7 

A.  or 
B. 

Umbellifera. 

j^gopodium  Podagraria 

Gout  weed 

Damp  places 

White 

6-7 

P. 

iEthusa  Cynapium 

Fool's-parsley 

Cornfields 

,, 

7-8 

A. 

Angelica  sylvestris 

Wild  angelica 

Damp  clay  land 

Pink 

7-8 

P. 

Conium  maculatum 

Hemlock 

Hedges 

White 

6-7 

B. 

Heracleura  sphondylium 

Hogweed 

Pastures        and 
hedges 

" 

7 

B. 

Scandix  pecten-Veneris 

Shepherd's  needle 

Cornfields 

>i 

6-7 

A. 

Urticacea. 

Urtica  dioica 

Common  nettle 

Hedges 

— 

7-8 

P. 

„      urens 

Small 

Waste  places 

— 

6-10 

A. 

202  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE, 


E. — Fungoid  Diseases. 


The  fungoid  diseases  affecting  plants  are  numerous  and  im- 
portant. It  is  only  within  the  last  ten  years  or  so  that  some 
of  the  most  destructive  have  been  properly  understood.  The 
researches  of  De  Bary,  Pasteur,  and  others  on  the  Continent,  and 
of  Marshall  Ward  in  this  country,  have  removed  many  difficulties  in 
understanding  their  nature.  And  it  would  be  a  good  thing  for 
the  farmers  of  this  country  if  they  knew  more  of  the  diseases  that 
affect  their  crops.  If  any  disease  attacks  their  animals  they  have 
the  veterinary  surgeon  to  advise  them,  but  so  far  we  have  no  men 
who  have  taken  up  the  profession  of  diagnosing  and  treating  the 
diseases  of  plants. 

The  fungi  are  devoid  of  chlorophyll,  and  therefore  are  quite  as 
dependent  as  the  animal  kingdom  upon  green  plants  for  their 
food. 

Some  fungi,  which  live  upon  dead  or  decaying  organic  matter, 
are  termed  "  saprophytes."  Those  which  derive  their  nourishment 
from  living  animals  and  plants  are  termed  "  parasites." 

Saprophytes  are  comparatively  harmless.  These  are  repre- 
sented by  the  common  moulds  and  mildews,  found  on  stale 
bread,  old  boots,  damp  fruit,  etc.  Parasites,  on  the  other  hand, 
attack  living  animals  and  plants.  Examples  of  those  attacking 
animals  are  ringworm  and  the  various  specific  diseases,  but  we 
have  especially  to  deal  with  those  attacking  living  plants. 

Parasitic  Fungi  are  generally  degenerated  forms.  Some  are 
of  a  destructive,  wanton  nature,  destroying  far  more  than  they  can 
feed  upon,  as  the  "  potato  disease,"  like  a  tiger  that  kills  for  the 
sake  of  killing. 

Others  are  of  a  higher  nature,  and,  without  killing  the  plant, 
make  use  of  it  for  their  own  purposes,  like  the  "  ergot."  These 
may  be  compared  to  the  ants  that  keep  aphides  for  the  sugary 
secretion  they  extract  from  them. 

Parasites  are  generally  small  colourless  plants,  which  reproduce 
themselves  in  two  ways :  first,  by  rapid  cell-division  within  the 
plant  they  are  parasitic  upon,  and  secondly  by  spores,  which  they 
produce  instead  of  seed.  These  spores  are  extremely  minute, 
and  millions  float  in  the  atmosphere  unnoticed  and  unsuspected. 

Moisture  and  warmth  are  necessary  for  the  development  of 
these  spores,  so  that  in  warm  damp  weather,  when  the  spores 
come  in  contact  with  the  right  plants,  they  stick  to  them,  and  send 
out  small  thread-like  growths,  called  "hyphae."  These  penetrate 
the  vegetable  tissues,  and  feed  upon  their  juices,  increasing  in 
number,  till  at  last  the  plant  dies  from  the  attacks.  Before  the 
"host,"  as   the  plant  attacked  is  called,  is  killed,  the  fungus 


FUNGOID   DISEASES.  203 

usually  forms  vast  numbers  of  spores,  which  are  thrown  off  into 
the  atmosphere  to  seek  fresh  victims. 

The  conditions  favourable  to  fungoid  attacks  are  : — 

1.  Warmth  and  moisture. 

2.  Rankness  of  growth. 

3.  Unhealthy  condition  of  crops. 

A  strong,  vigorous  plant  in  its  natural  condition  can  best 
resist  attacks  of  disease  brought  about  by  lack  of  proper  nourish- 
ment, bad  seed,  stagnant  water,  and  too  heavy  manuring. 

Finger-and-Toe,  Club-root,  or  Anbury. — There  are  often  con- 
fused under  these  titles  three  forms  of  disease. 

(i)  Swellings  caused  by  insect  attacks. 

(2)  Degeneration  or  partial  reversion  to  wild  form.  This  is 
due  to  bad  seed,  unsuitable  soil,  and  want  of  proper  nourishment 
This  disease  should  properly  be  called  Finger-and-Toe,  and  was 
recognized  as  such  by  the  late  Professor  Buckmaster  twenty 
years  ago. 

(3)  The  third  form  of  disease  is  by  far  the  most  important, 
and  is  properly  called  Club-root,  or  Anbury,  although  the  name 
Finger-and-Toe  is  its  usual  appellation.  It  is  caused  by  a  fungus, 
enjoying  the  title  of  "  Plasmodiophora  Brassicse."  This  fungus 
attacks  all  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  of  Cruciferse — 
turnips,  swedes,  cabbages,  radishes,  mustard,  rape,  cauliflower,  etc. 

If  a  young  turnip  or  cabbage  plant  affected  by  the  disease  be 
pulled  up,  it  will  be  found  that  the  roots  are  deformed  by  warty 
excrescences  of  all  shapes  and  sizes.  Such  a  plant  will  be  useless 
for  agricultural  purposes,  for  all  the  nourishment  will  be  absorbed 
by  the  diseased  portions  of  the  root,  which  continue  to  increase 
in  size  whilst  the  remainder  of  the  root  is  hard  and  stringy.  If 
the  diseased  turnips  are  allowed  to  take  their  course,  those  affected 
rot  and  decompose,  and  any  cruciferous  plants  grown  afterwards 
in  the  same  soil  are  sure  to  be  affected. 

If  a  thin  slice  of  one  of  these  disease-swellings  be  examined 
under  a  microscope,  the  cause  of  the  disease  will  at  once  be 
seen.  Instead  of  the  ordinary  cell  structure  we  find  a  number  of 
enormously  developed,  enlarged  cells,  with  their  contents  consisting 
of  granular  slimy  protoplasm,  which  is  continually  showing  signs  of 
movement.  These  enlarged  cells  are  twenty  to  a  hundred  times 
larger  than  their  usual  size,  so  it  can  be  very  well  understood  how 
the  diseased  part  becomes  swollen.  The  fibro-vascular  bundles 
are  displaced,  and  the  whole  structure  of  the  root  is  disorganized. 

If  a  section  be  taken  later,  in  the  autumn,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  shiny  protoplasm  has  divided  up  to  form  thousands  of 
rounded  yellow-looking  spores. 

If  the  diseased  turnips  are  ploughed  in,  the  spores  are  spread 


204  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

through  the  land,  germinating  in  spring,  and  produce  creeping  or 
swimming  broods  of  zoospores. 

Zoospores  attack  charlock  and  other  cruciferous  weeds,  select- 
ing the  young  plant,  and  entering  through  the  root  hairs.  They 
locate  themselves  in  the  cellular  tissue  of  the  young  root,  where 
they  commence  to  feed  upon  the  albuminoids.  An  analysis  of 
the  diseased  portion  of  the  root  shows  a  very  large  percentage  of 
nitrogen,  whereas  the  remaining  undiseased  portion  of  the  turnip 
is  very  fibrous  and  deficient  in  nitrogen. 

Means  of  Frevention. — Some  time  ago  the  author  sent  out 
circulars  to  various  farmers,  and  advertised  for  information  upon 
the  subject.  Over  three  hundred  replies  were  received  from  all 
parts  of  England,  showing  the  vast  amount  of  damage  done  by 
this  pest  and  the  anxiety  of  the  farmers  to  find  some  means  of 
dealing  with  the  disease.  Some  of  the  evidence  brought  out  was 
extremely  interesting;  but,  although  some  farmers  have  been 
successful  in  stopping  the  disease  on  their  own  particular  farms, 
no  general  or  radical  treatment  of  the  disease  has  yet  been 
proved  to  be  successful. 

Experiments  have  been  tried  for  some  time  at  the  Aspatria 
Agricultural  College  for  the  purpose  of  discovering  some  satisfac- 
tory remedy  for  the  disease ;  but  such  experiments  take  a  long 
time,  and  only  remedies  which  have  been  thoroughly  tested  ought 
to  be  brought  forward. 

The  chief  means  of  prevention  will  readily  occur  to  any  one 
who  understands  the  nature  of  the  disease.  This,  like  measles, 
scarlet  fever,  or  any  other  fungoid  disease,  is  communicated 
through  the  agency  of  spores  or  germs,  and,  no  matter  how 
favourable  the  conditions  may  be  for  the  development  of  such  a 
disease,  it  cannot  exist  without  the  presence  of  these  spores. 

Get  rid  of  the  spores.     In  order  to  carry  this  out : — 

1.  Remove  all  cruciferous  weeds,  clearing  the  hedgerows,  etc., 
of  them. 

2.  Lengthen  the  rotation.  For  instance,  in  the  four-course 
rotation  substitute  potatoes  or  some  other  crop  (always  excepting 
the  cruciferse)  for  turnips,  so  that  you  get  turnips  on  the  same 
land  once  only  in  eight  years. 

3.  Do  not  grow  another  crop  of  the  same  order  on  that  land 
— rape,  for  example. 

4.  Burn  the  remains  of  diseased  turnips,  if  bad;  if  only 
partially  diseased,  remove  them  to  permanent  pasture  and  feed 
sheep  with  them  there. 

5.  Do  not  feed  them  to  cattle,  or,  if  you  do,  be  careful  the 
manure  is  not  used  for  turnips,  or  you  will  be  sure  to  get  the 
disease. 


FUNGOID  DISEASES.  205 

Remove  the  conditions  favourable  to  the  spread  of  the  disease  : — 

{a)  By  drainage.  Get  rid  of  the  stagnant  water,  when 
the  injurious  CO2  and  organic  acids,  together  with  a  large  number 
of  disease  spores,  will  be  carried  away. 

{b)  By  treating  the  land  with  lime.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
turnips  on  land  deficient  in  lime  are  more  likely  to  fall  victims  to 
the  disease.  But  contrary  to  the  statement  of  Mr.  W.  Carruthers 
in  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  Journal  for  1893,  pt  ii.,  there 
have  been  many  cases  where  abundant  application  of  lime  has 
had  no  effect.  Again,  if  lime  is  such  an  infallible  cure,  how  is 
the  occurrence  of  the  disease  on  limestone  and  chalky  soils 
accounted  for? 

Salt  has  been  found  beneficial,  and  gas-lime  has  been  tried  by 
many  with  partial  benefit. 

One  interesting  circumstance,  showing  how  the  disease 
may  be  spread,  should  be  noted.  It  was  observed  and  pointed 
out  by  the  writer  that  when  wool  waste  had  been  used  as  a 
manure,  Finger-and-Toe  often  followed  ;  and,  upon  examining  such 
wool,  spores  of  the  fungus  were  found  adhering.  The  sheep 
feeding  on  turnips  affected  by  Finger-and-Toe  can  carry  the  spores 
in  their  wool,  and  thus  the  disease  is  often  propagated. 

Ergot  of  Rye  {Claviceps purpurea)  attacks  grasses  and  cereals, 
apparently  transforming  the  grain  into  purplish  black,  hard,  horn- 
shaped  bodies.  These  are  called  "  sclerotium,"  being  the  resting- 
stage  of  the  fungus. 

After  some  months  small  bodies  grow  out  from  the  sclerotium, 
resembling  minute  drumsticks  with  violet  heads.  After  a  while 
these  heads,  or  stroma,  become  studded  with  small  wart-like 
eminences,  each  having  a  minute  hole  near  the  apex,  leading 
to  an  egg-shaped  cavity  ("  perithecium  ").  These  produce  long, 
tubular  asci,  each  containing  half  a  dozen  thread-like  ascospores. 
The  sclerotium  germinates  on  the  ground  in  July.  The  asco- 
spores are  shot  out  at  the  time  when  grasses  are  commencing  to 
flower.  On  coming  in  contact  with  the  flower  of  the  rye,  they 
give  off  hyphae,  which  penetrate  the  base  of  the  flower.  A  dense 
mycelium  soon  forms,  and,  in  about  ten  days,  fine  hyphse  are  seen 
forming  a  network  over  the  young  ovary,  and  from  the  tips  of 
hyphas  thousands  of  conidia  are  budded  off.  The  conidia  are 
covered  with  a  sugary  secretion  like  drops  of  honey.  Insects 
come  after  the  "  honey-dew "  and  carry  the  spores  from  flower 
to  flower.  When  a  conidium  comes  in  contact  with  the  base  of 
a  young  flower,  it  germinates  and  pierces  in  the  same  manner  as 
ascospores. 

After  the  mycelium  has  gone  on  producing  conidia  and  honey- 
dew  for  some  days,  it  increases  in  size,  becomes  more  and  more 


206  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

compact,  and  the  outside  turns  blue-black ;  this  forms  the 
sclerotium  we  started  with. 

The  sclerotium  falls  to  the  ground  just  before  the  corn  is  ready. 

The  ripe  "ergots"  contain  certain  deleterious  alkaloids,  which 
are  supposed  to  cause  abortion  in  animals  when  eaten,  and  certainly 
have  a  more  or  less  injurious  effect. 

Means  of  Prevention. — Drain  the  land,  as  the  disease  is 
always  worse  in  rainy  seasons  and  on  wet  land.  Rankness  of 
growth  also  encourages  it.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the 
ergot  attacks  many  grasses  as  well  as  cereals,  and,  to  prevent 
the  sclerotia  ripening,  hay-fields  liable  to  be  infested  should  be 
cut  before  flowering,  and  not  after  seeding. 

The  "Potato  Disease." — The  fungus  causing  this  disease  is 
known  as  the  Phytophihora  infestans,  or  Peronospora  tnfestans^  the 
former  being  the  more  generally  received  title. 

The  spores,  from  which  the  fungi  are  developed,  are  oval  in 
shape.  They  are  extremely  minute  and  light,  and  consequently 
able  to  float  in  the  air  until  they  drop  on  some  leaves.  If  the 
conditions  are  favourable — that  is,  if  the  plants  belong  to  the 
order  of  Solonacae,  as  the  potato  does,  and  provided  that  there 
be  sufficient  moisture  and  heat,  the  spores  germinate.  The 
thread-like  mycelia  they  send  out  either  die  or  find  their  way  into 
the  interior  of  the  plants  by  the  stomata. 

Sometimes  the  contents  of  the  germ  divide  into  many  small 
spores,  each  of  which  is  provided  with  two  cilia,  or  "tails."  By 
the  aid  of  these  cilia  they  are  able  to  swim  about  on  the  damp 
surface  of  the  leaf  for  some  time.  Then  they  settle  and  send  forth 
processes  ("  hyphse  ")  as  before. 

Inside  the  leaf  the  mycelia  rapidly  branch,  soon  destroying 
the  part  attacked,  and  turning  it  black  and  withered-looking.  If 
a  leaf  thus  afl'ected  be  carefully  examined,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
black  part  is  bordered  by  a  line  of  white,  consisting  of  thread-like 
processes  bearing  fresh  spores.  These  are  easily  detached,  and 
float  away  to  propagate  the  disease  in  some  other  plant. 

After  injuring  the  leaf  in  this  manner,  the  mycelium  passes 
down  the  stem  into  the  tubers.  Here  it  uses  up  almost  the  whole 
of  the  starch,  converting  the  potatoes  into  a  black,  rotten  mass. 

By  using  diseased  potatoes  for  seed  the  farmer  simply  assists 
in  spreading  the  attack,  for  the  fungus  rapidly  traverses  the  young 
plants,  and,  by  sending  hyphae  out  of  the  stomata,  is  able  to 
produce  its  spores. 

Means  of  Prevention. — Use  only  sound  potatoes  for  seed,  and 
burn  or  bury  deeply  all  affected  parts,  never  throw  them  on  the 
manure-heap.  It  is  also  advisable  to  destroy  all  the  leaves  and 
stems  of  a  diseased  crop. 


FUNGOID  DISEASES.  2oy 

Destroy  all  weeds  of  the  order  Solonacese  (bitter-sweet, 
henbane,  etc.). 

In  planting,  have  the  ridges  well  apart  to  allow  free  access  of 
air  and  light. 

A  Russian  method  of  prevention  is  to  heat  the  seed  potatoes 
to  a  moderate  heat  in  brick  ovens.  This  is  said  to  kill  the 
fungi. 

Jansen's  system  is  to  bend  over  the  leaves  and  put  four  or 
five  inches  of  soil  on  the  top  of  the  ridge. 

Methods  of  0/;r.  — Experiments  for  stopping  the  disease 
have  been  conducted  lately,  with  what  is  known  as  the  Bouillie 
Bordelaise  mixture.  Pure  copper  sulphate  is  dissolved  in  cold 
water  by  hanging  it  in  a  coarse  bag  in  a  barrel.  In  another  tank 
some  quicklime  is  slaked,  and  passed  through  a  sieve  into  the  vessel 
containing  copper  sulphate.  The  whole  is  well  mixed  up,  and 
applied  by  the  strawsonizer.  The  proportions  are  3  lbs.  copper 
sulphate  and  i  lb.  quicklime  to  20  gallons  of  water. 

The  results  are  not  entirely  satisfactory,  but  at  least  part  of  the 
fungi  can  be  cleared  off  in  this  way. 

The  Smut  of  Corn  ( Ustilago  carbo). — This  disease  is  commonly 
seen  attacking  oats,  turning  the  grain  black  and  of  a  powdery 
nature.  This  change  of  colour  is  really  due  to  the  development 
of  the  spores.  These  black  spores,  under  certain  conditions, 
burst  and  let  out  numerous  colourless  germs,  which  are  capable 
of  producing  processes.  These  processes  enter  the  "  host "  soon 
after  the  latter  has  germinated,  and  the  fungus,  having  once 
entered,  keeps  on  steadily  growing  without  its  presence  being 
noticed.  The  mycelia  do  not  remain  near  the  root,  but 
gradually  creep  upwards  until  they  reach  the  growing  apex  of 
the  stem.  As  the  plant  begins  to  flower,  the  parasite  exerts 
increased  activity,  using  up  large  amounts  of  the  food  material 
intended  for  the  young  grain.  The  mycelia  now  almost  fill 
the  seeds,  and  produce  great  numbers  of  the  black  spores ;  these 
at  first  rest  on  extremely  short  hyphse,  but,  when  ripe,  are  entirely 
free  and  able  to  float  away. 

Means  of  Prevention, — As  the  germs  remain  on  the  grain  all 
winter,  various  methods  of  treating  them  then  can  be  carried  out. 
One  way  is  to  dissolve  i  lb.  of  copper  sulphate  in  water,  and  add 
this  to  every  four  bushels  of  seed.  This,  however,  slightly  dete- 
riorates the  germinating  capacity.  Another  method  is  to  steep 
the  seed  for  a  minute  or  two  in  water  heated  to  about  130°  Fahr. 
This  may  be  repeated  once  or  twice. 

Spring  Rust  of  Wheat. — The  fungus  causing  this  is  known 
in  the  first  stage  of  its  life-history  as  the  Uredo  I'ubigo-vera,  It 
attacks  graminaceous  plants,   forming   minute    orange-coloured 


208  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

spots  C'sori")  on  the  leaves  during  the  later  spring  months. 
These  sori  consist  of  masses  of  spores  borne  on  short  hyphae, 
and  connected  by  them  with  a  densely  matted  mycelium  in  the 
leaf  of  the  "  host."  The  spores  ("  uredo-spores  ")  now  ripen, 
and  are  wafted  about  the  fields.  When  they  settle  upon 
the  wheat  again,  the  spores  germinate  on  the  leaf,  and  send 
processes  into  the  tissues.  Here  they  feed,  finally  rupturing 
the  epidermis  of  the  leaf  and  producing  a  second  crop  of  spores. 
These  latter  are  black  in  colour,  and,  under  the  microscope,  are 
seen  to  be  constricted  in  the  centre.  Their  coats  are  thicker, 
and  as  they  remain  through  winter  without  germinating,  they  are 
known  as  "resting-spores."   They  carry  on  the  attack  next  spring. 

The  second  stage  of  this  disease  is  known  as  Puccinia  ruhigo- 
vera. 

Means  of  Pra^ention. — Drain  the  land  well,  as  the  attack  is 
worst  in  damp,  sheltered  corners.  Only  clean  seed  should  be 
used,  and  mildewed  straw  destroyed.  Mineral  manures  are  of 
use  to  the  plant  in  strengthening  it  to  resist  the  attack. 

Summer  Rust  of  Corn. — The  first  stages  of  this  are  known 
as  Uredo  linearis.  It  makes  its  appearance  in  early  summer  as 
yellow  spots  on  the  leaves.  The  spores  ("uredo-spores")  are 
oval  in  shape,  and  are  supported  by  hyphae  rising  from  a  densely 
matted  mycelium.  These  hyphae  have  ruptured  the  epidermis  of 
the  leaf  in  order  to  bear  the  spores;  and  this  injury,  together 
with  the  amount  of  nourishment  extracted  from  the  protoplasm 
and  sap  of  the  plant,  greatly  weaken  the  host.  As  in  the  spring 
rust,  the  uredo-spores  are  soon  set  free,  and,  by  germinating  again 
on  the  leaves  of  the  wheat,  produce  the  second  or  mildew  stage. 
By  means  of  hyphae  the  interior  of  the  leaf  is  reached,  the  young 
fungi  grow  and  produce  black  resting-spores  on  the  surface, 
rupturing  the  epidermis  again  in  order  to  do  so.  This  stage  is 
known  as  the  Puccinia  graminis.  This  mildew  stage  is  reached 
in  autumn ;  and  in  spring,  instead  of  attacking  the  wheat  directly, 
it  forms  a  host  of  the  common  barberry  {Berberis  vulgaris).  Here 
it  produces  what  is  called  the  (Ecidiuvi  berberidis.  It  first 
appears  as  small  yellowish  spots,  which  soon  burst  through  the 
skin  and  form  little  bordered  cups  filled  with  a  reddish  powder, 
made  up  of  spores  corresponding  to  those  produced  by  the  uredo 
stage.     They  forward  the  disease  to  the  wheat  again. 

Means  of  Prevention. — Drainage  does  away  with  much  chance 
of  disease.  Affected  straw  should  be  destroyed  together  with  all 
barberry  brushes.  Only  clean  seed  should  be  used.  Iron 
sulphate  in  the  form  of  solution  is  said  to  be  of  use  as  a  steep  for 
the  seed. 

Hop    Mildew    {Podosphc^ra    Casta gnei). — This   appears   first 


FUNGOID   DISEASES.  209 

as  whitish  spots  on  the  leaves,  and  is  most  dangerous  when  on  the 
young  leaves.  The  cause  of  the  whiteness  is  an  intricate  network 
of  colourless  hyphge  and  mycelium  at  the  surface.  At  intervals, 
small  branches,  "  haustoria,"  are  sent  into  the  leaf.  These  serve 
for  taking  up  food,  and  for  fixing  the  fungus.  The  hyphse  bear 
short  erect  branches,  capable  of  breaking  into  segments  in  warm 
damp  weather.  These  segments  (conidia)  may  float  away  and 
germinate  on  other  leaves,  where  hyphae,  mycelia,  etc.,  are  formed 
as  before.  In  a  few  weeks,  the  white  patch  turns  brown,  owing 
to  the  formation  of  numerous  small  spherical  bodies,  called 
perithccia,  or  spore-cases.  They  contain  spores  "  ascocarps." 
They  remain  in  their  shells  during  winter,  and  in  spring  are  set 
free,  and  again  spread  the  disease. 

Remedies. — The  chief  remedy  is  to  dust  the  plants  with 
powdered  sulphur,  by  means  of  the  strawsonizer. 

Bunt  {Tilletia  caries). — Attacks  wheat.  The  grains  have  a 
nasty  smell,  and  are  filled  with  black  powdery  spores.  They 
are  entirely  unfit  for  food.  The  remedy  is  pickling  with  copper 
sulphate. 


210  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ANATOMY   AND    PHYSIOLOGY    OF    FARM    ANIMALS. 

In  commencing  a  study  of  the  animal  body  it  is  best  to  com- 
mence with  the  elementary  structures.  These  may  be  taken  as 
Cartilage,  Bone,  Connective  tissue,  Muscular  fibre  or  flesh, 
Adipose  tissue  or  fat.  Nerve  cells  and  fibres. 

Cartilage  is  a  tough,  flexible,  and  elastic  structure.  It  is  white 
or  semi-transparent,  and  when  boiled  for  some  time  with  water  it 
yields  a  jelly-like  substance  called  "  chondrin."  Its  uses  are  (i) 
to  form  strong  yet  flexible  frameworks,  (2)  to  cover  the  ends  of 
bones,  allowing  them  to  move  with  little  friction.  It  predomi- 
nates especially  in  young  animals,  nearly  all  bones  being  preformed 
in  cartilage. 

Bone  is  a  yellowish  white,  hard,  ordinarily  non-sensitive  struc- 
ture, composed  of  about  two-thirds  mineral  matter  and  one-third 
animal  or  organic  matter.  The  mineral  matter  consists  of  about 
two-thirds  phosphate  of  lime,  and  one-third  carbonate  of  lime.  The 
organic  and  inorganic  matter  of  the  bone  are  mixed  to  a  certain 
extent,  although  there  is  an  excess  of  organic  matter  in  the  centre 
and  in  long  bones  at  the  extremities.  The  outer  portion  of  the 
bone,  which  is  hard  and  dense,  is  made  of  **  compact  tissue,"  whilst 
the  spongy  portion  which  is  found  at  the  ends  and  towards  the 
centre  is  called  "  cancellated  tissue." 

In  a  microscopic  section  of  the  compact  tissue  there  will  be 
seen  numerous  small  tubes  (Haversian  canals)  along  which 
minute  bloodvessels  run  from  the  cancellated  part  Around  the 
Haversian  canals  are  small  irregular  spaces  called  "lacunae," 
arranged  in  concentric  rings.  They  communicate  with  one  another 
and  with  the  Haversian  canal  by  very  minute  canaliculi,  which 
radiate  in  all  directions.  The  greater  bloodvessels  pass  directly 
through  the  bone  into  the  cancellated  structure,  and  then  radiate 
through  the  compact  part.     Bones  are  surrounded  by  a  strong 


ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY  OF   FARM   ANIMALS.      211 

fibrous  coat  called  the  "  periosteum,"  which  serves  for  protection. 
Bones  are  either  (i)  long,  as  the  femur  and  humerus ;  (2)  flat,  as 
the  scapula  (shoulder-blade)  and  bones  of  the  skull ;  or  (3)  irregular, 
as  the  vertebrae,  and  bones  of  knee  and  hock  joints.  The  functions 
of  bones  are  (i)to  protect  various  parts  ;  (2)  to  form  a  framework 
for  the  softer  structures ;  (3)  to  act  as  levers  in  connection  with 
the  muscles.    Bones  are  joined  together  by  ligaments  to  form  joints. 

Connective  tissue  is  the  structure  which  connects  the  integu- 
ments everywhere  with  the  deeper  structures,  and  penetrates 
every  other  tissue.  It  is  made  up  of  white  fibres,  yellow  elastic 
fibres,  and  nucleated  corpuscles. 

Muscular  tissue  is  the  part  commonly  known  as  flesh.  It  is 
made  up  of  fibres  of  two  kinds,  voluntary  and  involuntary.  The 
former  are  usually  under  the  control  of  the  will,  and  are  also  known 
as  striped  or  striated  muscular  fibres.  Each  of  its  fibres  can  be 
teased  out  into  fibrillae,  which  can  also  be  split  transversely.  Each 
fibre  also  has  a  delicate  coat,  the  sarcolemma.  The  involuntary 
muscular  fibres,  which  are  found  in  the  stomach  and  alimentary 
canal,  the  bloodvessels,  the  uterus^  urinary  bladder,  and  iris  of  the 
eye,  are  made  up  of  elongated  pointed  cells,  placed  end  to  end,  and 
are  not  striated.     Muscles  (i)  are  the  active  organs  of  locomotion ; 

(2)  perform  all  necessary  operations  of  the  body  requiring  motion, 
such  as  the  pumping  of  the  heart,  contraction  of  the  stomach,  etc.  ; 

(3)  give  symmetry  to  the  body.  Muscles  are  joined  to  bones  by 
tendons. 

Adipose  tissue,  commonly  called  "  fat,"  consists  of  fat-cells 
joined  together  by  a  kind  of  tissue  called  "  areolar."  Each  fat- 
cell  contains  a  nucleus  of  protoplasm  which  manufactures  the  fat 
globules  within.  The  uses  of  fat  are  (i)  to  store  up  heat  and 
energy  which  is  set  free  by  oxidation  ;  (2)  to  protect  other  parts. 

Nervous  tissue  consists  of  nerve  fibres  and  cells.  Nerve 
fibres  convey  impulses  from  a  sensitive  portion  of  the  body  to  a 
nerve  centre,  or  from  a  nerve  centre  to  a  muscular  fibre  or  secreting 
cell. 

Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  FariM  Anlmals. 

The  Horse,  Ox,  Sheep,  and  Pig,  are  the  four  most  important 
farm  animals.  They  all  belong  to  the  natural  order  Ungulata — 
that  is,  hoofed  animals.  The  horse,  however,  belongs  to  the 
division  Perissodactyla  (odd-toed),  while  the  remaining  three  are 
members  of  the  Artiodactyla  (even-toed).  The  ox  and  sheep  are 
included  in  the  subdivision  Ruminantia ;  the  pig  in  the  Non- 
ruminantia.  In  their  skeletons  and  most  other  points  of  their 
structure  the  sheep  and  ox  are  aUke. 


212 


ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 


Bones  of  the  Horse,  Ox,  Sheep,  and  Pig. 


Horse. 


,  Bones  of  the  Shill. 
Occipital 
Parietal 
Frontal 
Temporal 
Ethmoidal 
Sphenoidal     . . 


2.  Bones  of  the  Ear, 

Maleus,  Incus,  Stapes,   and  Obiculare   in 
each  Ear  


Bones  of  the  Face. 
Malar  . . 
Nasal  . . 
Lachrymal 
Palatine 
Pterygoid 
Superior  maxillary 
Antro  ,, 

Superior  turbinated 
Inferior  ,, 

Os  Rostri 
Lower  jaw 
Vomer 
Teeth  . . 
Plyoid  bone   . , 


The  VertchrcB. 
Cervical 
Dorsal 
Lumbar 

Sacral  (segments  fused  into  one  mass) 
Caudal  (tail)  . . 


5.  Ribs  and  Sternum. 
True  ribs  (pairs) 
False  „    (    „    ) 
Sternum 


6.  Bones  of  each  Fore  Limb. 
Scapula  (shoulder-blade) 

Humerus        

Radius 

Ulna  (very  small  in  horse,  rather  larger  in  ox) 

Bones  of  the  knee  (carpals) 


2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
o 
I 
I 
40 
I 


6 

5 
13  to  20 


Ox  and 
Sheep. 


7 

13 
6 

5 
20 


ANATOMY  AND   PHYSIOLOGY   OF   FARM   ANIMALS.      213 
Bones  of  the  Horse,  Ox,  Sheep,  and  Pig  {continued). 


Metacarpals  (cannon  bone) . .         .... 

ios  sufFraginis  —  great  pastern 
OS  coronoe  —  small  pastern 
OS  pedis  —  coffin  bone 

Sesamoids 
Navicular  bones 

7.  Bones  of  the  Pelvis. 
Ilium  (hook  bones)    . . 
Ischium 

Pubes  . . 

8.  Bones  of  each  Hind  Limb. 
Femur 

Tibia   . . 

Patella  

Fibula 

Malleolar  (at  base  of  tibia)  . . 
Hock  (tarsals) 


Horse. 


Ox  and    | 
Sheep.     I 


Pig. 


replaced 

by  liga-  ; 

ment    j 

I        I 
5       i 


Bones  below  the  hock  are  similar  to  those  of  the  fore-leg. 

Below  the  tarsals  of  the  pig  are  29  bones. 

The  ox  has  a  small  bone  in  its  heart. 

The  ribs  of  the  ox  are  flatter  and  more  regular  than  those  of 
the  horse.  Its  sternum  is  also  broad  and  flat,  while  that  of  the 
horse  is  keel-shaped. 

Horns. — Nearly  all  cattle,  and  some  breeds  of  sheep,  are 
provided  with  horns.  The  chief 
polled  (hornless)  breeds  of  cattle 
are  the  Norfolk  red  polls,  the 
Aberdeen-Angus,  and  the  Gallo- 
ways. Horns  consist  of  a  hard 
non-sensitive  outer  covering,  be- 
neath which  are  the  sensitive 
laminae  covering  the  bony  case 
in  which  are  numerous  hollow 
spaces  (sinuses),  communicating 
with  the  passages  of  the  nose. 
Cattle  are  often  dishorned  to 
prevent  them  goring  one  another. 

doing  this :  (i)  to  cut  through  the  tip  of  the  horn  and  then  put 
on  a  brass  knob  ;  (2)  to  cut  through  the  horn  about  its  middle ; 


HORNY 
COVERING. 


Fig.  31. 

There  are  three   ways   of 


214  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

(3)  to  cut  through  it  at  its  base.  The  first  method  is  of  little 
use ;  the  second  is  little  better ;  but  the  third  way  is  nearly  pain- 
less, and  much  the  best  method. 

Digestive  Organs  and  Digestion. — With  the  horse  the  food 
is  gathered  up  by  means  of  the  lips,  and  masticated  thoroughly  in 
the  mouth.  The  incisor  teeth  are  used  for  biting,  and  the  molars 
for  grinding  the  food.  The  food  is  pressed  against  the  palate  (or 
roof  of  mouth),  and  gradually  acted  upon  by  the  saliva.  This  is 
an  alkaline  fluid,  secreted  by  three  pairs  of  glands  :  (i)  the  parotid, 
below  the  ear,  (2)  the  submaxillary,  within  the  angle  of  the  jaw, 
(3)  the  sublingual,  under  the  tongue.  Saliva  contains,  besides 
water,  some  mucus  and  a  small  amount  of  a  ferment  calleu 
"  ptyalin,"  which  has  the  power  of  changing  starch  into  grape  sugar. 
Saliva  is  also  useful  as  a  moistener  of  the  food.  The  food  is 
then  forced  back  by  the  cheeks  and  tongue  into  the  pharynx,  from 
whence  by  an  involuntary  action  it  passes  down  the  oesophagus, 
or  gullet,  into  the  stomach.  The  stomach  of  the  horse  or  pig  is 
simple,  and  of  comparatively  small  size.  The  mucous  membrane 
lining  it  is  of  two  kinds :  the  first  is  cuticular  (like  the  skin) ;  the 
second  is  fine  and  velvety,  and  called  the  *'  villous."  The  latter 
is  the  true  digestive  part.  In  the  sheep  and  ox  it  is  large  and 
has  four  compartments.  With  these  two  animals  the  food  first 
passes  into  the  paunch,  a  large  strong  bag,  where  it  remains  until 
the  animal  has  finished  feeding.  From  this  place  it  then  passes 
into  the  second  stomach,  reticulum,  or  "  honey-comb,"  so  called 
from  the  appearance  of  its  walls.  Here  much  of  the  dirt  and 
foreign  bodies,  which  may  have  been  swallowed  with  the  food,  are 
separated  out.  From  the  reticulum  the  fine  portions  are  passed 
into  the  third  stomach  or  maniplies,  while  the  rough  portion 
is  forced  back  into  the  mouth,  where  it  is  thoroughly  masti- 
cated, mixed  with  saliva,  and  then  passed  down  into  the 
rumen  again.  The  third  stomach  is  provided  with  numerous 
strong  leaves.  The  food  is  next  carried  into  the  fourth  or  true 
stomach  (abomasum),  where  it  is  acted  on  by  gastric  juice, 
secreted  by  the  gastric  follicles.  The  changes  in  the  stomach  of 
the  horse  and  pig  are  similar  to  those  which  go  on  here.  The 
gastric  juice  is  an  acid  secretion,  consisting  of  water  with  small 
amounts  of  a  ferment,  pepsin,  mucus,  and  traces  of  hydrochloric 
acid.  The  albuminoids  of  the  food  are  converted  into  soluble 
proteid  bodies,  called  "  peptones ; "  the  casein  of  milk  is  coagulated, 
and  changed  into  peptones.  Adipose  tissue  is  disintegrated  and 
the  oil  liberated.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  first  three  stomachs 
are  merely  for  storing  the  food  in,  and  in  calves  and  lambs  their 
services  are  not  required.  (The  fourth  stomach  of  calves  is  used 
for  making  rennet.)    The  soluble  proteids  of  the  food  are  absorbed 


ANATOMY   AND   PHYSIOLOGY  OF   FARM   ANIMALS.      21 5 

by  the  walls  of  the  stomach,  pass  into  the  small  bloodvessels 
whence  they  pass  to  the  liver  and  thence  all  over  the  body. 
The  opening  into  the  intestines  (the  pyloric  orifice),  which  has 
hitherto  been  closed,  now  opens,  and  the  chyme  (partially 
digested  food)  passes  into  the  duodenum.  This  is  a  curved 
tube,  into  which  pour  two  digestive  fluids,  the  pancreatic 
juice  and  bile.  The  latter  is  secreted  by  the  liver,  from  which, 
except  in  the  horse,  it  passes  into  the  gall-bladder,  where  it  is 
stored  until  needed.  It  is  of  a  brownish-green  colour  in  the 
horse  and  ox,  greenish-yellow  in  the  hog,  and  dark  green  in  the 
sheep.  The  function  of  bile  is  (i)  to  assist  in  emulsifying  fats, 
(2)  to  act  as  an  antiseptic  and  prevent  decomposition,  (3)  to 
act  as  the  natural  purgative  of  the  body.  In  its  first  action  it  forms 
a  soap  with  the  oil.  The  pancreatic  juice  is  a  colourless  alkahne 
fluid,  secreted  by  the  pancreas,  or  sweetbread,  and  contains  three 
ferments.  The  first,  amylopsin,  changes  carbohydrates  into  sugar; 
another,  trypsin,  converts  proteids  into  soluble  peptones;  the 
third,  steapsin,  assists  the  action  of  bile  in  dissolving  fats.  The 
chyle,  as  the  food  is  now  called  from  its  white  milky  appearance, 
is  absorbed  by  the  duodenum,  from  the  sides  of  which  there  dip 
down  numerous  minute  finger-like  processes  called  "  villi."  These 
villi  have  very  thin  walls  through  which  the  dissolved  food  is  readily 
absorbed.  The  solution  passes  into  the  lacteals  of  the  villi,  thence 
to  the  Receptaculum  Chyli  and  the  thoracic  duct,  which  opens 
into  the  jugular  veins.  The  next  portions  of  the  intestines  after 
the  duodenum  are  the  ileum  and  jejunum.  They  are  in  the  form 
of  a  long  tube  many  times  doubled  on  itself,  held  up  by  a  strong 
fibrous  structure  called  the  "  mesentery."  They  have  no  secretions 
of  any  importance.  After  the  jejunum  (which  ends  the  small 
intestines)  comes  the  large  intestines.  Near  their  junction  is  a 
large  blind  bag  known  as  the  "  caecum."  In  the  ox  and  sheep, 
which  have  extensive  stomachs,  the  caecum  is  of  a  much  smaller  size 
than  in  the  horse,  where  it  reaches  greater  development.  Its 
function  is  chiefly  to  store  fluids,  and  it  is  called  the  water  bag  in 
the  horse ;  it  may  secrete  small  amounts  of  a  digestive  juice. 
After  the  caecum  comes  the  colon,  which  has  several  curves,  and 
finally  ends  in  the  rectum.  In  the  colon,  digestion  cannot  be 
said  to  take  place,  although  fermentation  may  occur  and  cause 
some  of  the  food  to  be  more  soluble.  Absorption,  however,  is 
very  active.     From  the  rectum  the  faeces  are  evacuated  at  will. 

The  form  of  the  alimentary  canal  necessarily  causes  some 
variation  in  the  amount  of  food  digested.  Horses,  with  their 
small  stomachs,  are  best  adapted  for  the  digestion  of  concentrated 
foods  (oats,  etc).  Cattle  and  sheep,  however,  have  large 
stomachs,  and  are  specially  suited  for  the  digestion  of  such  bulky 


2l6  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

foods  as  grass,  hay,  roots.  Pigs  have  small  stomachs,  but  a  great 
length  of  intestines.  Bulky  vegetable  foods  are  of  little  use  to 
them,  but  they  can  absorb  the  nourishment  from  other  kinds  of 
foods  very  well. 

The  Liver. — The  liver  is  a  large  gland  situated  at  the  beginning 
of  the  abdomen,  and  lying  with  most  of  its  bulk  on  the  right  side. 
It  is  one  of  the  largest  bodies  which  the  animal  contains.  It 
consists  of  three  lobes,  covered  by  a  strong  fibrous  coat  known  as 
the  peritoneum.  It  is  very  well  supplied  with  bloodvessels, 
its  function  being  to  assist  in  the  purification  of  the  blood.  The 
hepatic  artery  brings  blood  to  the  liver  for  its  nourishment.  The 
portal  vein,  which  consists  of  the  united  gastric,  splenic,  pancreatic, 
and  mesenteric  veins  from  the  stomach,  spleen,  pancreas,  and 
mesentery  respectively,  brings  blood  for  purification.  The  liver 
consists  of  innumerable  hexagonal  cells,  between  which  the 
capillaries  run.  These  cells  take  out  certain  substances,  and 
the  rest  of  the  blood  then  passes  away  by  the  hepatic  vein.  From 
certain  of  these  materials  the  liver  forms  bile,  thus  removing 
excesses  of  carbon  and  hydrogen.  The  bile  is  taken  away  by 
the  hepatic  duct,  and  stored  up  in  the  gall-bladder  for  use  during 
digestion.  The  gall-bladder  is  absent  in  the  horse  and  rat.  The 
liver  also  forms  glycogen,  a  kind  of  animal  sugar,  which  it  stores 
up,  letting  it  pass  gradually  into  the  blood  in  small  quantities 
only.     A  waste  of  this  body  is  thus  prevented. 

The  Heart  and  Circulation. — The  heart  is  a  hollow  muscle  of 
conical  shape,  lying  slightly  to  the  left  side  of  the  thorax  or 
chest.  It  is  about  eight  inches  long,  and  weighs  six  and  a  half 
pounds  in  the  horse.  It  consists  of  four  chambers,  two  auricles 
at  the  base,  two  ventricles  towards  the  apex.  The  left  -ventricle 
is  the  largest,  takes  in  the  apex,  and  has  thick  strong  walls. 
The  blood  comes  into  the  heart  by  the  two  venae  cavse,  the 
anterior  from  the  head,  and  the  posterior  from  the  hinder 
extremities.  It  enters  the  right  auricle,  passes  through  the 
tricuspid  valves  into  the  right  ventricle,  from  whence  it  is  forced 
by  contraction  of  the  ventricle  through  the  pulmonary  artery 
to  the  lungs.  There  it  gets  its  carbonic  acid  gas  changed  for 
oxygen,  and  comes  back  by  the  pulmonary  veins  to  the  left  auricle. 
The  blood  then  passes  the  bicuspid  valves  into  the  left  ventricle 
and  is  pumped  all  over  the  body,  through  the  aorta.  The  various 
arteries  which  branch  off  from  the  aorta,  break  up  into  finer  and 
finer  bloodvessels,  until  they  at  last  have  such  delicate  coats  that 
nourishment  can  pass  from  the  blood  to  the  various  cells,  while 
waste  matters  are  taken  up  by  the  blood.  These  minute  vessels 
are  called  capillaries.  These  gradually  unite  to  form  veins, 
which  carry  the  blood  again  to  the  heart.     The  uses  of  the  blood 


ANATOMY   AND   PHYSIOLOGY   OF   FARM    ANIMALS.      21/ 

are  (i)  to  convey  nourishment  to  different  parts  of  the  body, 
(2)  to  carry  oxygen  to  the  various  cells,  (3)  to  regulate  the  heat 
of  the  body. 

The  number  of  beats  of  the  heart  in  the  horse  amounts  to 
thirty-six  or  forty  per  minute,  in  cattle  sixty  to  seventy,  in  the 
sheep  and  pig  seventy  to  eighty. 

The  Lungs  and  Respiration. — The  lungs  are  two  large  elastic 
structures,  situated  in  the  right  and  left  sides  of  the  thorax,  and 
nearly  filling  that  cavity.  They  are  invested  with  a  covering  called 
the  "pleura."  The  lungs  communicate  with  the  nostrils  and 
mouth  by  means  of  a  tube  known  as  the  "trachea."  This  has 
semicircular  rings  of  cartilage  in  front,  which  cause  it  to  have  the 
necessary  rigidity.  The  opening  into  the  trachea  is  called  the 
"  glottis,"  and  is  surmounted  by  a  cartilaginous  prominence  known 
as  the  epiglottis.  This  remains  open  during  respiration,  but  in 
swallowing  it  is  pressed  down  over  the  opening  into  the  windpipe 
by  the  back  of  the  tongue,  thus  preventing  any  solid  or  fluid 
bodies  from  entering  the  lungs.  In  the  first  part  of  the  trachea, 
known  as  the  larynx,  the  vocal  cords  or  organs  of  sound  are 
situated.  Near  the  lungs  the  trachea  divides  into  the  right  and 
left  bronchi,  which  enter  the  lungs  and  break  up  into  finer 
and  finer  bronchial  tubes.  These  end  in  little  air-sacs,  and  here 
the  exchange  of  carbonic  acid  gas  contained  by  the  blood  for 
the  oxygen  of  the  air  takes  place.  The  oxygen  is  now  held  in 
a  sort  of  loose  combination  by  the  haemoglobin  of  the  red 
corpuscles  of  the  blood,  and  is  carried  away  by  the  pulmonary 
veins  to  the  heart.  The  blood  coming  to  the  lungs  is  called 
venous  blood,  and  is  of  a  dark  purple  colour.  That  going  away 
is  arterial  blood,  and  is  bright  scarlet  in  colour.  The  air  passes 
into  the  lungs  because  of  the  following  changes  which  increase 
their  volume  :  (i)  the  diaphragm  is  drawn  back  within  the 
abdomen,  (2)  the  ribs  are  pulled  forward,  (3)  the  air  rushes  in, 
and  the  lungs  expand  owing  to  their  elastic  nature.  They  con- 
tract (i)  because  the  diaphragm  is  brought  forward,  (2)  the  ribs 
are  depressed,  (3)  the  atmosphere  presses  upon  them. 

The  horse  breathes  ten  to  twelve  times  per  minute,  the  ox 
fifteen  to  eighteen.  The  difference  between  expired  and  inspired 
air  is  that  the  former  contains  4  or  5  per  cent,  more  carbonic 
acid  gas,  and  consequently  that  amount  less  of  oxygen.  It  also 
contains  small  quantities  of  moisture  and  organic  matters. 
Inspired  air  consists  of  79  per  cent,  nitrogen,  20*5  per  cent 
oxygen,  0*04  per  cent,  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  traces  of 
moisture. 

The  Heat  of  the  Animal  Body. — The  heat  of  the  animal  body 
is  kept  up  by  the  oxidation  of  the  carbonaceous  matter  in  the 


2l8  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

tissues,  and  is  nearly  always  the  same  degree  in  temperature. 
The  normal  temperature  of  the  horse  is  ioo°  F.,  of  the  ox  102°  F., 
of  the  sheep  103°  F.,  and  of  the  pig  102*5°  F.  During  the  oxida- 
tion, the  carbon  unites  with  oxygen  to  form  carbonic  acid  gas 
(CO2),  while  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  combine  and  produce 
water.  These  bodies  are  taken  up  by  the  blood,  and  got  rid  of 
chiefly  by  the  lungs.  As  the  heat  of  the  body  must  be  kept  at 
a  constant  temperature,  certain  provisions  are  made  for  doing  so. 
Thus,  in  the  hot  periods  of  summer,  there  is  a  tendency  for  the 
blood  to  go  to  the  skin,  where  part  of  the  water,  with  salts  in 
solution,  is  taken  up  by  the  sweat-glands  and  poured  over  the 
surface  of  the  skin.  The  extra  heat  of  the  body  is  then  taken 
up  in  evaporating  this  moisture.  In  cold  weather  the  blood 
leaves  the  skin  somewhat,  and  hence  is  not  chilled  readily.  It 
will  be  seen  that  it  is  best  to  keep  the  animal  in  a  place 
having  a  mean  temperature,  and  not  in  one  very  warm  or 
very  cold. 

The  Kidneys. — The  kidneys  are  two  bodies,  heart-shaped  in  the 
horse,  lobulated  in  cattle,  situated  in  the  loins,  one  on  each  side 
of  the  lumbar  vertebra.  They  are  surrounded  by  a  capsule,  and 
are  held  in  their  places  by  their  vessels  and  by  areolar  tissue 
usually  containing  numerous  fat-globules.  From  the  concave  side 
of  each  there  descends  a  tube  called  the  "  ureter,"  leading  into  the 
bladder.  Each  kidney  consists  of  an  outer  cortical  portion  and 
an  inner  medullary  part.  The  cortical  portion  contains  small 
bodies  (of  Malpighi)  which  take  water  and  various  waste  matters 
from  the  blood  supplied  by  the  different  branches  of  the  renal 
artery.  This  waste  material  is  carried  by  small  tubes  into  the 
ureters,  and  thence  into  the  bladder.  It  is  evacuated  from  the 
bladder  by  the  urethra. 

The  amount  of  renal  excretion  varies  greatly.  In  summer 
with  more  perspiration  there  is  less  got  rid  of  by  the  kidneys. 

The  Nervous  System. — There  are  two  great  systems  of  nerves  : 
(i)  the  cerebro-spinal,  consisting  of  the  brain,  the  spinal  cord,  and 
the  nerves  given  oif  from  them  ;  (2)  the  sympathetic,  formed  of 
ganglia  (knots)  of  nervous  matter,  which  gives  off"  nerve  fibres. 
Each  nerve  consists  of  numerous  grey  and  white  fibres  bound 
together  by  a  delicate  sheath  of  connective  tissue  known  as 
the  "  neurilemma."  The  brain  and  spinal  cord  consist  chiefly  of 
grey  matter.  There  are  twelve  pairs  of  nerves  coming  off  from 
the  brain,  which  carry  various  impressions  to  and  from  the  brain 
or  spinal  cord.  The  latter  runs  along  the  spinal  canal  of  the 
vertebra.  When  a  sensation  goes  to  the  spinal  cord,  but  not 
to  the  brain,  and  from  the  former  nervous  centre  an  impression 
goes  to  the   part,  reflex  action  is  said  to  take  place.      For  an 


ANATOMY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY  OF   FARM  ANIMALS.      219 

example,  prick  the  limb  of  a  horse,  when  it  will  be  at  once  with- 
drawn. If  the  spinal  cord  be  cut  right  through,  no  sensation  is 
felt  and  no  motion  can  be  performed  by  the  part  posterior  to 
the  cut  If  the  inferior  roots  of  the  spinal  cord  at  a  limb  be  cut 
through,  the  animal  will  not  be  able  to  move  that  limb,  but 
sensation  will  be  unimpaired.  If,  however,  the  superior  roots  be 
cut  through,  sensation  is  lost  in  the  limb,  but  motive  power  is 
retained.  Should  half  of  the  spinal  cord  be  destroyed,  motion 
is  lost  on  the  side  of  the  cut  and  sensation  on  the  opposite 
side. 

Hair  and  Wool. — Hair  and  wool  are  the  natural  protection 
of  the  animal  from  cold,  and  in  consequence  of  this  are  always 
thicker  in  winter  than  in  summer.  Each  hair  grows  from  a 
follicle,  which,  by  producing  fresh  cells,  pushes  the  previous 
portion  farther  out.  In  the  centre  of  the  hair  are  numerous 
fibres  or  elongated  cells  placed  end  to  end.  Towards  the  outside 
the  cells  are  flattened  and  overlap  each  other  in  an  oblique 
manner.  The  cells  are  cemented  together  by  an  adhesive  sub- 
stance which  is  secreted  as  the  hair  grows.  The  edges  of  a  hair 
or  a  wool  fibre  have  a  serrated  appearance.  Both  have  minute 
muscles,  and  also  sebaceous  glands.  These  sebaceous  glands 
secrete  an  oily  fluid,  constituting  the  "  yolk "  of  wool,  which 
may  amount  to  half  the  weight  of  the  wool.  The  "yolk" 
consists  of  (i)  suint,  a  compound  of  a  nitrogenous  organic  acid 
with  potash,  and  (2)  fat.  These  disappear  when  the  sheep  is 
poorly  fed,  and  leave  the  wool  harsh  and  brittle. 

The  horse  sheds  his'hair  twice  a  year,  in  spring  and  autumn. 
The  nourishment  in  the  hair  dries  up,  and  thus  the  hairs  shrink 
and  easily  fall  off".  In  spring  shorter,  and  in  autumn  longer, 
hairs  grow.     The  tail  never  sheds  any  hairs. 

Wool-shearing  usually  takes  place  about  May.  Sheep  are 
generally  clipped  when  the  wool  is  well  "  risen " — that  is,  when 
it  begins  to  shed. 

The  Foot  is  made  up  of  the  hoof,  the  sensitive  laminae,  and  the 
bones.  The  latter  are  the  coffin  bone,  or  os  pedis,  the  navicular 
bone,  and  part  of  the  os  coronae.  The  hoof  consists  of  (i)  the 
walls,  which  bend  round  behind,  and  curve  inwards  in  a  triangular 
manner,  forming  the  bars  ;  (2)  the  frog,  or  part  between  the  bars ; 
(3)  the  sole.  The  interior  of  the  foot  is  well  supplied  with  blood- 
vessels and  nerves,  and  is,  on  the  whole,  highly  sensitive.  The 
bloodvessels  break  up  into  large  numbers  of  capillaries  which 
ramify  through  the  coffin  bone,  causing  it  to  have  a  worm-eaten 
appearance.  Near  the  top  of  the  hoof  is  a  band  of  tissue  known 
as  the  Coronary  band,  which  secretes  the  fibrous  tubes  forming  the 
horny  hoof.       This   may   be    torn  down   as  in   *'  treads,"  thus 


220  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

causing  an  imperfect  secretion  of  horn.  It  should  be  remembered 
in  shoeing  never  to  pare  down  too  much  of  the  hoof,  and  not  to 
cut  the  frog.  Just  clear  away  the  ragged  portion,  and  never  rasp 
the  hoof,  as  this  makes  it  brittle.  The  hoof,  it  may  be  noted, 
is  made  up  of  minute  tubes,  running  from  top  to  bottom,  and 
containing  a  gelatinous  fluid,  which  is  of  great  importance  in 
preserving  the  elasticity  of  the  foot. 


CHAPTER  Vr. 

VETERINARY    SCIENCE. 

All  the  functions  and  actions  of  the  hving  body  are  more  or 
less  due  to  a  stimulus  or  irritant  of  a  vital  character  applied 
directly  or  indirectly  and,  to  maintain  a  healthy  condition,  it  is 
highly  necessary  that  the  fluids  and  solids  of  the  body  be  of  a 
normal  standard.  In  order  to  attain  this  end,  certain  materials 
called  "foods  "  are  required  to  replace  the  ever-changing  matters 
still  going  on. 

The  process  by  which  these  food  substances  carry  out  the 
above  function  is  termed  Nutrition  ;  and  to  have  healthy  nutrition 
it  is  important  that — 

(i)  The  structure  or  parts  to  be  nourished  be  in  a  healthy 
condition. 

(2)  The  supply  of  blood  be  not  too  far  away,  and  be  of  proper 
quality. 

(3)  The  heat  of  the  part  be  of  a  normal  standard. 

(4)  All  the  functions  should  be  under  the  influence  of  the 
nervous  system. 

Circumstances,  however,  arise  which  interfere  with  the  equili- 
brium, and  disordered  or  diseased  action  is  the  result.  Health 
and  disease,  like  daylight  and  darkness,  are  so  blended  that  we 
cannot  tell  where  one  stops  and  the  other  begins. 

The  first  and  most  extensive  interference  with  this  normal 
state  is  that  of — 


Inflammation 


which,  like  fire  and  water,  is  a  good  servant,  but  a  bad  master. 

Inflammation  is  both  reparative  and  destructive.  It  is 
reparative  when  we  require  its  aid  in  the  healing  of  wounds 
caused  by  injury  or  the  surgeon's  knife,  or  in  the  union  of  broken 
bones ;  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  medical  practitioner  to  keep  it 


222  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

within  bounds.  Should  it  get  beyond  control,  its  destructive 
properties  are  developed,  and  harm  results. 

Therefore,  inflammation  may  be  defined  as  an  increased 
nutritive  action  in  the  first  stage ;  secondly,  as  a  perverted  mole- 
cular or  structural  change  in  the  tissues  of  the  part,  with  heat, 
pain,  redness,  and  swelling. 

The  first  action  of  inflammation  is  the  contraction  of  the 
vessels,  as  witnessed  by  the  sharp  cut  of  a  finger — the  blood  does 
not  flow  for  a  few  moments.  Next,  dilatation  occurs,  with  a 
crowding  of  the  corpuscles  in  the  vessels  of  the  part,  thus  blocking 
up  the  passage.  The  corpuscles  then  become  changed,  and 
appear  as  if  glued  together.  The  watery  portion  {liquor  sanguinis) 
of  the  blood  oozes  out  into  the  surrounding  tissue,  the  vessels 
finally  give  way,  the  nerves  lose  their  tone,  and  the  part  becomes, 
as  if  it  were,  demoralized.  That  the  structures  play  an  important 
part  in  inflammation  cannot  be  doubted,  as  the  blood  has  the 
same  appearance  after  it  leaves  the  inflamed  part  as  it  had  before. 
The  various  changes  mentioned  above  may  be  observed  very  well 
by  pricking  the  web  of  a  frog's  foot  with  a  pin  while  under  the 
microscope. 

Heat  is  caused  by  the  amount  of  blood  sent  to  the  part,  with 
chemical  action  and  pressure  on  the  nerve  filaments. 

Pain  results  from  the  pressure  of  the  effused  material  irritat- 
ing the  nerves.  It  differs  in  various  parts,  being  sometimes  sharp 
and  cutting,  again  dull,  then  throbbing  and  acute. 

Redness  is  due  to  the  accumulation  of  the  red  corpuscles  and 
extravasation  of  the  material. 

Swelling  is  due  to  congestion  and  exudation.  Yet  we  can 
have  swelling  without  inflammation,  as  in  dropsy,  nettle-rash,  and 
general  debility. 

Inflammation  may  be  acute,  sub-acute,  or  chronic,  and  is 
influenced  very  much  by  the  nature  and  temperament  of  the 
patient. 

In  the  robust  and  well-fed  we  may  have  it  in  a  sthenic  form, 
and  in  the  ill-fed  and  weak  in  an  asthenic  form.  Therefore  the 
attention  of  the  practitioner  has  to  be  called  to  these  various  forms, 
as  they  require  a  different  plan  of  treatment. 

Every  attention  must  be  given  towards  bringing  the  disease  to 
a  favourable  end.  The  various  terminations  of  inflammation 
are — 

(i)  Resolution. 

(2)  Effusion  and  adhesion. 

(3)  Suppuration. 

(4)  Ulceration. 

(5)  Gangrene  or  mortification. 


VETERINARY   SCIENCE.  223 

1.  Resolution — when,  by  suitable  treatment  and  appliances, 
the  parts  have  been  resolved  into  their  normal  condition  without 
injury  to  the  structure  or  parts.  The  bloodvessels  and  blood 
resume  their  normal  functions,  and  the  effusion  is  absorbed. 

2.  Effusion  and  Adhesion. — The  former  is  due  to  the  effused 
watery  portions  of  the  blood,  with  fibrous  deposit,  being  thrown 
off  into  a  cavity  like  the  chest,  as  in  pleurisy  or  injury  to  a  young 
horse's  shoulder  from  a  nip  with  the  collar.  Adhesion  is  seen 
in  pleurisy  where  fibrous  bands  are  found  joining  the  lungs  to  the 
ribs,  or  in  the  healing  of  newly  made  wounds.  It  is  also  seen  in 
joints  and  sheaths  of  tendons. 

3.  Suppuration.  —  Failing  to  establish  resolution,  the  best 
endeavour  should  be  made  to  hurry  on  the  suppurative  process, 
or  the  formation  of  matter.  In  extensive  lacerations,  cold  and 
hot  water,  poultices,  liniments,  and  blisters  are  to  be  resorted  to, 
according  to  the  circumstances  of  the  case.  Personally,  the  writer 
is  an  advocate  for  the  continuous  application  of  cold-water 
dressings.  Not  only  does  it  keep  the  inflammation  in  check  by 
the  endosmotic  and  exosmotic  laws,  but  it  gives  tone  to  the 
neighbouring  structures,  and  assists  in  curtailing  the  spread  of  the 
inflammation  and  in  the  formation  of  healthy  pus  or  matter.  The 
best  example  of  an  abscess  is  that  of  strangles  in  young  horses. 

Many  varieties  of  pus ^  or  matter,  are  met  with,  all  of  which 
have  a  special  aspect  to  the  practitioner. 

(i)  Laudable — fine  creamy  matter.     Most  desirable. 

(2)  Putrid — very  rare. 

(3)  Sanious — mixed  with  blood. 

(4)  Scrofulous — watery  and  of  curdy  character. 

(5)  Specific — dangerous  and  contagious,  as  it  contains  disease 
germs. 

(6)  Superficial  —  seen  on  inflamed  mucous  surfaces,  as  in 
bronchitis. 

4.  Ulceration  is  an  excess  of  absorption  over  deposition,  with 
a  red,  raw,  pimply,  mattery  surface.  It  is  due  to  a  want  of  tone, 
and  is  found  in  parts  of  low  organization,  but  is  very  rare  both 
in  horses  and  cattle. 

Stimulating  treatment  with  nutritious  diet  is  to  be  recom- 
mended. 

5.  Gangrene  or  Mortification.— This  constitutes  death  of  a 
part,  and  is  at  times  due  to  intense  inflammation,  as  caused  by 
some  extensive  injury.  It  is  sometimes  seen  in  mares  and  cows 
after  difificult  parturition.  At  other  times  it  may  arise  from  a  very 
small  wound,  which  at  a  glance  may  appear  to  be  of  little  conse- 
quence, though,  from  some  peculiarity  in  the  system,  the  disease 
becomes   established.      This  is  the   most  formidable  of  all  the 


224  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

terminations  of  inflammation,  and  at  times  taxes  the  energy  of  the 
best  practitioner  to  the  very  uttermost.  In  extensive  lacerations 
and  injuries  the  writer  prefers  the  cold-water  treatment,  as  named 
under  *'  Suppuration." 

Hot  applications  tend  to  further  the  process  rather  than 
retard  it.  They  relax  the  neighbouring  parts,  and  prevent  the 
healthy  structures  throwing  off  the  diseased  portions. 

When  mortification  sets  in,  the  wound  has  a  dirty  brownish- 
green  watery  discharge.  The  surrounding  parts  are  distended 
and  have  a  bladdery  sound  ;  shivering  or  rigours  set  in  ;  breathing 
fastj  pulse  small  and  quiet;  cold  clammy  sweats;  head  hangs 
down ;  septicaemia,  or  blood-poisoning,  having  now  set  in.  At 
this  point  we  are  tempted  to  scarify  the  neighbouring  parts, 
which  should  not  be  done,  as  it  only  admits  the  air  to  the 
already  diseased  structures,  and  hurries  the  case  to  a  fatal 
termination. 

Every  portion  of  the  body  is  liable  to  inflammation.  The 
causes  are  various — some  remote,  others  apparent.  The  first 
object  in  view  in  the  treatment  of  inflammation,  or  any  other 
complaint,  is  to  find  out  the  cause,  and,  if  possible,  remove  it. 
The  treatment  of  inflammation  is  both  constitutional  and  local. 
Local  treatment  occurs  when  you  can  apply  certain  remedies 
directly  to  the  parts  affected,  as  the  application  of  poultices  to  the 
feet  in  Laminitis  and  Inflammation  of  the  Foot;  or  in  Weed, 
Inflammation  of  the  Leg,  when  hot  or  cold  applications  are  used, 
with  cooling  lotions,  etc.  Constitutional  treatment  depends  on 
the  cause,  the  temperament  of  the  patient  (whether  old  or  young, 
strong  or  weak),  the  extent  of  the  injury  or  inflammation,  the 
organ  affected,  and  the  amount  of  fever  or  constitutional  disturb- 
ance that  may  be  set  up.  Sympathetic  fever  is  always  more  or 
less  present  when  any  portion  of  the  body  is  under  the  influence 
of  inflammation. 

The  first  object  is  to  remove  the  patient  to  a  quiet,  cool,  well- 
aired  loose  box.  In  country  practice,  taking  from  four  to  eight 
quarts  of  blood  is  of  great  value,  if  performed  early  and  judi- 
ciously. This  is  more  particularly  the  case  when  the  animal  is 
in  too  high  condition,  as  we  cannot  purge  our  horses  and  cattle 
in  less  than  twelve  to  twenty-four,  and  even  up  to  forty-eight 
hours,  nor  can  we  make  them  perspire,  as  in  the  human  subject. 
Bleeding,  therefore,  is  of  greatest  importance  in  many  cases, 
sometimes  acting  so  well  that  no  further  treatment  is  required. 
Bleeding  should  not  be  resorted  to,  however,  except  by  the 
medical  attendant,  as  in  many  cases  it  has  a  very  injurious 
effect. 

Purgatives. — No   matter    what   disease   an   animal  may   be 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE.  225 

suffering  from,  the  action  of  the  bowels  is  more  or  less  arrested  ; 
cattle  also  cease  to  chew  the  cud.  The  purgatives  generally 
adopted  for  the  horse  are  aloes,  linseed,  and  castor  oils;  for 
the  cow  and  sheep,  salts,  linseed  and  castor  oils.  With  refer- 
ence to  administering  purgatives  to  horses,  the  writer  has  known 
a  large  number  of  valuable  animals  killed  by  the  injudicious 
administration  of  purgative  balls.  The  safest  plan  is  to  give  from 
half  to  one  pint  of  linseed  oil,  and  call  in  a  qualified  practitioner 
as  early  as  possible. 

Town  practice  differs  very  much  from  that  in  the  country. 
The  treatment  adopted  for  country  patients  would  often  kill  those 
in  towns.  The  same  thing  holds  good  for  animals  at  the  bottom 
of  a  coal-pit ;  they  have  to  be  treated  in  a  similar  manner  to  town 
animals. 

Simple  Fever  may  arise  without  any  apparent  cause,  by 
bringing  a  horse  for  the  first  time  from  the  field  to  a  hot  stable, 
by  driving  or  riding  hard,  and  then  putting  in  a  close  stable  or 
box ;  drinking  cold  water  when  heated ;  or  standing  in  a  draught. 
The  first  symptom  to  be  noticed  is  shivering,  or  trembling  all 
over.  This  may  not  be  seen  at  the  moment,  but,  when  observed, 
a  good  stimulant,  as  warm  ale,  whiskey,  or  ginger,  should  be  given. 
Clothe  the  body  well,  and  walk  the  animal  about.  This  may 
cause  the  attack  to  pass  off  without  further  trouble  ;  but  some- 
times the  fever  runs  its  course.  In  such  cases  the  breathing  is 
quickened,  the  nostrils  dilate,  head  hangs,  eye  bright  and  lid  red, 
temperature  104°  to  106°  F.,  pulse  full  and  strong.  The  treat- 
ment for  this  stage  is  to  remove  the  horse  to  a  cool  loose  box, 
clothe  well,  bandage  the  legs,  allow  the  animal  to  drink  water 
with  nitrate  of  potash  in,  and  send  for  a  qualified  man.  These 
symptoms  may  be  caused  by  a  debilitating  disease,  such  as  pink- 
eye, influenza,  etc.  The  treatment  is  very  different  to  that  of 
ordinary  fever,  having  to  be  of  an  antiseptic  and  stimulating 
character. 

Bones. — Like  the  soft  parts,  bone  is  subject  to  inflammation 
and  its  terminations. 

When  a  bone  is  inflamed  to  any  large  extent,  and  more 
especially  in  young  animals,  bony  matter  is  thrown  out.  In- 
stances of  this  are  seen  in  Splint^  found  on  the  inside  of  the  fore- 
leg ;  Spavifi,  found  on  the  lower  and  inner  parts  of  the  hock-joint, 
joining  the  head  of  the  shank-bone  of  the  hind  limb  ;  also  Ringbone, 
on  the  pastern-joints.  Like  inflammation  in  the  soft  parts,  the 
great  point  in  the  treatment  is  to  hurry  on  the  process  of  resolu- 
tion, and  form  pure  bony  deposit  (exostosis).  Faihng  this,  should 
the  inflammation  be  intense,  it  generally  ends  in  Caries,  or  ulcera- 
tion of  the  bone,  which  has  a  worm-eaten  appearance.     This  is 

Q 


226  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

found  at  the  hock-joints,  backbone,  and  stifle-joint ;  in  fact,  all  the 
bones  are  subject  to  this  form  of  disease.  The  pain  in  these 
cases  is  very  acute,  and  at  times  causes  a  great  amount  of  lame- 
ness, with  annoyance  and  vexation  to  the  practitioner.  However 
he  may  treat  the  disease,  it  will  still  continue  to  run  its  course, 
and,  if  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a  joint,  ends  in  Anchylosis^  or  stiff 
joint.  In  this  case  the  articular  cartilages  become  absorbed,  and 
the  ends  of  the  bones  unite  together. 

Anchylosis  is  most  frequently  seen  in  old  horses,  and  found 
principally  in  the  bones  of  the  back.  This  renders  such  animals 
very  difficult  to  cast,  and  the  operation,  if  necessary,  should 
always  be  done  with  ropes,  and  not  with  the  hobbles. 

Sometimes  inflammation  of  the  bone  runs  on  to  Necrosis, 
mortification  or  death  of  the  bone.  The  dead  portion,  in  some 
instances,  is  thrown  off  and  sequestered  by  a  bony  deposit  forming 
round  it.  This  at  times  produces  very  unpleasant  sores,  and 
requires  a  surgical  operation  for  the  removal  of  the  piece. 

Rickets,  or  softening  of  the  bone,  is  very  seldom  seen  in  foals 
and  calves,  but  frequently  in  pigs  and  dogs.  It  is  due  to  a  want 
of  earthy  matter  in  the  bone.  In  these  cases  it  is  necessary  that 
the  animals  have  warm  comfortable  beds,  and  on  no  occasion 
should  they  be  allowed  to  sleep  on  stone  or  flagged  floors.  Good 
nutritious  diet,  with  plenty  of  well-boiled  oatmeal  porridge  and 
milk,  mixed  with  a  little  lime-water,  must  be  given.  If  any  febrile 
symptoms  are  present,  small  doses  of  linseed  or  castor  oil  can 
be  administered,  following  up  with  half  an  ounce  to  one  ounce 
doses  of  Parish's  Chemical  Food  (syrup  of  phosphates  of  potash, 
soda,  lime  and  iron). 

Some  breeds  of  cattle  are  subject  to  a  disease  of  the  bone  and 
flesh  combined,  called  Osteo  Sarcoma.  It  is  frequently  seen  in 
the  bones  of  the  head,  jaws,  and  ribs,  and  in  many  cases  advances 
so  insiduously  and  without  apparent  pain,  that  all  the  molar 
teeth  on  the  side  affected  fall  out  before  it  is  noticed.  The 
animal  continues  to  feed,  yet  gradually  loses  flesh.  There  is 
no  cure,  the  malady  being  of  a  cancerous  nature. 

Fine-bred  cattle  are  subject  to  scrofulous  or  tubercular  dis- 
ease of  the  bones,  affecting  the  knee,  stifle,  and,  in  fact,  any  part 
of  the  bony  structure.  It  is  frequently  found  in  the  vertebral 
chain,  causing  partial  paralysis  of  the  extremities.  In  these  cases 
the  butcher  is  of  more  service  than  the  vet. 

The  bones  of  the  domestic  animals,  like  all  others,  are  subject 
to  Fracture.  This  may  be  defined  as  a  forcible  separation  of 
the  cohesive  particles  of  a  hard  substance  into  two  or  more 
parts.     Fractures  are  of  various  kinds. 

I.  Shnple fracture :  where  the  bone  is  simply  broken  in  two. 


VETERINARY   SCIENCE.  227 

2.  Compound — where  the  flesh  is  implicated  with  the  broken 
ends  of  the  bones. 

3.  Compound  comminuted — where  the  bone  is  smashed  into 
several  pieces,  and  the  tissues  surrounding  it  are  lacerated. 

4.  Complicated — where  the  joint  or  bloodvessels  are  involved. 

Fractures  in  the  cow,  sheep,  and  dog,  when  of  not  too  com- 
plicated a  character,  are  readily  reduced,  and,  with  suitable 
appliance,  make  good  recoveries.  Horses,  on  the  other  hand, 
from  their  irritability,  are  much  more  difficult  to  manage. 

Fractures  of  the  bones  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  extremities, 
or  those  covered  with  flesh,  at  times,  with  care  and  judicious 
treatment,  mend  very  satisfactorily.  The  small  bones  about  the 
feet  also  unite,  but  generally  with  a  stiff  or  anchylosed  joint ;  and 
treatment  should  always  be  attempted  in  the  case  of  a  good  brood 
mare  or  sire.  The  long  bones  of  the  extremities,  both  hind  and 
fore,  seldom,  if  ever,  unite  kindly,  and,  if  attempted,  at  times  form 
a  false  joint.     The  greater  percentage  have  to  be  destroyed. 

The  writer  has  seen  several  cases  of  fracture  of  the  oblique 
processes  of  the  cervical  vertebrae,  or  bones  of  the  neck,  caused  by 
the  animal  getting  the  hind-foot  shoe  fixed  in  the  head-collar.  In 
fighting  to  liberate  itself,  it  becomes  cast  in  the  stall  or  box,  and 
fracture  of  the  process  results.  The  head  in  these  cases  falls  to 
one  side  in  a  very  peculiar  fashion,  the  nose  almost  touching  the 
ground,  while  the  side  opposite  to  the  fracture  is  bulged  out,  the 
neck  having  all  the  appearances  of  being  dislocated.  These  cases 
are  amenable  to  treatment.  Put  on  a  good  double-shanked 
halter  and  tie  the  horse's  head  on  each  side,  with  a  strong  cradle 
round  the  neck. 

The  treatment  of  disease  or  fractures  of  the  bones  is,  of 
course,  entire  rest,  cool  box,  and  cold  water  applications  with  the 
hose-pipe  or  otherwise,  until  all  the  inflammatory  symptoms  are 
abated.  Follow  up  with  blistering  or-  firing,  as  the  case  may 
require.  Any  constitutional  disturbance  which  may  arise  must  be 
treated  accordingly. 

The  Horse's  Foot. 

The  late  Professor  Dick  used  to  say  that  "  the  human  hand 
was  a  subject  of  much  deserved  admiration ;  but  the  horse's  foot 
is  scarcely  less  an  object  of  wonder.  It  is  also  a  highly  vital  and 
complicated  organ,  essential  to  the  well-being  of  the  animal,  and 
pre-eminently  exposed  to  injuries.  On  a  minute  knowledge  of  its 
structure  and  the  uses  of  its  various  parts  depends  the  successful 
treatment  of  its  numerous  and  important  diseases,  which,  early  and 
accurately  discriminated,  may  often  be  speedily  remedied,  while, 


228  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

mistaken  and  neglected,  they  proceed  from  bad  to  worse,  until 
the  animal  is  good  for  nothing." 

For  the  structure  of  the  foot,  see  p.  219. 

On  the  sides  of  the  coffin  bone  are  two  cartilaginous  structures, 
called  the  "lateral  cartilages,"  which,  when  inflamed,  become 
ossified  and  form  what  are  called  Side-Bones.  They  are  mostly 
seen  in  certain  cart-horses  with  good  hard  flinty  hoofs,  narrow  heels, 
and  high  quarters.  They  are  rarely  seen  in  roadsters,  carriage- 
horses,  or  hunters,  or  flat-footed  cart-horses.  As  to  the  cause  of 
the  disease,  although  hereditary  tendency  may  have  something  to 
do  with  it,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer  it  is  chiefly  due  to  the 
shoeing  of  young  horses  with  high-heeled  shoes.  This  removes 
the  frog  from  the  centre  of  bearing,  destroying  its  function,  and 
throwing  the  weight  on  the  lateral  cartilages.  Inflammation,  with 
ossification  of  these  cartilages,  is  the  result. 

Owing  to  the  different  forms  of  feet  that  are  met  with,  and 
the  hard  roads  on  which  horses  have  to  travel,  shoeing  becomes 
a  matter  of  vast  importance.  Not  only  should  the  shoeing- 
smith  be  acquainted  with  the  anatomy  and  the  functions  of  the 
diff'erent  organs  of  the  foot,  but  he  should  be  able  to  frame  a  shoe 
suitable  to  any  variety  of  foot,  and  also  punch  the  nail-holes  to 
the  different  angles. 

Young  horses,  when  brought  in  from  grass  for  the  first  time, 
should  not  be  shod  for  fully  ten  days  or  a  fortnight  after  bringing 
in  from  the  pasture.  The  shoes  should  not  on  any  account  be 
applied  when  too  hot.  The  writer  has  seen  on  many  occasions 
inflammation  of  the  feet,  or  laminitis,  produced  by  the  application 
of  a  hot  shoe  on  the  same  day  as  the  animal  was  taken  from  the 
field. 

Laminitis,  or  Inflammafioft  of  the  Sensitive  La7nina,  is  a  very  for- 
midable disease,  and  produced  by  many  different  causes— such  as 
overfeeding;  drinking  cold  water  when  heated ;  travelHng  in  snow ; 
too  much  Indian  corn,  boiled  wheat,  or  potatoes ;  inflammation 
going  from  the  lungs  or  intestines  to  the  feet ;  over-dose  of  physic, 
setting  up  excessive  purging ;  and  from  retention  of  the  placenta 
or  after-birth  in  mares  after  foaling.  With  reference  to  the  latter 
point,  the  after-birth  in  a  mare  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain 
more  than  six  hours. 

In  all  cases  of  laminitis,  the  shoes  should  be  removed  imme- 
diately, and  the  feet  put  into  cold-water  bran  poultices  and  kept 
constantly  wet  with  cold  water.  The  animals  should  be  put  into 
a  loose  box  and  frequently  moved  about 

The  Diseases  of  the  Feet  are  many,  and  in  all  cases  of  lame- 
ness examine  the  foot,  even  if  certain  that  the  leg  is  broken. 

Simple  Pricks  or  Punctures  may  be  caused  by  picking  up 


VETERINARY   SCIENCE.  229 

nails  on  the  road,  or  by  bad  shoeing.  If  not  promptly  attended 
they  may  lead  to  bad  results,  and  even  produce  Lock-jaw.  Remove 
the  shoe,  search  the  foot,  and  put  on  cold-water  poultices ;  give 
the  horse  rest. 

Corns  are  generally  found  on  the  inner  corner  of  the  foot, 
between  the  bar  and  the  crust ;  hunters  are  most  subject  to 
them,  on  account  of  their  being  shod  with  short  shoes. 

The  corn  is  caused  by  a  bruise — an  infiltration  of  blood  into 
the  horny  substance.  Sometimes  they  are  very  troublesome,  and 
produce  a  great  deal  of  lameness.  Remove  the  pressure  of  the 
shoe,  and  poultice  if  necessary. 

Seedy  Toe  is  a  crumbling  of  the  horn  into  small  particles 
resembling  sawdust.  It  is  due  to  some  injury  which  prevents  the 
proper  secretion  of  the  horn.  Lameness  may  or  may  not  result, 
but  the  complaint  requires  long  and  patient  treatment. 

Sandcrack. — Some  breeds  are  predisposed  to  this.  It  is  a 
forcible  separation  of  the  horny  fibres,  forming  a  fissure  at  the 
top  of  the  hoof,  at  times  extending  to  the  bottom,  found  chiefly  in 
perpendicular  and  brittle  feet,  and  in  many  cases  causing  great 
lameness.  When  inflammation  is  present,  reduce  it  by  cold  appli- 
cations. It  is  needless  to  say  that  rest  is  required.  This  affection 
is  looked  upon  as  indicating  unsoundness. 

Quittor  is  due  to  sinuses  in  the  foot  with  one  or  more  fistulous 
openings,  and  is  caused  by  some  injury.  It  is  chiefly  found  in 
pit  and  railway  horses,  and,  being  of  a  somewhat  difiicult  nature 
to  deal  with,  requires  the  attention  of  a  qualified  practitioner. 

False  Quarter  is  due  to  treads  or  injury  to  the  coronary  frog- 
band,  one  portion  of  horn  over-growing  another.  This  must 
be  carefully  looked  for  in  examination  as  to  soundness. 

Canker  is  a  fungoid  disease  of  a  very  unpleasant  and  formid- 
able character,  and  very  difficult  to  treat.  It  is  generally  caused 
by  the  animals  being  kept  in  filthy  boxes. 

Thrush  is  a  fcetid  discharge  from  the  cleft  of  the  frog, 
generally  arising  from  want  of  exercise  and  proper  sanitation. 
Washing  two  or  three  times  a  week  with  salt  and  water  has  a 
salutary  effect. 

Fouls  in  the  feet  of  cattle  are  caused  by  the  animals  being 
housed  in  filthy,  wet  boxes.  The  best  treatment  is  to  wash  well 
with  cold  water,  and  apply  coLl-water  bran  poultices  made  up  with 
a  small  quantity  of  carbolic  acid  (not  more  than  one  tablespoonful) 
to  each  poultice.  The  pulling  of  a  rough  rope  through  the  cleft 
of  the  foot,  and  the  application  of  butyr  of  antimony  is  to  be 
strongly  condemned. 

Foot-rot  in  sheep  is  somewhat  analogous  to  the  last-named. 
It  is  mostly  found  in  well-bred  sheep,  pasturing  on  soft,  luxuriant 


230  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

grass  and  too  heavily  fed  with  artificial  food.  The  feet  require 
to  be  attended  to  twice  a  week,  paring  the  overgrowths  where 
necessary  and  dressing  with  some  antiseptic.  The  sheep,  if 
possible,  should  be  put  on  a  gravelly  fallow  field  for  a  few  hours 
each  day. 

Navicular  Disease,  or  Groggy  Horse. — This  disease  is  due  to 
inflammation  and  ulceration  of  the  navicular  bone,  implicating  the 
tendon  as  it  passes  over  this  bone  to  be  inserted  in  the  floor  of 
the  coffin  bone.  It  is  of  hereditary  character  and  found  in  the 
fore-feet,  more  particularly  of  half-bred  horses  with  upright 
pasterns.  Animals  doing  little  work  and  standing  in  the  stables 
most  of  their  time,  are  very  subject  to  it.  The  disease  is 
recognized  by  the  animal  going  on  its  toe  when  first  leaving  the 
stable,  and,  when  at  rest,  pointing  the  foot.  The  best  preventive 
is  daily  exercise  or  putting  into  a  loose  box.  Cold-water  swabs  to 
the  feet  when  the  horse  is  at  rest  are  very  useful.  Owing  to  the 
continued  irritation  going  on  in  the  foot  there  is  an  extra  growth 
of  horn  in  these  cases,  therefore  frequent  shoeing,  shortening  of 
the  toes,  and  thinning  of  the  soles  is  highly  necessary. 

The  Muscular  System. 

Muscles,  like  all  other  portions  of  the  body,  are  subject  to 
disease  and  injury.  The  most  frequent  troubles  are  caused  by 
Wounds  of  various  kinds. 

(i)  Incised  wounds — clean  cut  with  a  sharp  instrument. 

(2)  Bruised  wounds — caused  by  force. 

(3)  Lacerated  wounds— torn  asunder  by  force. 

(4)  Punctured  wounds— from  thorns  and  sharp-pointed  instru- 
ments. These  are  of  dangerous  character  and  require  prompt 
attention. 

(5)  Gunshot  wounds — balls,  bullets,  etc. 

(6)  Poisoned  wounds. 

Any  of  the  foregoing  wounds  may  heal  by  first  intention  or 
may  take  on  bad  ways  and  produce  abscesses,  tumours,  gangrene 
or  sloughing,  septicaemia  or  blood-poisoning,  pyaemia  or  abscess- 
forming,  all  over  the  body,  as  seen  in  bastard  strangles. 

The  local  treatment  is  first  to  arrest  the  haemorrhage  by  tying 
the  artery  or  vein.  Arterial  blood  comes  from  a  wound  in 
spurts,  and  is  bright  scarlet  in  colour;  to  stop  this,  a  ligature 
should  be  tied  above  the  wound  with  pressure  on  the  vessel. 
Venous  blood  is  of  a  dark  red  colour,  and  flows  in  a  continued 
stream  which  may  be  arrested  with  a  pad  of  tow  and  a  bandage 
applied  below  and  on  the  wound.  The  next  operation  is  to  draw 
the  lips  of  the  wound  together  with  stitches  or  sutures.     This  is 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE.  23 1 

done  with  a  suitable  needle  and  silk,  thread,  cord,  catgut,  or  silver 
wire.  The  part  is  covered  over  with  flexible  collodion  to  keep  the 
air  from  the  wound,  or,  where  practicable,  by  cold-water  bandages, 
which  must  be  kept  damp  until  there  is  a  healthy  discharge 
from  the  wound. 

Bruised  or  Contused  Wounds  are  caused  by  extensive  injuries ; 
kicks,  blows.  Where  the  wound  has  an  external  opening  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  injury  close  attention  is  required,  as  these  cases 
are  most  liable  to  take  on  the  form  of  septicaemia.  The  great 
object  is  to  keep  the  inflammation  within  bounds,  and  encourage 
its  reparative  action  and  the  formation  of  good  healthy  matter, 
or  pus,  for  which  purpose  nothing  is  better  than  cold-water 
applications. 

Lacerated  Punctured  Wounds  have  also  to  be  treated  in  a 
somewhat  similar  manner. 

Gunshot  Wounds.— Remove  the  ball  or  bullet  when  practi- 
cable, and  treat  as  for  bruised  wounds. 

Poisoned  Wounds  are  happily  rare,  except  in  cases  where 
cattle  and  sheep  having  wounds  in  their  skins  are  poisoned  by 
washing  or  dipping  with  arsenical  mixtures.  This  shows  how 
necessary  it  is  to  examine  the  skin  of  these  animals  before 
submitting  them  to  the  action  of  poisonous  preparations. 

Muscles,  at  times,  become  lacerated  without  an  external 
wound,  as  in  shoulder-slip  in  young  horses  when  first  put  to  the 
plough.  The  muscles  of  the  back  and  quarter  also  sufler  from 
falls  and  injuries.  At  first  the  parts  are  slightly  swollen,  then 
they  begin  to  waste  away,  and  long  rest,  with  a  run  at  grass,  is 
required  for  their  recovery. 

From  accidents  of  this  kind  we  sometimes  find  large  quantities 
of  clotted  blood,  owing  to  injury  to  a  vessel.  This  may  form 
either  a  tumour  or  an  abscess,  and  requires  special  treatment  to  get 
a  favourable  and  satisfactory  result.  For  instance.  Poll-evil 
is  an  injury  to  the  poll,  or  part  between  the  ears,  caused  by 
a  blow  or  too  heavy  a  head-stall.  This  is  a  rather  formidable 
complaint,  and  ought  to  be  put  into  the  hands  of  a  qualified 
practitioner. 

Fistulous  Withers  are  of  a  similar  nature,  and  require  prompt 
attention.  They  should  on  no  account  be  tampered  with  by  an 
amateur. 

The  Elbow  Joint  is  sometimes  bruised  by  kicks  or  improper 
shoeing,  the  horse  bruising  the  point  of  the  joint  by  lying  on  the 
heel  of  the  shoe.  The  injury  must  be  treated  with  hot  or  cold 
fomentations,  and  a  pad  put  on  the  fetlock  to  prevent  any  further 
damage. 

Broken  Knees  must  be  treated  as  recommended  under  bruised 


232  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

wounds.  Cleanse  the  parts  well,  dress  with  carbolized  oils,  put 
on  cold-water  bandages,  which  are  to  be  kept  moist  until  healthy 
action  is  established,  and  finally  dress  with  a  little  caustic 
lotion.  In  all  cases  tie  the  head  up  with  a  double-shanked  halter 
to  prevent  the  animal  lying  down. 

Wind-galls,  or  distension  of  the  synovial  bursse,  are  seen  at 
the  knee,  fetlocks,  and  more  particularly  at  the  hock-joint,  forming 
Bog  Spavin  and  Through-pin.  The  two  latter  are  mostly  seen  in 
Clydesdale  horses,  and  are  in  a  great  measure  due  to  over- 
feeding. They  can  also  be  produced  by  over-working  young 
horses.  The  treatment  is  rest,  indiarubber  bandages,  blistering, 
and  firing. 

Sprains  of  the  back  tendons  are  caused  by  over-exertion. 
Immediately  these  are  observed,  the  animal  ought  to  be  rested 
and  put  under  treatment,  as  they  are  almost  as  bad  to  treat  as 
a  broken  leg.  On  no  account  should  the  animal  be  worked  till 
fully  recovered. 

Some  classes  of  cart-horses  are  prone  to  a  hereditary  disease 
called  Luxation  of  the  Patella.  The  stifle  joint  becomes  dis- 
tended with  synovial  fluid;  the  cup,  or  patella,  slips  partly  ofl" 
to  the  outside  with  a  cracking  noise.  Animals  of  this  class  should 
never  be  bred  from,  nor  put  on  hilly  pastures. 

Repeated  blistering  and  long  turned-up-toed  shoes  are  recom- 
mended. 

The  patella  at  times  becomes  dislocated  by  the  animal  jump- 
ing up  suddenly  from  a  recumbent  position.  The  leg  is  held  in 
a  very  peculiar  position,  being  extended  backwards,  with  the  point 
of  the  toe  resting  on  the  ground,  and  the  sole  of  the  foot  turned 
upwards.  This  must  have  immediate  attention,  and  be  reduced 
as  quickly  as  possible. 

Curb  is  a  sprain  of  the  calcaneo-cuboid  ligament,  and  may  be 
caused  by  over-exertion  or  a  blow  from  a  kicking-horse.  When 
it  arises  suddenly,  the  animal  6hows  a  good  deal  of  pain  and 
lameness,  the  parts  are  swollen,  and  the  skin  tender.  These  must 
be  reduced  by  cold  applications,  bHstering,  and,  if  necessary,  fire. 
Some  hocks  have  naturally  a  curby  formation ;  but  it  is  only  due 
to  the  ridge  on  the  outside  of  the  joint  extending  too  far  behind, 
and  the  large  metatarsal  bone  being  set  too  far  back,  with  a  short 
OS  calcis.  These  joints  are  more  liable  to  take  on  curb  than  those 
that  are  well  developed. 

Capped  Hock  may  be  caused  by  the  horse  kicking  in  the  stable 
or  against  any  hard  substance.  The  point  of  the  hock  is  dis- 
tended and,  when  freshly  done,  is  very  painful.  If  merely  an 
effusion  under  the  skin,  it  may  be  removed  by  suitable  means. 
Should  it  extend  to  the  synovial  bursa  underneath,  it  is  of  more 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE.  233 

consequence  and  difficult  to  reduce,  while,  if  not  properly  treated, 
an  enlargement  is  left  which  is  a  great  eyesore.  Sometimes  it  is 
caused  by  the  animal  scraping  all  its  litter  to  one  side,  and  lying 
on  the  hard  floor  of  the  stall.  In  these  cases,  moss  litter  or 
sawdust  ought  to  be  used  for  bedding. 

Reduce  the  inflammation  by  cold  applications  and  mild 
stimulating  linaments ;  but  never  be  in  too  great  a  hurry  to  apply 
a  blister. 

Sesamoiditis. — This  is  a  sprain  of  the  tendon  passing  over 
the  back  part  of  the  fetlock  joint.  The  animal  goes  stiff  and 
sore,  stands  straight  up  on  the  pastern-joint,  with  slight  knuckling- 
over.  The  parts  are  found  on  examination  to  be  slightly  swollen, 
and  painful  to  the  touch. 

Rest,  with  cold-water  bandages,  until  the  inflammation  is 
reduced.     Blister  or  fire  afterwards,  if  necessary. 

In  connection  with  the  hind  leg,  a  complaint  is  known  which 
is  frequently  seen  on  a  Monday  morning,  and  called  Weed,  or 
Lymphangitis,  It  is  really  inflammation  of  the  absorbent  vessels 
running  up  the  inside  of  the  hind  limbs.  It  sometimes  occurs  in 
the  fore  limbs,  though  very  rarely.  Some  breeds  seem  to  be 
predisposed  to  it.  It  is  mostly  seen  in  cart-horses  with  gummy 
legs.  Sometimes  it  commences  with  a  shivering  fit,  the  animal 
has  great  pain,  and  can  scarcely  stir  the  limb,  the  perspiration 
rolls  off  the  body,  breathing  quick,  nostrils  dilated,  pulse  full  and 
strong,  inside  of  thigh  painful  to  the  touch,  the  absorbent  vessel 
very  much  distended,  and  like  a  great  cord  running  up  the  thigh. 
In  other  cases  the  disease  comes  on  slowly  and  quietly,  and  the 
acute  symptoms  are  not  observed.  When  discovered,  the  treat- 
ment should  be  as  follows  :  A  soft  meadow-hay  bandage  is  made, 
and  rolled  round  the  limb  from  the  bottom  to  the  top.  Down 
this,  pailfuls  of  cold  water  are  poured  every  two  hours ;  and  fine 
linseed  oil,  20  ozs.,  should  be  given,  together  with  nitrate  of  potash 
water  to  drink.  When  the  limb  begins  to  swell,  the  pain  and 
lameness  generally  pass  off,  and  the  swelling  is  then  reduced 
by  gentle  exercise,  with  tonic-diuretic  medicine. 

The  Respiratory  Organs. 

These  are  the  nostrils,  larynx,  trachea  or  windpipe,  bronchial 
tubes,  and  lungs.  The  ever-changing  state  of  the  atmosphere, 
with  the  various  conditions  under  which  domestic  animals  are 
placed,  renders  these  organs  very  liable  to  derangements. 

The  Nose  is  subject  to  tumours,  bot-worms,  injuries,  etc.,  and 
also  to  nasal  discharge  from  a  common  cold — Catarrh.  This  is 
frequently  seen  in  the  early  spring  months,  and,  however  simple 


234  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

it  may  be,  should  never  be  neglected,  as  it  might  terminate  in 
congestion  or  inflammation  of  the  lungs,  and  death,  or  in  a 
chronic  discharge  from  the  nostrils  called  Nasal  Grleet, 

When  observed,  the  animal  should  be  laid  off  work  at  once, 
and  put  into  a  well-ventilated  box  with  suitable  clothing ;  sloppy 
food  (green,  if  it  can  be  obtained),  carrots  and  potatoes ;  and  no- 
thing is  better  than  well-boiled,  sound  barley,  with  a  little  nitred 
water  to  drink. 

Occasionally  abscesses  form  in  the  sinuses  of  the  head  in 
connection  with  the  nasal  chambers.  This  might  be  due 
to  an  injury,  neglected  cold,  or  diseased  teeth.  In  these  cases 
we  have  a  thick  discharge,  sometimes  of  a  very  foetid  nature, 
from  the  nostrils.  For  relief  of  this,  the  operation  called  trephining 
has  to  be  resorted  to.  The  fearful  malady  called  G-landers  is, 
happily,  very  rarely  seen  in  country  practice,  and  not  so  frequently 
in  towns  as  it  was  some  years  ago.  It  is  a  very  contagious 
disease,  both  to  other  animals  and  to  the  human  subject ;  and  in 
all  cases  of  suspicion  the  aid  of  the  qualified  veterinary  prac- 
titioner must  be  resorted  to,  and  the  animal  destroyed  at  once. 
The  ulcerations  on  the  lining  membrane  of  the  nose,  and  also 
the  discharge,  have  peculiar  characteristics. 

Laryngitis,  or  Inflammation  of  the  Larynx^  is  due  to  sudden 
chills,  exposure  and  injuries.  The  throat  is  sore,  the  animal 
afraid  to  cough,  and,  in  drinking  water,  a  portion  comes  back 
through  the  nostrils.  The  throat  is  painful  to  the  touch,  nose 
poked  out,  and  sometimes  a  roaring  is  made  in  breathing.  Give 
good  nursing  as  recommended  under  "  Catarrh."  Constitutional 
disturbance,  when  present,  must  be  attended  to.  Give  nitrate- 
water  to  drink,  and  apply  stimulating  lotions  to  the  throat.  The 
bowels  must  have  attention,  and  be  regulated  with  the  diet  if 
possible.  Drenches  or  draughts  ought  never  to  be  given,  as  they 
are  very  dangerous.  This  complaint  should  never  be  neglected, 
as  it  may  terminate  in  that  incurable  disease  called  Roaring,  which 
is  the  result  of  inflammation  of  the  larynx,  from  injury  or  other 
causes,  and  a  wasting  of  the  muscles  on  the  left  side.  In  some 
cases  the  animals  become  so  oppressed  that  they  are  like  to  be 
suffocated.  Tracheotomy  has  then  to  be  resorted  to.  This  is 
a  simple  operation,  performed  by  cutting  into  the  windpipe  and 
inserting  a  tube.  There  are  several  modified  forms  of  roaring,  such 
as  whistling,  highblowing,  and  wheezing.  These  all  must  be  looked 
upon  with  suspicion,  as  they  usually  terminate  in  roaring.  This 
affection  is  considered  by  many  as  hereditary,  and,  we  need  scarcely 
say,  is  an  unsoundness.  Another  cause  is  Strangles.  This  is  a 
common  complaint  in  young  horses,  two  or  three  years  old, 
and  is  of  two  kinds — simple  and  complicated.     At  times  it  is 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE.  235 

considered  to  be  associated  with  the  casting  of  teeth  —  see 
remarks  on  "Teeth," — and  is  known  by  abscesses  forming 
at  the  angle  of  and  behind  the  jaw.  In  the  simple  form,  good 
nursing  and  proper  dieting  may  be  all  that  is  required.  The 
simple  form,  if  neglected,  may  terminate  in  the  Bastard 
Strangles,  in  which  abscesses  form  in  different  parts  of  the  body. 
They  sometimes  result  in  pytemia,  or  blood-poisoning.  Stock- 
owners  should  on  no  account  neglect  these  cases,  however  simple. 
A  sudden  chill  or  a  common  cold  may  bring  on  this  complaint ; 
therefore  horses  with  relaxed  systems  ought  never  to  be  exposed 
to  cold  east  winds  or  heavy  work.  Congestion  of  the  Lungs 
may  be  the  result,  and  death  take  place  in  four  or  five  hours ; 
or  it  may  end  in  Bronchitis,  inflammation  of  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  bronchial  tubes,  causing  great  debility  in  a 
short  time.  This  is  owing  to  the  lining  membranes  of  the  bron- 
chial tubes  becoming  thickened,  and  preventing  the  proper 
oxidation  of  the  blood.  Dark  carbonized  blood  is  accordingly 
sent  through  the  system,  and  acts  on  the  nerve  centres,  pro- 
ducing general  and  extensive  prostration,  or  the  case  may  end  in 
Inflammation  of  the  Lungs,  or  Pleurisy.  These  are  all  formidable 
complaints,  and  should  not  be  tinkered  with  by  amateurs.  The 
animal  should  at  once  be  put  under  the  treatment  recommended 
for  common  cold,  and  a  medical  practitioner  sent  for  without 
delay. 

Asthma,  or  Brokeit  Wind. — This  is  a  rupture  of  the  air- 
vessels  of  the  lungs,  and  not  amenable  to  treatment.  Cases  are 
met  with,  however,  where  all  the  symptoms  of  asthma  are  depicted, 
and  which  may  be  due  to  spasm  of  the  small  muscles  of  the  lesser 
bronchial  tubes.  By  proper  and  judicious  treatment  this  can  be 
relieved.  Although  a  disease  of  the  respiratory  system,  the  writer 
is  of  opinion  that  it  is  in  a  great  measure  due  to  injudicious 
feeding  and  driving.  The  complaint  is  not  so  rife  as  it  was  some 
years  ago. 

Cattle  suffer  from  a  great  many  complaints  of  the  respiratory 
organs,  similar  to  the  horse.  The  most  formidable  of  these  is 
Pleuro-pneumonia,  which  is  a  febrile  contagious  disease  of  the 
lungs.  Being  under  Government  regulations,  it  is  against  the  laws 
to  put  any  under  treatment. 

There  is  a  simple  form  of  pleuro-pneumonia  among  cattle,  the 
symptoms  of  which  are  analogous  to  those  of  the  contagious; 
which  are  falling  off  in  milk,  hurried  breathing,  with  peculiar 
grunt,  nose  poked  out,  ribs  flat,  standing  in  anxious  position,  with 
a  peculiar  tight  dry  cough.  Animals  should  be  isolated  at  once, 
and  medical  attendance  sent  for. 

Another  disease  affecting  the  chest  is  that  of  Tuberculosis, 


236  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Clyers,  or  Piners.  This  disease  is  of  hereditary  character,  found 
principally  among  fine-bred  cattle.  It  is  spread  more  by  the  male 
than  the  female,  for  the  simple  reason  that  a  diseased  male  animal 
has  from  one  hundred  to  two  hundred  chances  to  the  female's  four 
or  five  of  transmitting  the  complaint.  Therefore  animals,  no  matter 
how  well-bred  or  how  costly,  when  suffering  from  this  complaint 
ought  never  to  be  used  for  stock  purposes.  It  is  said  by  many  to 
be  contagious ;  in  certain  cases  it  may  be  so,  where  a  diseased 
animal  comes  in  contact  with  another  of  a  fine  delicate  organiza- 
tion with  a  hereditary  tendency  to  the  malady. 

Strange  to  say,  like  consumption  in  the  human  subject,  it 
most  frequently  establishes  its  action  when  the  animals  are  coming 
to  puberty.  It  is  said  to  be  due  to  a  bacillus ;  but  how  it  lies 
latent  for  such  a  time  in  the  system  is  a  mystery.  Although  a 
large  quantity  of  the  flesh  of  tubercular  animals  has  been,  and  is 
being,  consumed  by  the  human  subject,  there  is  no  case  on 
record  that  can  be  traced  as  to  the  tubercular  meat  being  the 
cause  of  death. 

The  milk  of  tubercular  animals  should  not  be  used  for  human 
consumption,  as  it  has  been  said  that  cases  of  consumption  in 
young  children  has  been  traced  to  its  use  (?). 

Therefore,  if  the  meat  and  the  milk  be  so  dangerous  for 
human  beings  as  some  people  say,  special  regulations  should  be 
made  by  the  Government  for  their  purchase  and  destruction. 
These  carcases  should  not  be  buried,  but  burned  in  a  furnace. 

Hoose,  or  Hitsk^  in  calves  is  due  to  little  white  worms,  called 
Filaria  bronchii.  It  is  caused  by  putting  young  calves,  from  four 
to  six  months  old,  out  to  graze  on  cold  wet  lands  in  the  autumn, 
more  particularly  during  wet  weather,  and  leaving  them  out  after 
sundown.  Numbers  of  animals  are  yearly  destroyed  by  this 
complaint,  which,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  is  very  easily  prevented, 
but  bad  to  cure.  Prevention  :  never  turn  the  young  animals  out 
until  over  twelve  months  old ;  keep  them  indoors  during  wet 
weather ;  dress  the  pastures  with  crushed  rock-salt  in  September 
and  March,  at  the  rate  of  five  to  seven  hundredweights  per  acre. 
The  treatment  is,  mild  doses  of  turpentine  and  oil,  or  fumigations 
with  chlorine  or  sulphurous  fumes.  Maintain  the  strength  with 
well-boiled  linseed  jelly  and  milk;  but  whenever  the  disease 
exists  it  is  entirely  the  breeder's  fault. 

Young  calves  at  times,  even  when  indoors,  may  contract  a 
Bronchitic  Cough.  This  is  sometimes  called,  and  mistaken  for, 
hoose,  but  is  quite  another  complaint.  It  is  simply  inflammation 
of  the  bronchial  tubes ;  and  no  parasites  are  found,  though  it  is 
frequently  associated  with  that  troublesome  complaint  called  white 
scour.     Good  nursing  and  sanitation  are  strongly  recommended. 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE.  237 

Associated  with  chest  affections  we  have  Distemper  in  dogs,  the 
treatment  for  which  is  good  nursing,  and  small  doses  of  hypo- 
sulphite of  soda  and  carbonate  of  ammonia,  with  warm,  comfort- 
able beds. 

The  Circulatory  System, 

Diseases  of  the  heart  are,  happily,  rare  in  the  horse,  the  prin- 
cipal one  being  that  of  Hypertrophy,  or  enlargement  of  the  heart, 
with  intermittent  pulse.  Animals  suffering  from  this  can  do  slow 
work  for  a  long  time,  but  ought  never  to  be  excited.  They  seem 
to  suffer  from  shortness  of  breath,  best  seen  when  bringing  a  load 
uphill.  The  patient  then  appears  oppressed,  and  has  frequent 
rests.  Scarcely  necessary  to  say,  quiet  easy  work  and  judicious 
feeding  are  required. 

Pericarditis — inflammation  of  the  sac  covering  the  heart. 
This  organ  is  more  or  less  affected  in  bad  cases  of  influenza,  or 
pinkeye ;  great  debility  and  prostration  result,  and  the  disease  at 
times  runs  its  course  very  quickly.  Over-fed  animals  may  suffer  from 
Fatty  Degeneration  of  the  heart.  This  class  of  horses  also  has  a 
tendency  Xo  fibrous  clots  forming  in  the  auricles  and  ventricles,  more, 
particularly  in  fat  stallions.  These  fibrous  deposits  are  increased 
by  bleeding,  therefore  fat  horses  ought  only  to  be  bled  with  great 
caution.  The  farrier,  in  the  old  days,  used  to  call  this  disease 
"  grease  at  the  heart,"  which  he  himself  had  produced  by  frequent 
bleeding.  Associated  with  chronic  heart  disease  we  have  swelling 
of  the  legs  and  other  dropsical  effusions,  with  irregular  pulse  and 
jerky  flow  of  blood  in  the  neck  vein. 

Cattle  suffer  more  from  heart  disease  than  horses,  but  it  is 
more  frequently  of  a  trau7naiic  character;  needles,  wire,  sharp 
nails,  and  other  foreign  bodies  finding  their  way  from  the  second 
stomach,  through  the  diaphragm,  to  the  heart  The  animal 
often  does  not  appear  to  be  ailing  anything  until  it  is  found 
dead,  and  the  post-mortem  reveals  a  foreign  body  sticking  in 
the  heart. 

The  writer  has  observed,  for  many  years  past,  chronic  pericar- 
ditis follow  the  retention  of  the  after-birth.  When  cattle  suffer 
from  heart  affections  the  animal  appears  stiff,  with  nose  poking 
out,  head  hanging  rather  low,  and,  although  feeding,  does  not  put 
on  flesh,  while,  if  a  milker,  the  secretion  is  more  or  less  suspended. 
The  best  symptom,  however,  is  the  enlargement  of  the  jugular 
vein  on  each  side  of  the  neck,  the  vessel  being  often  distended  to 
a  diameter  of  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches.  Dropsical  swellings 
are  also  seen  on  the  under  jaw,  under  side  of  neck,  and  brisket. 
As  there  is  no  remedy,  the  animal  must  be  slaughtered. 


238  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Young  calves,  under  twelve  months  old,  suffer  from  congestion 
of  this  organ.  The  cause  is  overfeeding  with  too  much  nitro- 
genous food,  more  particularly  decorticated  cotton  cake,  which 
ought  never  to  be  given  to  animals  under  one  year  old.  This 
complaint  usually  commences  with  a  dry,  husky  cough. 

The  blood-vessels  are  subject  to  dilatations  in  certain  diseases, 
especially  that  of  thrombi,  or  clots,  plugging  up  the  vessel.  When 
this  occurs  in  the  extremities,  the  animal  falls  suddenly  lame,  and 
is  scarcely  able  to  move  the  limb,  and  then  only  with  great  pain, 
while  perspiration  rolls  oif  the  body.  This  requires  long  rest  and 
patient  treatment.     The  attacks  come  on  suddenly,  like  paralysis. 

The  diseases  of  the  blood  are  many,  as  all  the  epidemics  are 
more  or  less  affections  of  the  blood  in  the  first  instance,  owing  to 
the  entrance  of  germs,  microbes,  and  bacteria.  When  these  get  a 
footing  into  the  system  they  rapidly  multiply. 

It  is  said  that  the  white  corpuscles,  or  leucocytes,  have  the 
power  of  destroying  these  microbes  when  first  taken  into  the 
blood.  At  times,  however,  they  will  not  attack  the  disease-pro- 
ducing germ.  The  latter  then  gets  master  of  the  system,  and  the 
malady  becomes  established. 

Black  Quarter,  or  Quarter  lll^  is  not  so  rife  as  it  was  formerly. 
The  improvement  is  possibly  due  to  the  better  drainage  of  the  land, 
and  a  more  systematic  mode  of  feeding.  It  usually  attacks  the  best 
furnished  and  finest  looking  animals,  and  is  known  by  a  crackling 
and  swelling  of  the  part  affected,  due  to  decomposition  of  the 
blood  in  this  part  with  evolution  of  gas.  It  attacks  animals 
from  four  months  to  three  years  old,  fifteen  to  sixteen  months 
being  the  most  critical  age.  There  are  many  modes  of  prevention 
put  forth.  The  writer  recommends  setoning  the  dewlap  of  the 
young  animals  at  the  back  end  of  the  year.  Never,  in  all  his 
practice,  has  he  seen  a  stirk  die  from  black  quarter  that  had  been 
setoned.  Some  localities  are  more  prone  to  it  than  others. 
These  lands  should  have  a  good  dressing  of  salt,  as  it  is  the 
cheapest  and  most  effective  germicide  in  nature. 

Rinderpest,  being  an  imported  disease,  affecting  cattle  in  a 
very  virulent  manner,  but  which  this  country  has  been  free  from 
for  some  time,  has,  it  is  to  be  hoped,  been  seen  the  last  of  by  the 
British  farmer. 

Foot  and  Mouth  Disease  is  an  epizootic,  infectious,  as  well  as 
contagious,  febrile  complaint,  of  a  vesicular  character,  affecting 
the  tongue,  cheeks,  digits,  and  udder  of  cattle,  sheep,  pigs,  goats, 
and  even  poultry.  The  symptoms  are  smacking  of  the  lips,  flow 
of  saliva  from  the  mouth,  lameness,  and  lifting  up  the  leg  as  if  the 
animal  was  walking  on  red-hot  bars.  Being  a  disease  under  the 
Contagious  Animals  Act,  treatment  is  not  allowed ;  but  chlorate 


VETERINARY   SCIENCE.  239 

of  potash,  in  half-ounce  doses  night  and  morning,  is  the  very  best 
specific 

Anthrax,  or  Spkfiic  Apoplexy,  is  a  disease  of  the  blood,  which 
will  be  referred  to  under  "Digestive  Organs." 

Azoturia  in  horses. — Although  an  affection  of  the  blood,  it  is' 
more  of  a  dietetic  character,  and  found  mostly  in  horses  having 
easy  berths — well  fed,  with  little  work.  It  is  generally  observed 
at  the  commencement  of  a  journey,  say  of  quarter-mile,  after  the 
horse  has  been  three  or  four  days  in  the  stable  without  exercise. 
The  animal  comes  out  of  the  stall  full  of  life  ;  but  does  not 
go  far  until  it  seems  as  if  wanting  to  stop,  and  the  hind  limbs 
appear  to  stiffen.  On  urging  the  animal  forward,  he  begins  to 
tremble  and  perspire,  and  finally  stops.  He  is  got  back 
to  the  stable  with  great  difficulty.  The  urine  is  of  a  dark 
coffee  colour,  the  loins  are  arched,  the  muscles  hard,  belly 
clicked  up,  breathing  hurried,  and  head  hanging.  If  a  mare, 
she  pains  as  if  in  the  act  of  foaling,  and,  in  straining,  ejects 
a  quantity  of  dark-coloured  fluid.  When  the  animal  gets  down, 
the  case  usually  terminates  very  unsatisfactorily.  The  dis- 
order appears  to  be  due  to  an  overloaded  state  of  the  system, 
and  no  doubt  it  is  so,  seeing  it  is  only  idle  well-fed  horses  that 
are  subject  to  the  attacks.  Again,  nature  shows  it  to  be  an 
over-burdened  state  of  the  system,  by  the  excessive  perspiration 
that  bedews  the  body,  and  the  solid  particles  ejected  by  the 
kidneys.  The  horses  also  take  a  long  time  to  purge.  If  there 
be  one  complaint  more  than  another  that  bleeding  will  relieve 
almost  instantly,  it  is  azoturia.  The  writer  has  seen,  over  and  over 
again,  cases  in  which,  six  hours  after  bleeding,  the  patients  seemed 
to  be  ailing  nothing.  Cases  which  have  not  been  bled  have  either 
ended  in  death  or  have  taken  weeks  for  recovery. 

Influenza,  or  Pinkeye,  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  disease  of  the 
blood,  affecting  sometimes  the  respiratory  organs,  at  other  times 
the  digestive  organs,  urinary  organs,  or  limbs.  It  must  be  treated 
according  to  the  symptoms  presented.  Being  of  a  debilitating 
character,  stimulating  treatment  is  generally  the  most  successful. 
Nothing  beats  good  nursing,  a  well-aired  loose  box,  clothing  the 
legs,  chlorate  of  potash  water  to  drink,  with  bran-tea  and  treacle. 
Purgatives  must  not  on  any  account  be  given,  except,  if  required, 
ten  ounces  raw  linseed  oil  at  the  onset,  and  repeated  in  ten  to 
twelve  hours  if  necessary.    As  a  sequel  to  this  complaint,  we  have — 

Purpura  Haemorrhagica. — This  is  known  by  swelling  of  the 
head  and  limbs,  and  purple  patches  lining  the  nostrils.  Good 
nursing,  with  suitable  food,  and  half-ounce  dozes  of  chlorate  of 
potash  in  drinking  water  are  the  chief  remedies.  Eggs  beaten  up 
in  milk,  if  the  animal  will  drink,  are  of  great  service. 


240  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Urticaria,  or  Nettle-rash^  is  frequently  seen  in  the  horse  in  the 
spring  and  autumn.  It  is  caused  by  the  animal  getting  un- 
accustomed food  into  the  stomach,  such  as  a  feed  of  new  oats  or 
grass  for  the  first  time.  The  affection  appears  suddenly,  and  all 
the  body  becomes  covered  with  large  raised-up  blotches.  The 
treatment  is  simple :  i  to  2  oz.  carbonate  of  soda  given  in  a  pint 
of  water  with  i  gill  whiskey,  and  followed  up  with  bran  mashes 
and  salt.  Cattle,  in  early  spring  months,  are  subject  to  a  some- 
what similar  complaint,  known  in  Cumberland  as  Blains.  The 
head,  neck,  eyes,  and  ears  are  swollen,  the  skin  feels  thickened 
all  over  the  body,  the  parts  around  and  under  the  tail  are  also 
swollen.  Formerly  bleeding  was  said  to  be  the  only  cure ;  but 
carbonate  of  soda  and  whiskey,  as  given  for  nettle-rash  in  horse, 
or  I  pint  raw  linseed  oil  with  i  wine-glassful  of  turpentine, 
generally  answers  well  for  cattle. 


The  Digestive  Organs. 

These  are  the  Ups,  mouth,  cheeks,  tongue,  teeth,  and  other 
accessories,  such  as  the  salivary  glands,  the  gullet  or  oesophagus, 
stomach,  and  the  small  and  large  intestines,  the  total  capacity  of 
which  is  estimated  at  about  thirty  gallons. 

The  accessory  organs  of  digestion  are  the  liver,  spleen, 
pancreas,  portal  vein,  glands,  etc. 

The  digestive  organs  may  be  looked  upon  as  the  most 
important  in  the  system,  and,  being  exposed  as  it  were  to  such 
a  variety  of  changes  in  the  food  and  treatment,  they  are  most 
subject  to  derangement,  injury,  and  disease. 

The  Tongue  suffers  from  injury  caused  by  foreign  bodies,  as 
thorns,  nails,  fractured  teeth,  etc. ;  hardening  or  induration ; 
damage  by  the  administration  of  balls;  and  the  rough  usage 
of  ignorant  carters  or  grooms.  Occasionally  it  becomes  paralyzed 
and  injured  to  such  an  extent  at  the  tip  that  gangrene  sets  in,  and 
portions  have  to  be  cut  off.  In  cattle  the  tongue  is  also  sub- 
ject to  injury  from  similar  causes,  and  also  to  induration  and  a 
disease  called  Actinomycosis  (said  to  be  a  cancer).  In  all  these 
cases  the  animal  falls  off  its  food,  loses  belly,  becomes  emaciated, 
and  there  is  a  greater  or  less  flow  of  saliva  from  its  mouth.  Every 
care  must  be  taken  in  having  the  mouth  examined  and  the 
offending  cause  removed.  Young  calves  suffer  from  a  carbuncular 
disease,  which  affects  not  only  the  tongue,  but  also  the  sides  of  the 
cheek.  It  is  generally  found  in  fine-bred  cattle  from  six  weeks  to 
two  months  old.  It  requires  special  medical  treatment,  and  should 
not  be  neglected. 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE.  24I 

It  is  impossible,  in  a  report  like  this,  to  enumerate  the  various 
injuries  and  diseases  that  the  mouth  and  tongue  are  liable  to,  but 
sufficient  has  been  said  to  cause  proper  examination. 

We  next  have  obstruction  of  the  gullet,  as  in  choking.  This 
is  very  rare  in  the  horse,  and  could  in  great  measure  be  avoided 
if  the  stableman  were  sufficiently  careful  in  spreading  the  food 
along  the  floor  of  the  manger.  When  choking  takes  place,  the 
symptoms  are  very  peculiar :  the  horse  pokes  its  nose  out, 
convexes  the  neck  on  the  under  side,  pulls  its  ears  towards  the 
shoulders,  nearly  touches  the  ground  with  his  knees,  and  utters 
peculiar  sounds.  Find  out  what  is  the  cause  of  the  obstruction ; 
if  from  corn  or  food,  remove  as  much  as  possible  by  passing  the 
hand  to  the  back  of  the  mouth,  and  washing  out  with  fine  thin 
sifted  gruel  or  warm  water.  If  the  cause  be  a  hard  foreign  body, 
it  must  be  left  in  the  hands  of  a  qualified  man. 

Fine-bred  cattle  are  subject  to  abscesses  forming  in  the  back 
of  the  throat  or  pharynx.  The  animal  pokes  its  nose  out,  and 
has  great  difficulty  in  breathing.  Occasionally  the  abscess  can  be 
felt  from  the  outside.  A  good  smart  iodine  blister  should  be 
applied  to  hurry  on  the  suppuration,  and,  when  sufficiently  ripe, 
the  abscess  must  be  opened  by  passing  the  hand  to  the  back  part 
of  the  throat  with  a  suitable  knife.  Sometimes  the  disease  gets  so 
troublesome  that  tracheotomy  has  to  be  performed  to  prevent  the 
animal  suffocating.  In  other  cases  we  find  large  tumours  or 
polypi  forming  in  the  back  of  the  throat.  They  have  to  be 
removed  by  an  operation.  These  produce  the  same  symptoms 
as  the  abscess.  Cattle  are  very  liable  to  choke  with  turnips  and 
potatoes.  If  possible,  the  obstruction,  when  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  gullet,  should  be  removed  by  working  the  hand  into  the 
passage,  or  by  pressing  into  the  stomach  with  the  probang  or 
turnip-rope.  The  latter  operation  must  be  done  with  great  care, 
as  the  gullet  or  oesophagus  has  in  many  cases  been  ruptured  by 
injudicious  passing  of  the  rope.  On  no  occasion  should  fluids, 
oils,  etc.,  be  given,  as  they  only  oppress  the  patient.  In  these 
choking  cases  the  animal  swells  up  on  the  left  side  by  the 
evolution  of  gas  from  food  in  the  stomach.  This  sometimes  takes 
place  to  such  an  extent  that  there  is  danger  of  the  patient  dying 
a  mechanical  death,  from  the  pressure  of  the  gas  in  the  stomach 
and  bowels  upon  the  heart  and  lungs.  If  medical  aid  be  not  at 
hand,  there  need  be  no  hesitation  in  taking  a  sharp  knife  and 
stabbing  through  the  side  into  the  stomach.  The  point  at  which 
this  should  be  done  is  at  the  most  distended  part,  viz.  between 
the  last  rib  and  the  hook  bone  on  the  left  side.  The  knife  is  then 
turned  crossways  in  the  wound,  to  allow  the  gas  to  escape.  In 
some  instances,  after  removing  the  pressure  of  the  gas,  the  turnip 


242  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

or  potato  sticking  in  the  gullet  will  drop  into  the  stomach  without 
any  further  trouble. 

The  CEsoPHAGUS,  or  Gullet^  is  subject  to  dilatation,  stricture, 
ulceration,  as  well  as  various  injuries. 

The  Stomach  of  the  horse  is  comparatively  small.  From 
injudicious  feeding,  or  the  animal  gorging  itself  on  grass  or 
corn,  it  is  liable  to  derangement,  distension,  and  disease.  By 
the  fermentation  of  food,  and  consequent  evolution  of  gases,  it  is 
often  ruptured.  In  some  cases  of  distension  the  horse  stands  per- 
sistently still,  hangs  his  head,  and  is  much  swollen  on  both  sides. 
If  the  derangement  be  due  to  an  over  feed  of  badly  boiled  wheat, 
barley,  or  Indian  corn,  2  oz.  of  carbonate  of  soda  given  in 
I  pint  of  water  with  2  oz.  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia,  or  \  pint 
whisky,  may  give  instant  relief.  Instead  of  this,  we  may  give 
4  oz.  hyposulphite  of  soda,  30  drops  best  carbolic  acid,  2  oz. 
essence  of  ginger  in  i  pint  of  water.  At  other  times  we  have  great 
abdominal  pain,  as  Colic :  the  horse  lies  down,  gets  up,  rolls 
about,  paws  the  ground  with  his  fore  feet  as  if  in  great  pain,  and 
turns  his  head  to  his  side.  In  addition  to  the  previous  treatment, 
laudanum  or  chloral  hydrate  would  have  to  be  administered,  or 
the  gas  let  off  by  puncturing  the  abdomen ;  but  this  should  only 
be  attempted  by  a  qualified  practitioner. 

The  Horse  Bot  {Gastrophilus  Equii)  has  its  winter  habitat 
in  the  cuticular  or  front  portion  of  the  horse's  stomach.  Where 
the  bots  are  attached,  the  walls  of  the  stomach  are  thickened ;  and, 
from  irritation  caused  by  the  development  of  the  larvae,  the 
animals,  in  many  cases,  lose  flesh.  If  their  presence  be  sus- 
pected, occasional  small  dozes  of  turpentine  and  linseed  oil 
should  be  administered. 

The  stomach  is  also  at  times  infested  with  the  large  white 
earth-worm.  These  are,  however,  more  frequently  found  in  the 
small  intestines,  causing  loss  of  flesh,  ragged  coat,  and  occasional 
diarrhoea.  When  suspected,  turpentine  and  Hnseed  oil  is  the  best 
remedy,  with  a  little  salt  every  night  in  the  food. 

The  stomach  is  subject  to  inflammation  {Gastritis) ^  generally 
due  to  irritating  substances.  When  acute,  the  horse  exhibits 
great  pain  by  rolling  about.  Sedative  medicines  must  be  ad- 
ministered, and  blankets  or  flannels,  wrung  out  of  hot  water, 
rolled  round  the  body.  The  stomach  may  become  relaxed  or 
suffer  from  acute  and  chronic  indigestion,  for  which  vegetable, 
alkaline,  and  mineral  tonics  are  to  be  prescribed.  The  animal 
should  be  tempted  with  different  kinds  of  food,  and  nothing 
is  better  than  chopped  fresh  thorn  shoots  or  gorse,  mixed  with 
the  corn. 

The    small    intestines    are    liable    to   various    diseases    and 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE.  243 

disorders,  such  as  spasms,  inflammation,  intussusception,  strangu- 
lation, twist,  knot,  gut-tie,  rupture,  worms,  tumours,  etc.  All 
commence  more  or  less  with  colicky  pains,  and  require  the 
experienced  eye  of  a  practitioner  to  detect  They  are  often  very 
formidable  and  dangerous  maladies.  At  the  beginning,  when  the 
pain  is  severe,  2  to  4  oz.  laudanum  with  2  oz.  spirits  of  nitre  may 
be  given  in  i  pint  of  linseed  oil,  and  half  the  quantity  repeated 
in  30  minutes  if  necessary.  Should  the  pain  be  due  to  simple 
spasm  (colic)  of  the  bowels,  the  animal  will  soon  get  relief  from 
the  above  treatment.  Warm-water  injections  may  be  administered, 
for  which  purpose  nothing  beats  the  funnel-shaped  enema  (Fig.  32). 


Fig. 


32- 


If  much  flatulency  be  present  it  is  best  to  give  a  tobacco 
enema,  as  follows :  8  inches  twist  tobacco  are  unrolled  and 
steeped  in  i  quart  boiling  water;  and,  when  new-milk  warm,  the 
decoction  is  given  as  an  injection. 

In  Twist,  or  Knot^  of  the  bowels,  from  long  experience  the 
writer  is  of  opinion  that  the  lesion  is  caused  entirely  by  the 
spasmodic  contractions  of  the  circular  and  longitudinal  coats  of 
the  intestines,  and  not  by  the  animal  rolling. 

The  Large  Intestines  of  the  horse  are  subject  to  impaction 
or  constipation,  spasms  (spasmodic  colic),  inflammation,  con- 
gestion of  the  mucous  coats,  concretions  or  dust  balls,  worms  of 
various  kinds,  paralysis,  distension  with  gas  (flatulent  colic),  and 
rupture. 

The  symptoms  resemble  those  named  under  the  small  in- 
testines, and  similar  treatment  is  to  be  adopted  at  the  first  onset. 

In  Impaction,  or  constipation,  of  the  large  intestines,  the  horse 
does  not  seem  to  suffer  much  acute  pain,  occasionally  having  three 
or  four  hours*  interval  of  relief  before  the  colicky  pains  return. 
These  cases  require  to  be  relieved  by  judicious  administrations 
of  purgative  medicines  followed  by  enemas. 

In  derangement  of  the  large  intestines  the  animal  is  inclined 
to  roll  over  on  his  back,  or  sit  on  his  haunches  like  a  dog. 
Abscesses  are  occasionally  found  in  the  rectum  from  injuries,  etc., 
and  sometimes  we  have  eversion  of  this  portion  of  the  intestines. 
It  is  also  at  times  lacerated  during  the  act  of  foaling  in  the  mare. 


244  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Horses,  as  a  rule,  very  seldom  suffer  from  acute  diarrhoea, 
except  when  an  overdose  of  purgative  medicine  has  been 
administered.  Acute  diarrhoea  in  the  horse  is  usually  fatal, 
or  produces  laminitis  (inflammation  of  the  feet).  Small  doses 
of  chlorodyne  might  be  given,  and  a  little  water  with  well-boiled 
oatmeal  gruel  and  carbonate  of  soda  to  drink.  If  chronic,  and 
found  to  be  due  to  teething  fever,  the  mouth  should  be  examined 
and  the  cause  removed. 

If  the  complaint  is  produced  by  worms,  as  is  frequently 
seen  in  young  horses  in  spring,  after  pasturing  on  rough  wet 
pastures  in  autumn,  small  doses  of  oil  and  turpentine,  with  salt 
in  the  food,  can  be  recommended. 

Intestinal  Hernia,  or  Displacement  of  the  Intestiiies^  takes 
place  internally.  The  symptoms  are  somewhat  similar  to  twist 
of  the  bowels.  The  complaint  is  difficult  to  diagnose,  and 
terminates  fatally. 

Young  foals  are  frequently  the  subject  of  scrotal  or  umbilical 
hernia.  The  former,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  disappears  before 
the  animal  reaches  the  age  of  one  year.  It  ought  never  to  be 
interfered  with  until  after  that  age,  unless  some  faeces  get  into 
the  sac  and  cause  the  animal  great  pain.  Umbilical  and  ventral 
hernia  can  be  successfully  treated  with  properly  arranged  truss 
and  bandage,  or  radically  cured  by  an  operation. 

Stomachs  of  Cattle. 

Unlike  the  horse,  derangements  of  the  digestive  organs  of  cattle 
and  sheep  generally  take  place  in  the  stomachs,  and  no  matter 
how  slight  a  disorder  of  any  of  the  other  organs  of  the  body, 
the  functions  of  the  stomachs  are  more  or  less  suspended,  and 
they  require  attention  and  treatment  as  well  as  the  original 
complaint. 

The  first  stomach,  or  paunch,  is  subject  to  many  disorders, 
produced  by  such  causes  as  drinking  an  excess  of  ice-cold  water, 
frosty  turnips,  impaction  with  aftermath,  foreign  bodies  such  as 
nails,  bones,  stones,  leather,  hair-balls,  etc.,  and  also  by  abscesses, 
tubercular  tumours,  etc. 

When  the  animal  is  distended  with  gas,  which  is  the  principal 
symptom  of  nearly  all  the  foregoing  complaints,  endeavour  to  trace 
the  cause,  and  treat  accordingly.  Two  ounces  of  carbonate  of  soda, 
dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water,  with  half  a  pint  of  whiskey  may  be 
given  with  advantage,  or  one  pint  of  oil  and  one  wine-glassful  of 
turpentine.  If  dangerously  swollen,  let  off  the  gas,  as  recom- 
mended under  "  Choking." 

The  second  stomach  generally  contains  a  quantity  of  sand, 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE.  245 

nails,  wire,  stones,  etc.,  and  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  sort  of 
sifting  agent.  It  is  subject  to  inflammation  and  injuries  from 
irritating  substances. 

The  third  stomach — or  maniplies,  owing  to  its  numerous 
leaves — is  in  hot  weather  subject  to  gorging.  The  leaves  or  folds 
then  become  paralysed  from  the  continued  pressure  of  the  food, 
which  becomes  hard  and  dry,  and  produces  what  is  called  Fardel 
bound.  Since  the  introduction  of  artificial  cakes  for  the  feeding  of 
cattle,  this  complaint  is  not  so  frequent  as  in  former  years.  Saline 
purgatives,  combined  with  oil  and  stimulants,  answer  best.  In 
all  derangements  of  the  stomachs  of  cattle  producing  indigestion 
the  animal  has  a  peculiar  grunt,  which  is  heard  more  when  the 
spine  is  pressed  just  behind  the  shoulders.  The  back  is  raised  up, 
and  the  disease  formerly  went  under  the  name  of  "  heart-fellon." 

The  fourth,  or  true  digestive  stomach,  is  the  largest  in  the  calf, 
and  most  subject  to  inflammation  and  disorder. 

Poisons,  both  vegetable  and  mineral,  rarely  establish  their 
action  until  they  enter  this  organ.  The  writer  has  known  several 
cases  of  arsenical  poisoning,  where  the  arsenic  remained  in  the 
three  first  stomachs  for  from  four  to  eight  days  before  it  reached 
the  fourth  and  established  its  poisonous  action. 

In  hot  dry  weather,  more  particularly  in  June,  when  certain 
grasses,  ryegrass  especially,  are  on  the  point  of  seeding,  we  have  a 
complaint  amongst  cattle  called  Stomach  Staggers.  This  malady 
is  rarely,  if  ever,  seen  in  wet  weather,  and,  in  the  ^vrite^'s  opinion, 
the  hot,  dry  times  cause  the  plants  to  seed  prematurely.  At  the 
point  of  seeding,  there  appears  to  be  some  narcotic  principle  pro- 
duced, or  chemical  change  undergone,  which  acts  on  the  digestive 
organs  of  cattle,  and,  by  reflex  action,  on  the  brain.  The  first 
symptoms  are  a  sudden  decrease  in  the  flow  of  milk  ;  coat  staring 
as  if  singed  ;  breathing  slow  and  heavy  ;  eye  of  a  grassy  green  hue ; 
occasional  twitching  of  the  muscles  of  the  face  and  trembling  of 
the  extremities  ;  knuckling  on  the  hind  fetlocks ;  ribs  flat.  These 
symptoms  may  last  three  or  four  days,  and  then  the  animal  com- 
mences to  press  its  head  against  the  wall  or  fence.  At  this  stage 
the  butcher's  aid  is  of  more  value  than  the  vet.'s.  At  the  com- 
mencement give  a  quart  of  warmed  ale,  i  oz.  mustard,  2  lbs. 
treacle,  and  i  pint  linseed  oil ;  to  be  repeated  every  eight  hours. 
On  no  account  should  salts  be  administered;  they  act  as  a 
poison.  Linseed  jelly  and  milk,  with  bran  or  hay  tea,  may  be 
given  to  the  animal  to  drink. 

The  Intestines  of  cattle  are  not  so  liable  to  derangement  as 
those  of  the  horse.  They  occasionally  suffer  from  spasm  or  colic, 
and  inflammation,  but  seem  to  be  more  prone  to  the  affection  called 
Gut-tie.     This  is  most  frequently  seen  in  bullocks.     When  the 


246  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

animal  appears  to  be  suffering  pain,  small  doses  of  chlorodyne, 
from  ^  to  I  oz.,  combined  with  lo  to  15  ozs.  of  raw  linseed  oil, 
may  be  given  with  advantage  every  six  hours.  The  most  common 
complaint  affecting  the  digestive  organs  of  cattle,  particularly 
young  ones,  is  that  of  Diarrhoea.  This  can  be  brought  on  by  an 
overdose  of  frosted  turnips  or  potatoes,  etc. ;  but  young  cattle, 
from  one  year  nine  months,  to  two  years  six  months,  in  many 
localities  seem  to  suffer  to  an  alarming  extent  from  this  complaint. 

In  some  instances  it  may  be  due  to  the  animal  casting  the 
shells  or  crowns  of  the  molar  teeth,  producing  teething  fever.  In 
other  cases  it  arises  from  the  young  stock  having  been  turned  out 
at  the  back  end  of  the  previous  year,  more  particularly  if  the 
autumn  has  been  very  wet.  A  quantity  of  worms  and  the  ova  of 
various  parasites  are  then  taken  into  the  stomachs  with  the  wet 
grasses,  and  establish  themselves  there  with  grave  results  during  the 
following  spring. 

Flukes  in  the  liver  are  a  very  common  cause  ;  as  a  prevention 
against  these,  the  animals  should  not  be  put  out  to  grass  in  the 
autumn,  or  even  in  a  wet  summer.  Keep  them  indoors,  and  give 
them  a  little  crushed  oats  and  cake,  with  a  little  salt.  If  this 
plan  were  more  generally  adopted,  diarrhoea  in  young  stirks  would 
soon  be  a  thing  of  the  past. 

If  the  teeth  are  supposed  to  be  the  offending  agents,  have  the 
mouth  examined  and  the  shells  removed.  In  many  cases  we 
have  this  diarrhoea  originating  from  tubercular  disease  of  the  liver, 
mesentery,  and  bowels.  These  cases  are  generally  not  worth 
treating.     For  symptoms,  see  page  252,  under  *' Teething." 

Dysentery,  or  Bloody  Flux.  At  one  time  this  was  a  very 
common  complaint  in  cattle,  and  considered  to  be  due  to  the 
rough  coarse-grained  grass  grown  on  undrained  lands.  It  is  now 
of  rare  occurrence,  but  when  present  it  ought  never  to  be  in  the 
least  neglected.  When  the  extensive  diarrhoea  is  mixed  with 
blood,  it  is  very  difficult  to  treat,  and  generally  terminates  fatally. 

Peritonitis. — Inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the  inside 
walls  of  the  belly.  This  membrane  is  also  reflected  over  the  out- 
side of  the  intestines.  It  is  a  very  formidable  complaint.  In  the 
horse,  it  creeps  on  very  insidiously,  and  the  animal  is  at  the  point 
of  death  in  many  instances,  before  observed.  It  is  more  common 
in  cattle,  and  due  to  many  causes,  such  as  difficult  parturition, 
injuries,  sudden  chills,  etc. 

The  treatment  should  be  energetic,  and  put  into  the  hands  of 
a  qualified  practitioner. 

Dropsy  of  the  Belly  may  arise  from  the  foregoing  malady,  and 
also  from  diseased  liver  in  which  the  bloodvessels  are  blocked 
up,  and  from  other  causes. 


VETERINARY   SCIENCE.  247 

The  Liver  is  the  largest  organ  of  the  body  in  the  young  calf, 
and  in  the  adult  animal  is  so  situated  that  it  is  subject  to  derange- 
ments and  diseases  from  the  various  modes  of  feeding,  hot  climates, 
weather,  and  situations. 

The  most  common  affection  is  that  of — 

Congestion  and  a  sluggish  state  of  the  organ,  producing  yellows 
(jaundice).  This  yellowness  of  the  visible  mucous  membranes  and 
skin  may  also  be  due  to  many  other  causes,  such  as  bile  stones, 
tubercles,  hydatids,  flukes,  etc. 

Inflammation  is  not  of  common  occurrence  in  horse,  or  cows. 

Fatty  degeneration,  and  fatty  infiltration  are  more  frequently 
met  with,  particularly  in  idle,  well-fed  horses. 

The  liver  is  also  subject  to  rupture  from  falls  in  jumping. 

In  disorders  of  the  liver  we  have  generai  depression,  languor, 
lameness  in  the  off  fore  leg  (more  particularly  in  horses),  foetid 
breath,  furrowed  tongue,  eyelids  and  lips  yellow,  and  also  yellow 
udders  in  cows. 

Gall  Stones  are  very  rare  both  in  horses  and  cattle.  When 
present,  they  cause  more  or  less  colicky  pains,  and  continue  for 
several  weeks,  finally  producing  all  the  appearances  of  a  man  blind 
drunk. 

Spleen,  or  Milt, — Little  is  known  about  the  function  of  this 
body.  Although  an  important  organ,  it  can  be  done  without, 
as  we  have  record  of  its  removal  without  much  inconvenience  to 
the  patient.  The  writer's  idea  is  that  it  is  a  receptacle  for  blood 
during  the  process  of  digestion. 

When  under  disease,  it  produces  very  grave  symptoms.  In  the 
horse  we  have  a  complaint  called — 

Lymphadenoma,  in  which  peculiar  tumours  of  a  flaky  pearly 
character  form  all  through  its  substance.  The  symptoms  are — ■ 
staggering  gait,  mucous  membrane  covering  the  mouth  and  eye 
lid  extremely  pale,  animal  continues  to  feed  well  but  loses  flesh, 
and  has  to  be  supported  on  slings.  It  generally  has  a  fatal  termi- 
nation. 

Cattle  also  suffer  from  a  disease  of  this  organ  called  Splenic 
Apoplexy,  or  a  variety  of  Anthrax^  which  runs  its  course,  and 
terminates  fatally  in  a  few  hours.  Although  a  disease  of  the 
blood,  the  writer  considers  it  more  of  a  dietetic  nature,  having 
seen  it  produced  from  steeped  brewer's  grains  allowed  to  stand 
till  they  had  reached  the  acetous  stage  of  fermentation.  It  is  also 
produced  by  the  hay  bacillus,  obtained  from  the  fermentation 
of  chopped  hay  and  from  mouldy  cotton  cakes,  more  particularly 
the  undecorticated  variety.  He  has  also  seen  it  arise  on  certain 
undrained  lands.  Although  very  fatal  to  other  animals,  such  as 
dogs,  cats,  and  poultry,  that  may  have  eaten  the  flesh  or  blood, 


248  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

yet  he  considers  it  neither  infectious  nor  contagious,  having  never 
known  it  to  extend  beyond  the  buildings  in  which  it  originated. 
Again,  the  disease  was  always  traceable  to  some  peculiarity  of  the 
feeding,  and  the  writer  thinks  that  it  is  analogous  to  an  aggravated 
form  of  Red  Water,  This  he  has  seen  produced  by  a  similar 
mode  of  feeding.  In  both  cases  the  bladder  contains  dark  coffee- 
coloured  urine,  but  in  splenic  apoplexy  dirty  dark-coloured  water 
is  found  in  the  abdominal  cavity  and  intestinal  canal,  and  the 
spleen  is  gorged  with  a  thick  dark  bloody  fluid,  and  much  enlarged. 

Red  Water  in  cattle  is  now  almost  a  thing  of  the  past  in  many 
parts.  It  was  found  on  undrained,  sour,  and  mossy  lands,  and  was 
due  to  the  want  of  a  proper  quantity  of  alkaline  matters  in  the 
food.  Chloride  of  sodium — common  salt — was  the  body  most 
required  in  order  to  keep  up  the  balance  between  the  solid  and 
fluid  portions  of  the  blood.  Draining,  where  practicable,  is  the 
best  preventive.  The  next  is  the  dressing  of  the  lands  with  from 
six  to  ten  hundred-weights  of  rough  crushed  rock  salt  to  the  acre. 
Wherever  this  treatment  has  been  adopted,  the  disease  has  entirely 
disappeared. 

Braxy  in  sheep  is  a  somewhat  similar  disease,  and  it  could 
in  great  measure  be  prevented  by  giving  the  animals  a  change  of 
food  when  first  put  on  to  turnips,  such  as  cut  hay,  mashed  oats, 
and  bran,  with  a  small  amount  of  salt  or  uncut  hay  well  saturated 
with  salt  and  water. 

Mesenteric  Disease  is  most  frequently  found  in  well-bred  short- 
horn cattle.  Tumours  or  abscesses  of  various  sizes  form  throughout 
the  mesentery.  The  animals,  although  feeding,  rapidly  lose  flesh, 
are  hide-bound,  have  a  dirty,  yellow,  scurfy  skin,  with  diarrhoea. 
No  good  can  be  done,  and  the  animals  should  be  destroyed  at 
once,  and  burned  in  a  furnace. 

Calves  suffer  very  much  from  derangement  of  the  fourth 
stomach,  and  more  particularly  so  when  only  fed  twice  a  day,  with 
large  quantities  of  milk.  The  juice  secreted  by  this  stomach  is 
called  ''  rennet,"  and  is  used  to  curdle  milk  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  cheese.  The  first  process  of  digestion  is,  therefore,  the 
formation  of  the  milk  into  a  stiff,  hard,  curdy  mass  by  this 
acid  juice.  If  in  excess,  irritation  and  inflammation  are  set  up,  and 
nature  tries  to  relieve  herself  with  spontaneous  diarrhoea,  called 
White  Scour.  This  complaint  carries  off  hundreds  of  young 
calves  yearly,  and,  once  established,  it  runs  its  course.  It  is,  no 
doubt,  infectious,  and  due  to  the  Lactus  bacillus.  Preventive 
measures  should  be  adopted — (i)  by  the  judicious  feeding  of  the 
young  animals  four  times  a  day  for  the  first  three  or  four  weeks ; 
(2)  by  giving  no  decorticated  cotton  cake  to  the  mothers  for  three 
or  four  weeks  before  and  after  calving  j  (3)  by  cleansing  out  the 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE.  249 

nursery  boxes  well  not  less  than  once  a  month,  and  washing  the 
walls  with  lime-wash  containing  a  small  amount  of  carbolic  acid. 
Where  the  disease  does  exist,  the  best  treatment  is  to  keep  the 
milk  twelve  hours,  take  off  the  cream,  and  warm  the  milk  in  a 
water-bath  to  88°  or  90°,  in  which  give  one  wine-glassful  of  lime- 
water  night  and  morning. 

The  best  preventive,  however,  is  to  put  the  mother  and  calf 
into  a  good  large  box  and  leave  them.  This  is  also  the  best 
means  of  preventing  milk  fever. 

Hair-balls,  at  times  found  in  the  stomachs  of  young  calves, 
are  caused  by  giving  unstrained  milk  and  by  the  animals 
licking  each  other.  These  balls  cause  a  great  deal  of  derange- 
ment and  swelling,  with  impaired  appetite.  Sometimes  the  patients 
recover,  but  when  the  swelling  occurs  twice  or  thrice  a  day 
make  them  into  veal  as  soon  as  possible. 

Young  calves  are  also  subject  to  diseases  called  Joint  Fellon 
and  Navel  111.  These  can  be  regarded  as  the  same  complaint, 
of  a  septic  character,  and  generally  found  in  damp  boxes.  They 
are  due  to  septic  material  getting  into  the  system  through  the  navel 
opening.  As  a  preventive  the  writer  strongly  recommends  tying 
the  navel  string  with  a  piece  of  antiseptic  cord  immediately  the 
animal  is  born.  Young  foals  suffer  from  somewhat  similar  com- 
plaints, and  should  be  treated  in  the  same  fashion.  The  diseases 
are  frequently  fatal,  especially  joint  fellon,  and  should  be  looked 
to  at  once.  Young  foals,  five  or  six  hours  after  birth,  ought  to 
be  carefully  watched ;  and  if  found  straining,  warm-water  enemas 
should  be  given  by  the  rectum.  For  this  purpose  breeders  of 
foals  should  always  have  a  human  enema  pipe  by  them.  Good 
sanitation,  ventilation,  and  cleanliness  should  be  the  first  object  in 
view  in  rearing  stock. 

Dentition  and  Dental  Diseases  in  Horses  and  Cattle. 

Dentition. — Horse. — By  the  casting  or  shedding  of  the  crowns 
of  the  temporary  teeth,  and  their  replacement  by  the  permanent 
teeth,  together  with  certain  marks,  the  age,  for  a  time,  is  indicated. 

At  birth  the  foal  generally  has  the  two  central  incisors,  and 
three  molars  on  each  side,  above  and  below,  all  of  which  are 
temporary.  At  six  to  eight  weeks  old  he  gets  two  lateral  tempo- 
rary incisors  above  and  below ;  and  from  eight  to  ten  months  the 
corner  incisors. 

At  one  year  \ki^  fourth  molar  (permanent)  appears;  and  from 
two  to  two  and  a  half  years  the  fifth  molar  should  be  up.  In 
many  cases  in  cross-bred  cart  horses  the  fifth  molar  does  not 
appear  until  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  years. 


250  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

At  this  age  (rising  three)  he  commences  to  cast  the  tv/o 
central  incisors,  also  the  first  and  second  molars  above  and  below, 
which  are  replaced  by  permanent  teeth. 

By  this  it  is  seen,  in  some  cases  which  are  of  great  interest, 
that  the  horse  at  three  years  old  not  only  casts  twelve  temporary 
teeth,  but  gets  sixteen  permanent  teeth,  viz.  four  central  incisors, 
first  and  second  molars  on  each  side,  above  and  below  (eight), 
and  the  fifth  molar. 

From  three  and  a  half  to  four  years  old  the  horse  casts  his 
lateral  incisors  and  the  third  temporary  molar,  which  are  re- 
placed by  permanent  ones.  At  this  period  the  sixth  molar  is 
coming  into  view  ;  thus,  at  four  years  old,  he  casts  eight  temporary 
and  gets  twelve  permanent  teeth. 

At  five  years  old  the  corner  milk  incisors  are  replaced  by 
permanent  teeth.  The  canines  or  tusks  appear.  The  horse  is 
now  full  mouthed. 

Cattle. — In  cattle  the  incisors  are  shovel-shaped,  with  well- 
defined  neck,  and  are  found  in  the  lower  jaw  only,  and  always 
loose  in  their  sockets. 

At  birth,  calves  are  frequently  seen  with  eight  incisors,  all  up. 
The  development  and  shedding  of  teeth  in  cattle  is  very  peculiar, 
varying  from  six  to  nine  months,  according  to  breed  and  mode  of 
feeding ;  but  the  following  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  average  : — 

At  birth  a  calf  may  have  from  two  to  eight  incisors  and  twelve 
molars,  three  on  each  side,  above  and  below. 

About  six  months  after  birth  the  fourth  molar  or  first  perma- 
nent makes  its  appearance ;  at  fifteen  or  sixteen  months  the  fifth 
molar  is  seen  ;  and  at  two  years  the  sixth  molar  is  through. 

About  this  period  the  two  temporary  central  incisors  are 
replaced  by  the  permanent,  which  are  very  much  larger ;  and  the 
first  and  second  inferior  and  first  superior  molars  are  thrown  off, 
and  six  permanent  teeth  take  their  place. 

The  first  inferior  molar  is  very  like  a  wolf-tooth  in  horses. 

The  second  is  frequently  cast  before  the  first. 

The  second  superior  molar  is  shed  about  three  months  after 
the  first,  or  at  about  two  years  and  three  months  to  two  years  and 
six  months. 

The  third  inferior  temporary  molar  is  very  peculiar,  having 
three  distinct  sections  or  columns ;  it  resembles  the  sixth  perma- 
nent, but  is  not  so  large.  It  is  cast  at  about  two  years  and  nine 
months  to  three  years  old.  Shortly  after  this  the  third  superior 
molar  is  shed.  Sometimes  the  third  inferior  molar  comes  off 
before  the  second,  and  at  times  they  have  been  removed  both 
together. 

The  crowns  or  wearing  surface  of  the  molar  teeth  of  cattle  are 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE.  25 1 

very  unlike  those  of  the  horse,  having  short  elevations  and  depres- 
sions resembling  the  teeth  of  the  carnivora,  and  are  well  adapted 
for  tearing  down  the  rough  grass. 

Dental  Diseases  (Horse).— The  condition  of  the  teeth  at  times 
creates  various  disorders,  disease,  and  even  death. 

When  the  horse  is  rising  three,  he  is  brought  in  from  grass, 
and  put  to  work.  Owing  to  the  new  mode  of  living  and  the  great 
dental  irritation  going  on  at  this  period,  some  animals  suffer  very 
severely,  so  that  we  need  not  be  at  all  surprised  to  notice  the 
commencement  of  certain  disorders  in  horses.  From  frequent 
inspection  of  animals,  from  foals  and  upwards,  it  has  been  found 
very  rare  to  notice  any  sign  or  symptom  of  chorea  (shivering, 
string  halt,  or  click-leg)  until  the  animal  is  rising  three  years  old. 
It  is  very  probable  that  the  irritation  set  up  during  the  ex- 
tensive dental  process  just  referred  to  is  the  commencement  of 
the  above-mentioned  nervous  disorder  through  reflex  action; 
more  particularly  so  where  there  is  an  hereditary  tendency  to  the- 
disease. 

Therefore,  the  most  critical  period  of  the  horse's  life  is  when 
he  is  rising  three  years  old ;  for  not  only  is  there  associated  with 
it  the  before-named  complaint,  but  also  strangles.  But  whether 
this  is  partially  due  to  the  extensiye  dental  process,  or  the  change 
from  outdoor  to  indoor  life,  or  atmospheric  influence,  cannot  be 
definitely  stated. 

Again,  at  this  period,  if  true  dentition  is  not  going  on,  at 
times  pus  forms  in  the  sinuses,  or  disease  of  the  alveolar  processes 
occurs,  more  particularly  in  the  upper  jaw,  ending  in  softening  and 
degeneration  of  the  bone. 

When  young  animals  are  sufl"ering  from  retarded  dentition 
they  lose  flesh,  and  the  belly  becomes  tucked  up. 

Other  symptoms  are  as  follows :  long  shaggy  coat,  tight  skin, 
ewe  neck,  thin  thighs,  flat  ribs,  dragging  of  the  legs,  walking  with 
a  listless  gait,  and  also  occasional  diarrhoea. 

If  a  colt  is  doing  badly,  and  the  teeth  are  suspected  to  be  the 
cause,  have  the  mouth  examined,  and  any  offending  teeth  removed. 
As  "  prevention  is  better  than  cure,"  it  is  a  good  plan,  and  one 
which  is  largely  practised  in  Cumberland,  to  have  the  teeth  of  all 
young  horses  rising  three  examined  by  the  veterinary  surgeon 
some  time  from  December  to  June. 

When  rising  four  years  old  a  horse  seldom  suffers  so  much  as 
at  three  years  old,  although  there  is  an  old  saying  that  "  a  four- 
year-old  horse  cannot  stand  work  as  well  as  a  three-year-old ; "  but 
this  may  be  due  more  to  the  punishment  he  has  gone  through  as 
a  three-year-old,  the  effects  of  which  he  has  not  thrown  off. 

If  at  this  period  you  find  an  animal  not  doing  well,  examine 


252  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

the  mouth,  and,  if  necessary,  remove  the  shells.  As  a  rule,  the 
lower  come  off  sooner  than  the  upper.  In  many  instances,  under 
the  crowns,  or  between  the  shells,  and  top  of  the  permanent 
teeth,  there  is  a  quantity  of  foetor,  as  of  diseased  bone.  It  is 
very  seldom  that  a  cough  is  attributed  to  dentition,  although  it  is 
possible. 

With  the  exception  of  young  horses  casting  their  teeth,  and 
old  horses  with  unevenly  worn  surfaces,  it  is  better  not  to  give  a 
horse  crushed  or  bruised  oats.  It  is  preferable  that  the  oats  be 
given  whole,  so  that  the  animal  can  have  the  pleasure  of  grinding 
them,  thereby  getting  the  full  benefit  of  the  salivary  juices  and 
their  action  on  the  starchy  matters.  Crushed  oats  are  more  liable 
to  be  bolted  and  produce  choking. 

The  upper  molar  teeth  in  horses  and  cattle  are  much  larger 
than  the  lower  ones,  the  upper  being  a  fixture,  as  it  were,  to  give 
a  broader  surface  for  the  rotary  movement  of  the  lower  jaw  to  act 
upon,  thereby,  in  aged  horses,  causing  uneven  wear  and  over- 
growths, which  have  to  be  removed  by  the  rasp  and  shears. 

Many  cases  occur  in  which  the  molars  are  split  by  the  animal 
getting  some  hard  substance  amongst  its  food.  There  is  nothing 
worse  in  this  respect  than  foreign  barley.  By  removing  the  loose 
portion  the  animal  generally  does  well ;  but  the  tooth  becomes 
elongated  or  overgrown,  and  has  to  be  cut  or  rasped. 

Before  drawing  a  tooth  it  is  best  to  cast  the  animal.  Aged 
horses  should  be  cast  with  ropes,  in  the  same  manner  as  young 
colts  are  cast.  Hobbles  should  not  be  used.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  use  chloroform  for  this  operation,  although  some  practitioners 
prefer  it. 

After  removing  the  tooth,  dress  every  third  morning  by 
plugging  the  hole  with  tow  saturated  with  three  parts  water  and 
one  part  tincture  of  iron. 

Wolf-teeth  are  rudimentary,  in  the  opinion  of  many  veterinary 
surgeons,  and  do  no  harm. 

Parrot-mouthed  animals  have  to  be  closely  observed,  and  the 
teeth  dressed  when  necessary. 

Cattle. — Teething  in  cattle  often  causes  a  great  deal  of  con- 
stitutional disturbance,  more  particularly  from  one  year  and  nine 
months  to  two  years  and  six  months  old,  by  the  temporary 
molars  not  being  cast  off,  thus  setting  up  teething-fever  and,  in 
many  instances,  fatal  diarrhoea. 

As  a  rule,  a  large  number  of  stirks  are  examined  by  the 
country  practitioner  at  the  spring  and  fall,  and,  where  necessary, 
the  crowns  are  removed.  Young  animals,  when  suffering  from 
retention  of  the  crowns  or  shells,  have  tucked-up  bellies,  flat  ribs, 
tight  hide,  dirty  skin,  eyes  gummy  and  congested  with  mucous 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE.  253 

discharge,  feed  very  badly,  suffer  from  diarrhoea,  and  drink  large 
quantities  of  water. 

The  shells  have  frequently  been  found  sticking  between  the 
cheek  and  gums  in  both  upper  and  lower  jaws. 

Of  course,  any  foreign  substance,  or  anything  wrong  with  the 
mouth  generally,  causes  a  large  flow  of  saliva.  The  mouth  should 
be  examined,  and  the  offending  object  removed. 

In  all  cases  where  emaciation  is  great,  give  good  food — milk, 
linseed  jelly,  and  small  doses  of  vegetable  tonics. 

The  Brain  and  Nervous  System. 

Happily  diseases  of  these  important  organs  are  not  so  frequent 
in  horses  and  cattle  as  they  are  in  the  human  subject  Horses 
sometimes  suffer  from  inflammation  of  the  brain  from  the  hot 
rays  of  the  sun  or  from  some  peculiarity  of  the  food.  As  an 
example  of  this,  take  stomach  staggers,  caused  by  ergotized  grasses 
and  the  heat  of  the  sun  combined.  In  dry  hot  weather  the 
animal  should  at  once  be  put  under  cover,  and  small  and  re- 
peated doses  of  purgative  medicine  administered,  say,  every  eight 
hours.  In  some  cases  four  or  five  quarts  of  blood  may  be  taken 
with  advantage.  Horses  at  times  suffer  from  abscesses  forming  in 
the  brain  from  neglected,  protracted,  or  bastard  strangles.  Unsound 
food,  such  as  mouldy  oats  and  barley,  if  given  for  any  length  of 
time,  produces  irritation  of  the  stomach  and  reflex  brain  symptoms. 

Concussion  of  the  brain  may  occur  in  the  horse  by  his  running 
away  and  coming  in  contact  with  some  obstacle,  or  from  falling 
backwards  and  fracturing  some  of  the  bones  of  the  skull.  The 
animal  generally  loses  power  and  becomes  insensible.  Cold- 
water  applications  should  be  applied  to  the  head,  but  if  the 
animal  cannot  move  his  legs  on  being  pricked  with  a  pin,  he 
should  be  destroyed. 

Vertigo,  or  Head  Staggers. — This  may  be  due  to  some 
mechanical  pressure  of  the  collar  preventing  free  circulation  and 
producing  oppression  of  the  brain,  more  particularly  in  going 
uphill.  Tight  reining  up  with  a  bearing-rein  may  also  cause  it. 
When  attacked,  the  animal  staggers  several  times,  and  then  falls. 
After  a  few  ineffectual  attempts  to  rise,  he  finally  gets  on  his  legs 
again,  and  may  resume  the  journey.  Such  horses  are  best  suited 
for  farm  purposes  and  slow  work. 

Apoplexy  is  very  rare  in  the  horse,  and  is  either  due  to  a 
rupture  of  some  of  the  brain  bloodvessels,  or  to  a  clot  of  blood 
forming  in  one.  It  is  very  sudden  in  its  attack,  and  is  accompanied 
by  paralysis  of  one  or  both  sides. 

Epilepsy  is  mostly  seen  in  dogs,  particularly  those  that  have 


254  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

suffered  very  much  from  distemper.     When  attacked,  allow  the 
animal  plenty  of  fresh  air,  dash  cold  water  over  the  head,  and,  to 
prevent  the  tongue  from  being  bitten,  a  piece  of  wood  may  be  put 
between  the  teeth.     Occasional  doses  of  opening  medicine  should 
be  given,  with  small  and  repeated  doses  of  bromide  of  potassium. 
Tetanus,  or  Lock-jaw. — This  formidable  disease  is  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  the   horse,  and,  although  said  to  be   a  nervous 
affection,  it  is  now  thought  to  be  due  to  a  bacillus  or  germ.     It  is 
most  frequently  produced  by  simple  wounds,  particularly  those  of 
the  feet,  and  rarely  shows  itself  until  the  wound  is  on  the  point  of 
healing.     Strange,  though   true,  the  writer  has  for  nearly  forty 
years  attended  horses  in  the  bottom  of  coal  pits — the  injuries 
there  are  most  frequently  found  in  the  feet — yet  he  cannot  call  to 
mind  one  case  of  tetanus  amongst  them,  whereas  the  principal 
causes  of  tetanus  that  he  has  seen  above  ground  have  been  due,  as 
above  stated,  to  wounds  in  the  feet.     This  shows  that  the  atmos- 
phere has  something  to  do  with  producing  tetanus.  When  observed, 
the  animal  must  be  removed  to  some  quiet  dark  loose  box.    The  first 
symptoms  are  straddling  of  the  hind  legs,  elevation  and  quivering 
of  the   tail,  body  stiff,   and   nose  poked   out.     The  confirming 
symptom  is  to  slightly  elevate  the  head  by  putting  the  hand  under 
the  chin,  and  so   watching  the  eye.     The   eyeball  is  retracted 
within  the  socket,  and  the  haw  {Membrana  nictitans)  is  pulled 
right  across.     After  getting  into  a  box,  if  possible  give  a  dose  of 
opening  medicine  with  sloppy  gruel  and  linseed  jellies  and  milk 
to   suck.     In  this  dissolve   two   or  three   drams  of  bromide  of 
potassium,  which  can  be  given  several  times  a  day.     The  animal 
should  be  put  on  slings,  and  kept  thoroughly  quiet  and  free  from 
all  excitement.     If  once  an  animal  gets  down  it  very  rarely  rises 
again,  unless  raised  with  blocks  and  sHngs. 

Chorea,  or  String-halt^  is  said  to  be  a  disease  of  the  nervous 
system.  It  seems  to  be  hereditary  in  some  breeds  of  horses, 
resembling  St,  Vitus' s  Da?ice  in  the  human  subject.  It  is 
characterized  by  peculiar  muscular  action  of  the  hind  legs.  It 
affects  the  dog  as  well  as  the  horse,  and  in  the  former  can 
generally  be  traced  to  an  attack  of  distemper.  It  at  times  affects 
only  one  ear  or  one  limb,  and  cases  are  known  where  only  the 
tail  had  a  peculiar  jerk  when  the  dog  was  standing  still.  The 
writer  has  an  opinion  that  in  the  horse  the  shedding  of  milk  teeth 
is  one  cause  of  the  production  of  this  disease.  Be  this  as  it  may, 
the  animals  may  do  slow  work  for  years.  They  are  generally 
worst  at  backing  or  going  down  a  hill,  but  can  pull  a  load  with 
ease  when  going  forward.  When  very  bad,  half-ounce  doses  of 
bromide  of  potassium  have  an  excellent  effect. 

Hysteria  is  sometimes  seen  in  young  heifers  of  two  years  old, 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE.  255 

causing  great  nervous  excitement,  and  occasionally  terminating  in 
a  fit.  It  is  usually  seen  about  the  time  the  animal  is  coming  into 
heat.  A  good  dose  of  opening  medicine  with  two  drams  of  extract 
of  belladonna  soothes  the  patient. 

Tubercular  disease  frequently  affects  the  brain  and  spinal 
column.     It  is  often  found  in  high-bred  cattle. 

Sturdy,  or  Gid^  is  a  disease  affecting  sheep  and  young  cattle. 
It  is  caused  by  a  parasite  or  hydatid  found  in  the  brain,  and  is 
developed  from  a  segment  of  the  tapeworm  of  the  dog  {Cosnwus 
cerehralis).  It  is  mostly  found  on  hill  pastures,  where  a  number 
of  dogs  are  kept.  Any  part  of  the  brain  may  be  attacked,  but 
when  in  contact  with  the  skull  it  may  be  removed  by  an  opera- 
tion. The  bones  of  the  skull  become  soft  over  the  situation  of 
the  hydatid,  and  this  indication  may  easily  be  felt  with  the  finger. 
The  operation  must  take  place  at  that  point. 

Rabies  is  a  disease  common  to  the  dog,  and  of  a  frightful 
character.  It  affects  dogs  principally  in  hot  weather.  The  bite 
of  a  rabid  beast  has  most  fearful  and  fatal  results.  All  such 
animals  should  be  destroyed  at  once. 

Diseases  of  the  Eye  are,  happily,  not  numerous  in  the  horse. 
Anything  interfering  with  the  organs  of  sight  is  of  first  importance, 
requiring  careful  attention  in  examinations  as  to  soundness.  The 
affections  are  generally  due  to  injury.  Thus  an  irritable  rider 
may  strike  the  horse  over  the  head  with  a  stick,  producing 
inflammation  and  opacity  of  the  cornea  or  covering  of  the  eyeball. 
Sometimes  we  have  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
eyelids,  which  is  also  reflected  over  the  front  of  the  eyeball  This 
is  generally  caused  by  foreign  bodies,  such  as  hayseeds  or  chaff, 
getting  in.  The  foreign  substance  must  be  removed,  and  soothing 
treatment,  such  as  the  application  of  cold  water,  adopted.  Should 
any  constitutional  disturbance  intervene  it  must  be  treated 
accordingly. 

Ophthalmia  is  inflammation  of  the  internal  structures  of  the 
eye.  It  occurs  more  frequently  in  towns  than  in  country  practice. 
It  is  supposed  to  be  due  to  bad  ventilation  and  dark  stables.  At 
one  time  it  was  thought  that  the  moon  had  some  influence,  and  it 
was  called  "  moon  blindness." 

Good  sanitation  and  ventilation  tend  very  much  to  prevent 
its  occurrence. 

At  times  we  have  ulceration  of  the  cornea,  more  particularly 
in  the  dog.  Stimulating  treatment  is  required  :  a  weak  solution 
of  nitrate  of  silver  or  solution  of  boracic  acid  gives  the  best 
results. 

Cattle  during  the  winter  months  suffer  greatly  from  chaff 
getting  into  the  eye.     It  is  then  a  common  practice  of  the  farmer 


256  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

or  cowman  to  blow  powdered  alum  or  glass  into  the  eye  for  the 
removal  of  the  chaff,  thus  causing  great  pain  to  the  poor  animal. 
This  the  writer  strongly  condemns.  With  a  pair  of  fine-pointed 
forceps  the  chaff  is  easily  removed. 

If  the  inflammation  be  great,  a  little  cocaine  put  into  the  eye 
destroys  the  sensibility,  and  the  offending  body  is  readily  extracted. 
The  eye  should  be  bathed  with  cold  water,  and  afterwards  a 
little  boracic  acid  solution  applied. 

Cataract,  which  is  opacity  of  the  crystalline  lens,  is  of  two 
kinds.  It  is  due  to  inflammation  of  the  structure  of  the  eye,  but 
in  old  animals,  and  particularly  the  dog,  it  comes  on  gradually. 

There  are  many  other  minor  affections,  such  as  warty  excre- 
scences, fungoid  growth,  worms  in  the  eye,  etc.,  which  we  have  not 
space  to  give  in  detail. 

The  Ear  of  the  horse  is  rarely  affected,  except  from  injury. 
Rare  cases  are  met  with  where  a  tooth  at  the  base  of  the  ear  is 
found  to  be  setting  up  irritation,  and  causing  a  sinus  with  discharge 
from  the  edge  of  the  ear. 

The  dog,  however,  suffers  from  a  disease  called  Canker,  which 
is  very  troublesome  and  objectionable.  It  chiefly  affects  house- 
dogs, and  is  principally  due  to  over-feeding  and  plethora.  The 
dog  shakes  his  head,  and,  on  examination,  a  dirty  foetid  discharge 
is  seen  in  the  lower  part  of  the  ear.  Change  the  diet,  give  plenty 
of  exercise,  and  blow  a  little  iodoform  into  the  ear  every  second 
or  third  day  ;  this  has  a  radical  effect  on  the  complaint. 

Diseases  of  the  Skin. — Amongst  these  we  have  Variola, 
or  Vescides.  Small  pustules  form  all  over  the  body,  and  dis- 
charge a  little  acid  secretion,  which  is  very  irritative,  besides  being 
contagious,  and  troublesome  to  other  horses.  It  is  very  bad  to  get 
rid  of.  Saddles  and  harness  of  the  patients  should  never  be  used 
for  other  animals.  Washing  with  phenyl  and  water — i  to  50  parts 
— with  a  little  alterative  medicine,  is  all  that  is  required. 

Mange,  or  Scab^  is  due  to  parasites  of  various  kinds,  and 
affects  the  horse,  ox,  sheep,  dog,  and  man.  It  is  very  trouble- 
some, and  at  times  bad  to  manage.  The  principal  agents  used 
for  treatment  are  sulphur,  spirits  of  tar,  and  whale-oil  combined ; 
dressing  the  affected  parts  every  second  or  third  day.  Wash  the 
animals  with  carbolic  soap  and  soda  once  a  week.  Saddles  and 
harness  must  also  be  attended  to. 

Mud  Fever. — This  is  a  kind  of  superficial  inflammation  of  the 
skin  of  the  legs.  It  is  most  frequently  seen  in  winter,  in  cold 
sloppy  weather.  Washing  the  legs  seems  to  increase  the  com- 
plaint. The  best  remedy  is  to  keep  the  legs  as  dry  as  possible, 
in  fact,  leave  the  mud  to  dry  on  the  legs  and  rub  off  with  a  wisp 
of  hay.     This  is  much  better  than  washing  the  legs  and  not  drying 


VETERINARY   SCIENCE.  257 

them.  Washing  with  phenyl  and  water,  if  the  legs  are  very  sore 
and  painful,  has  a  good  effect.  Constitutional  disturbance,  caused 
by  the  inflammation  in  the  skin,  if  present,  must  be  attended  to. 

Mallenders  is  a  species  of  local  inflammation  affecting  the 
skin  at  the  back  of  the  knee-joint.  Sallenders  is  a  similar  com- 
plaint at  the  front  of  the  hock-joint.  They  are  both  of  the  same 
nature,  and  seem  to  affect  certain  breeds,  particularly  the  cart- 
horse class,  with  gouty,  gummy  legs.  A  dressing  of  reduced 
mercurial  ointment  two  or  three  times  a  week  sometimes  answers 
well. 

Grease  is  a  disease  of  the  skin,  and  principally  affects  cart- 
horses. It  is  a  very  troublesome  complaint  when  it  once  gets 
established.  It  affects  the  hind  legs  oftener  than  the  fore.  It  is 
known  by  a  foetid  discharge  from  the  glands  of  the  skin,  and,  when 
observed,  ought  to  be  attended  to  immediately. 

Ringworm  is  another  parasitic  affection  of  the  skin  of  horses, 
cattle,  and  dogs.  It  is  most  frequently  seen  in  young  cattle  during 
winter,  when  confined  to  the  straw  yards,  and  often  affects  the 
cowman  also.  It  should  have  prompt  attention  when  seen. 
Dress  twice  or  thrice  a  week  with  sulphur,  tar,  and  oil  mixture. 

Warts,  or  Afigleberries,  are  very  common  on  some  horses  and 
cattle.  Some  constitutions  seem  predisposed  to  them.  When 
numerous,  they  interfere  with  the  growth  of  the  animal,  and 
should  be  removed  without  delay  either  by  hot  iron,  knife,  or 
ecraseur. 

Warbles  are  sometimes  seen  in  horses,  but  more  commonly 
in  cattle.  They  are  due  to  an  insect,  called  the  yEstrus  bovis, 
depositing  its  eggs  on  the  back  of  the  cow  in  the  summer  months. 
These  eggs  develop  into  warbles  during  winter,  and  leave  their 
winter  habitats  in  the  spring  months.  When  young  animals  are 
put  out  in  the  summer,  their  backs  should  be  smeared  with 
sulphur,  spirits  of  tar,  and  oil,  as  a  preventive,  or  give  a  good  wash- 
ing with  strong  salt  and  water  once  a  month.  For  further  par- 
ticulars, the  reader  is  referred  to  the  works  of  Miss  E.  A.  Ormerod. 

Diseases  of  the  Kidneys  are  of  very  rare  occurrence  in 
both  horses  and  cattle.  The  one  most  common  in  horses  is 
Diabetes  insipidus,  or  Diuresis^  profuse  staling,  frequently 
following  debilitating  diseases,  as  influenza  and  strangles.  It  is 
at  times  caused  by  eating  heated  oats  and  bad  hay.  The  animal 
has  great  thirst;  in  fact,  some  will  go  down  on  their  knees  to 
drink  out  of  the  filthiest  pond  possible.  The  belly  is  tucked  up, 
coat  staring,  general  debility.  Although  the  appetite  is  not  much 
impaired,  the  animal  continues  to  lose  flesh,  and  has  an  almost 
continuous  flow  of  urine.  The  best  treatment  is  one-dram  doses 
of  iodine,  made  into  a  ball,  to  be  given  every  night,  three  or  four 

s 


258  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

hours  after  the  last  meal.  Give  good  nutritious  food  of  not  too 
starchy  a  nature. 

Inflammation  of  the  Kidneys  is  very  rare,  both  in  horses  and 
cattle.  At  times  this  inflammation  terminates  in  an  abscess  in 
one  of  the  kidneys.  If  in  one  only,  the  remaining  kidney 
becomes  enlarged  or  hypertrophied.  The  disease  is  caused  by 
standing  in  cold,  damp  places. 

The  symptoms  are  very  obscure.  The  animal  shows  little  or 
no  pain,  giving  only  an  occasional  moan,  but  is  very  dull  and  list- 
less, with  a  temperature  up  to  104°  or  105°.  It  staggers 
about  like  a  drunken  man,  swings  its  head  from  side  to  side,  and 
occasionally  falls  on  its  sides,  manifesting  all  the  symptoms  01 
uraemic  poisoning. 

Ischuria,  or  Rete7ition  of  the  Urine^  may  be  due  (i)  to  sup- 
pressed action  of  the  kidneys,  as  in  fever  or  inflammation  of  the 
kidney;  or  (2)  to  the  bladder  being  greatly  distended.  The  latter 
point  may  be  caused  by  spasm  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder  (due 
perhaps  to  the  application  of  a  fly-bUster  or  the  administration  of 
turpentine),  or  by  some  obstruction  in  the  passage  of  the  urethra. 
If  from  the  latter,  the  obstruction  must  be  cut  down  upon  and 
removed.  If  from  spasm,  the  catheter  must  be  passed  and  the 
urine  drawn  off". 

The  symptoms  are  frequent  attempts  to  urinate,  stamping  of 
the  feet,  and  turning  of  the  head  to  one  side.  Long  journeys, 
and  horses  being  put  in  stables  with  no  straw,  are  the  chief  causes. 

In  the  mare  and  cow,  this  retention  of  urine  is  sometimes  due 
to  the  passage  being  damaged  in  difficult  cases  of  parturition. 
Inflammation  of  the  parts  is  set  up,  and  this  must  be  treated  by 
hot  fomentations  and  warm-water  injections  into  the  rectum  and 
vagina,  with  removal  of  the  urine  by  the  catheter. 

In  the  treatment  of  the  foregoing  complaints,  either  in  horses 
or  cattle,  small  doses  of  raw  linseed  oil  (say  ten  ounces)  with  one 
ounce  chlorodyne,  every  eight  hours,  will  be  found  beneficial. 

Inflammation  of  the  Bladder. — This  is  comparatively  rare, 
and  is  generally  due  to  damage  done  during  difficult  parturition, 
or  to  the  improper  use  of  strong  diuretics,  such  as  turpentine,  etc. 
The  symptoms  are  continuous  straining  to  urinate,  and  the  ejection 
of  a  little  bloody  urine. 

Apply  hot  fomentations  to  the  loins,  or,  better,  a  large  poultice 
of  Indian-meal  porridge  in  a  bag  laid  across  the  loins.  Give  small 
doses  of  linseed-oil  and  chlorodyne,  as  in  the  last  case. 

Abscesses  have  been  found  in  the  bladder.  These,  also,  are 
the  result  of  damage  in  difficult  parturition.  The  symptoms  are 
frequent  straining,  as  if  about  to  calve.  From  the  peculiarity  of 
the  complaint,  it  should  be  put  in  the  hands  of  a  qualified  man. 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE.  259 

Gravel,  or  Calculi,  are  also  at  times  found  in  the  bladder. 
This,  also,  should  be  treated  by  a  qualified  practitioner. 

It  has  been  found  that  bulls  fed  on  mangolds  become  unfruitful. 
The  reason  is  thought  to  be  owing  to  a  large  number  of  white 
crystals  forming  in  the  bladder  and  urethra;  these  are  trans- 
mitted with  the  seminal  fluid  into  the  uterus,  and  prevent  proper 
conception.  These  white  crystals  are  found,  on  blow-pipe  analysis, 
to  be  ammonium-magnesium  phosphate. 

The  same  crystals  are  also  found  in  the  bladder  and  urethra  of 
rams  and  wethers,  collecting  in  such  quantities  in  the  vermiform 
appendage  at  the  end  of  the  penis  as  to  entirely  block  up  the 
passage.  This  causes  continuous  straining  to  urinate,  and,  if  not 
relieved,  they  die  from  rupture  of  the  bladder  or  uraemic  poison. 
Making  an  opening  with  a  lancet  at  the  base  of  the  "  worm"  has 
in  many  cases  been  highly  successful,  without  at  all  interfering 
with  the  generative  powers  of  the  ram. 

In  wethers  the  "  worm  "  might  be  cut  off.  The  complaint  is 
most  frequently  seen  where  the  sheep  are  folded  on  turnips  grown 
with  superphosphate.  As  a  preventive,  the  tops  of  spruce  or  fir 
trees  might  be  placed  in  different  parts  of  the  field.  The  sheep 
eat  the  green  portions  and  bark  of  the  tree  with  great  relish  and 
benefit. 

Small  Calculi  are  at  times  found  in  the  urethral  tract  of  dogs 
and  horses.  They  must  be  removed  by  cutting  down  on  them. 
This  must  be  done  by  a  veterinary  surgeon. 

In  the  Fossa  navicularis,  at  the  end  of  the  penis  of  the  horse, 
collections  of  a  sebaceous  character  accumulate,  until  at  times  they 
become  so  large  that,  by  pressing  on  the  end  of  the  urethra,  they 
cause  much  pain.  From  nervous  reflex  action  of  the  pain,  the 
animal  in  some  cases  is  unable  to  stir  either  hind  leg;  others 
go  lame  on  one  leg  only.  When  suspected,  examine  the  parts 
and  remove  the  collection. 

The  Female  Organs  of  generation  are  also  liable  to  derange- 
ment and  disease. 

Vaginitis,  or  inflammation  of  the  lining  of  the  vagina,  is 
principally  due  to  injury  from  difficult  parturition.  It  may  also 
be  caused  by  contact  with  an  unclean  male.  The  latter  produces 
a  vesicular  eruption  all  over  the  mucous  surface.  In  the  cow  the 
external  parts  are  slightly  swollen,  with  a  thin  discharge  coming 
from  the  vulva ;  the  animal  is  constantly  rubbing  the  parts  with 
its  tail,  as  if  great  itching  was  experienced.  Inject  a  solution 
of  boracic  acid  (say  ^  oz.  to  i  pint  of  warm  water)  once  a  day 
into  the  vagina-  Give  a  mild  dose  of  laxative  medicine  to  the  cow, 
— 4  ozs.  Epsom  salts,  \  oz.  saltpetre,  i  oz.  powdered  laurel  berries, 
I  oz.   ginger.      This   is   to    be    administered    every    12    hours, 


26o  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE, 

until  4  or  6  doses  are  given.  With  the  mare,  inject  into  the 
vagina  boracic  acid  solution,  and  give  half-ounce  doses  of  chlorate 
of  potash  every  night  in  a  bran  mash.  Give  a  slight  dose  of 
laxative  medicine. 

In  some  parts  of  the  country,  a  complaint  peculiar  to  wh'fe 
heife7-s  is  very  common,  and  known  by  the  name  of  Impervious 
Os.  This  is  obliteration  of  the  passage  to  the  womb.  It  is 
usually  seen  in  animals  from  two  to  three  years  old,  and  symptoms 
of  the  complaint  are  rarely  shown  until  after  having  been  served. 
About  a  fortnight  or  up  to  six  weeks  after  being  in  contact  with 
the  male,  the  animal  commences  to  pain  and  strain  as  if  about  to 
calve.  The  case  must  be  attended  to  immediately,  and,  on  examina- 
tion, by  passing  the  hand  well  oiled  into  the  rectum,  a  large 
distension  is  found  in  the  pelvic  bones  and  under  the  floor 
of  the  rectum.  The  fluid  must  be  drawn  off  by  an  operation 
with  the  trocar  and  canula.  After  removal  of  the  fluid,  the  parts 
should  be  well  washed  out  with  i  gallon  of  tepid  water  and 
I  oz.  of  tincture  of  iron,  put  in  by  the  injection  pipe.  The  writer 
has  operated  on  a  large  number  of  cases,  both  before  and 
after  the  heifer  has  been  in  contact  with  the  male.  In  one  case 
the  animal  was  only  nine  months  old.  It  is  needless  to  say 
that  these  animals  are  of  no  use  for  breeding  purposes,  and  must 
be  fattened  oif. 

Abortion  in  Cattle. 

This  is  a  most  important  matter,  not  only  to  the  stock-owner, 
but  also  to  the  veterinary  profession. 

Abortion  arises  from  a  large  number  of  causes.  We  may  have 
a  solitary  case  and  no  more.  Again,  we  have  cases  that  spring 
up  where  no  cause  can  be  attributed,  and  then  pass  like  an 
epidemic  throughout  the  district.  The  most  frequent  cause  that 
has  come  under  the  writer's  observation,  is  that  where  a  farmer  is 
changing  his  holding,  selling  ofl*  his  own  original  stock,  and  getting 
his  new  herd  from  various  sales,  auction  marts,  etc.  The  pregnant 
cows,  being  obtained  from  different  places,  are  perhaps  three  parts 
gone  in  gestation.  They  are,  perhaps,  tied  up  in  the  byre  on  the 
unaccustomed  side  and  with  strange  companions.  One  more 
nervous  than  the  rest  frets,  and  finally  casts  her  calf.  The  result 
is  that  all  the  pregnant  animals  follow  her  example.  Another 
cause  is  that  of  putting  pregnant  animals  on  marshes  or  grazing 
pastures  to  associate  with  cattle  from  different  parts.  Very 
possibly  some  of  these  animals  may  have  recently  aborted  or  cast 
their  calves.  The  in-calf  cows  readily  become  infected,  and  the 
result  is  that  abortion  is  brought  on  and  rages  like  an  epidemic. 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE.  26l 

Immediately  a  cow  is  showing  signs  of  parting  with  her 
offspring,  she  ought  to  be  taken  out  of  the  byre  from  amongst 
the  other  pregnant  animals.  She  should  be  put  into  a  box,  and 
left  there  to  calve  by  herself.  No  cow  should  be  allowed  to  calve 
in  a  byre  amongst  other  pregnant  animals  at  any  time,  whether 
abortion  be  prevalent  or  not.  Even  when  no  abortion  is  on  the 
premises,  a  cow,  up  to  her  full  period,  in  the  act  of  parturition, 
through  sympathetic  action  on  the  part  of  one  or  more  of  her 
in-calf  companions,  may  cause  them  to  cast  their  calves  before 
the  proper  time.  Abortion  may  then  be  set  up  in  the  stock. 
Every  stock-breeder,  therefore,  should  have  one  or  more  nursery 
boxes,  into  which  cows  may  be  turned  to  calve  by  themselves. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  add  that  cleanliness  and  sanitation 
should  be  looked  to  in  the  byres.  Lime-wash  with  carbolic 
acid  should  be  freely  used  on  the  walls.  The  writer  does  not 
agree  with  the  method  of  injecting  germicide  mixtures  into  the 
generative  organs  of  pregnant  animals. 

Parturition. 

The  same  method  of  operation  usually  answers  in  mares, 
cows,  and  sheep.  We  will  take  the  natural  presentation  in  a  fat 
shorthorn  heifer,  first  calf,  where  the  opening  is  constricted  but 
the  ligaments  quite  relaxed.  The  two  fore  feet  protrude  through 
the  opening.  These  are  usually  seized  by  the  attendants,  and 
pulled  till  both  shoulders  and  the  head  are  jammed  tight  in  the 
passage.  The  foetus  is,  however,  extracted  with  a  great  deal  of 
main  strength  and  stupidity,  and  often  the  vagina  is  so  much  torn 
that  fatal  haemorrhage  occurs.  To  perform  the  operation  pro- 
perly, begin  by  oiUng  the  hand  well,  and  then  introduce  it  into  the 
passage.  Examine  the  head  and  all  its  surroundings ;  then  pass 
a  string  or  cord  over  the  head  and  behind  the  ears  of  the  calf, 
making  a  loop  in  front  outside  by  knotting  the  ends.  By 
traction  on  the  cord  and  manipulating  with  the  other  hand, 
deliver  the  head,  occasionally  pulling  first  one  leg  and  then  the 
other.  The  foetus  then  generally  comes  away.  At  times,  however, 
other  difficulties  are  met  with,  such  as  dropsy  of  the  abdomen  of  the 
calf.  In  this  case  the  head  and  fore  legs  are  presented  in  a  natural 
position,  but  still  the  foetus  cannot  be  extracted.  On  passing  the 
hand  over  the  head,  neck,  and  shoulders  of  the  calf,  the  belly  is 
found  to  be  of  an  enormous  size,  preventing  delivery.  A  special 
finger  knife  or  trocar  is  passed  up,  and  an  opening  made  into 
the  side  of  the  calf.  The  fluid  comes  away  and  the  calf  as  well, 
without  any  trouble. 

The  next  presentation  is  a  very  common  one,  both  in  the  mare 


262  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

and  cow.  It  is  where  both  fore  legs  are  presented,  while  the 
head  is  bent  back,  the  nose  pointing  behind  the  elbow.  This  case 
is  sometimes  very  troublesome,  but^  if  attention  be  paid  at  an  early 
stage,  it  is  managed  simply  enough  by  passing  a  cord  to  the  under 
jaw  and  giving  it  to  an  assistant  to  hold ;  then,  by  pressing  the 
foetus  back  and  working  the  head  over  the  shoulder,  get  it  into  a 
natural  position,{and  the  operation  is  soon  finished.  Sometimes, 
however,  and  this  happens  too  frequently,  the  foetus  is  dead,  the 
uterus  has  contracted  on  its  contents,  and  a  nasty  acid  secretion  is 
found  in  the  womb.  The  hand  cannot  then  be  introduced  to  make 
examinations  with  freedom.  In  these  cases  a  quantity  of  strained 
linseed  jelly  should  be  injected  into  the  womb  with  Reid's  patent 
enema  syringe ;  this  is  a  great  help,  as  it  distends  the  walls  of 
the  uterus,  and  acts  the  part  of  the  natural  fluids. 

If  the  head  cannot  be  got  into  position,  the  fore  legs  must  be 
removed.  Passing  an  embryotomy  knife  on  the  shoulder  of  the 
foetus  as  far  as  can  be  reached,  the  operator  draws  the  instrument 
carefully  and  firmly  along  the  whole  length  of  the  limb,  and  cuts 
through  the  skin  from  the  shoulder  to  the  fetlock  or  middle  of  the 
shank,  as  required.  Then,  with  the  fingers,  skin  the  Hmb  up  the 
shoulder  and  as  far  as  can  be  reached.  Strong  cords  having  been 
attached  to 'the  pastern,  or  above  the  knee  if  practicable,  cut 
through  the  pectoral  muscles,  and  pull  the  limb  away.  Do  the 
same  with  the  other  leg.  Having  lost  the  support  of  the  fore 
limbs,  which  have  been  holding  it  up,  the  foetus  drops  to  the 
bottom  of  the  womb.  There  is  then  a  chance  of  reaching  the 
head,  and,  by  the  use  of  hooks  sunk  into  the  different  parts  of  the 
neck,  and  pressing  the  body  of  the  foetus  back,  the  head  is  got 
into  position,  and  successful  extraction  of  the  partially  dismem- 
bered body  follows. 

In  the  mare  this  presentation  is  a  very  frequent  and  a  very 
formidable  one,  more  particularly  when  the  head  is  bent  back  and 
lying  on  the  quarter.  In  fact,  when  the  foal  is  got  away,  the 
bones  of  the  face  are  so  concave  that  they  exactly  fit  the  quarters. 
Two  or  three  pains  are  sufficient  to  jamb  the  foetus  against  the 
pelvis  of  the  mother,  while  the  legs  project  outside  to  above  the 
knees.  It  is  impossible  to  turn  the  foal's  head  round  so  long  as 
the  two  fore  legs  are  projecting  from  the  passage,  the  foetus  being 
pressed  up  against  the  spine  of  the  mother. 

When  a  case  of  this  kind  is  met  with,  make  a  very  careful 
examination.  If  only  the  tips  of  the  ears  can  be  reached,  neither 
the  strength  of  the  patient  nor  that  of  the  operator  should  be  wasted. 
Proceed  at  once  to  cut  the  foal  away  in  the  manner  already  de- 
scribed above ;  remove  the  fore  legs  and  turn  the  head  round. 
Cases  of  this  kind  are,  however,  met  with,  both  in  the  mare  and 


VETERINARY  SCIENCE.  263 

COW,  in  which  the  ribs  have  to  be  cut  into.  Twist  one  or  two 
off,  put  the  hand  into  the  abdominal  and  thoracic  cavities  of  the 
foetus,  and  remove  their  contents.  The  head  can  then  be  turned 
and  extracted  easily. 

There  are  several  other  minor  cases  in  which  the  fore  legs  are 
presented,  and  the  head  turned  on  the  shoulder,  or  it  may  be 
with  the  nose  pointing  into  the  flank,  or  the  head  turned  on  to 
the  back  of  the  foetus  with  the  lower  jaw  upwards.  These  are 
removed  in  a  somewhat  similar  manner  to  those  already  described. 
The  legs  are  secured,  and  the  head  brought  round  by  cords  and 
hooks,  meanwhile  pressing  the  foetus  back  into  the  body  of  the 
womb.  Again,  the  fore  legs  may  be  presented  with  the  head 
doubled  down  under  the  neck,  and  the  occipitus  of  the  foetus  pre- 
sented at  the  brim  of  the  pelvis.  Secure  the  legs  with  ropes, 
and  also  put  one  round  the  lower  jaw,  or  insert  a  hook  into 
the  eye  socket.  Press  the  foetus  back,  and  lift  the  head  into 
position. 

A  somewhat  formidable  -  looking  presentation  is  met  with 
where  all  four  legs  are  found  in  the  vagina,  with  the  head  thrown 
back  and  out  of  reach.  This  can  be  made  a  very  long  and 
tedious  operation,  or  a  very  short  one,  according  to  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  done.  It  is  a  very  common  presentation  in 
the  mare.  After  careful  examination,  attach  cords  to  the  hind 
pasterns,  press  the  fore  limbs  back,  pull  first  one  and  then  the 
other  of  the  hind  limbs  through  the  vulva,  and  you  will  generally 
succeed  in  the  removal  without  any  cutting  at  all.  It  frequently 
happens,  however,  that  some  one  has  pulled  the  fore  legs  out  too 
far  to  be  returned  with  safety  to  the  mother ;  the  fore  legs  must 
then  be  removed  at  the  shoulder,  and  the  hind  limbs  drawn 
forwards  as  already  described. 

The  next  is  the  breech  presentation.  In  the  mare,  when  the 
tail  only  is  presented  and  the  points  of  the  hocks  cannot  be  found, 
the  case  looks  desperate.  After  satisfying  yourself  that  the  legs 
cannot  be  got,  and  only  the  tail  and  quarters  are  to  be  felt,  waste 
no  time.  With  an  embryotomy  knife  in  the  hand,  reach  as  far 
over  the  stifle  of  the  foetus  as  possible,  plunge  the  knife  through 
the  skin,  and  cut  steadily  through  the  muscles  over  the  hip  joint 
towards  the  tail,  cutting  and  tearing  down  the  tissues  until  the 
joint  be  reached.  Divide  the  ligament — rather  a  difficult  task ; 
set  the  head  of  the  femur  at  liberty ;  attach  a  good  strong  plough 
cord  around  the  neck  of  the  femur,  and  give  it  to  an  assistant  to 
draw.  Then  with  the  knife  divide  the  muscles  on  the  inside  01 
the  thigh,  and  for  this  purpose  nothing  beats  the  ordinary  shoeing 
knife.  The  greatest  difficulty  is  in  cutting  through  the  fascia  and 
skin  inside  of  the  thigh,  but  you  will  succeed  in  this  as  the  limb 


264  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

is  drawn  head  foremost  into  the  passage.  When  the  leg  is 
removed,  next  cut  into  the  abdomen,  pass  in  the  hand  and  tear  out 
the  viscera,  both  abdominal  and  thoracic.  Attach  a  rope  to  the 
pelvic  opening,  and  have  an  attendant  steadily  pulling  it,  while 
the  remaining  leg  is  pressed  up  against  the  now  emptied  belly. 
Lift  the  foetus  into  the  passage.  This  is  usually  successful,  but 
cases  are  met  with  where  both  hind  legs  have  to  be  removed,  as 
well  as  the  viscera,  before  delivery  can  be  accomplished. 

The  next  case  is  where  the  hind  legs  are  presented  transversely 
across  the  womb,  with  the  points  of  the  hocks  opposite  the 
passage,  and  neither  the  feet  nor  stifle  in  reach.  With  difficulty 
the  legs  may  be  cut  off  by  the  hock  joint  Instead  of  this,  by 
dividing  the  tendon  achilleS;  flex  the  shank  against  the  front  of 
the  tibia,  first  passing  a  cord  round  the  joint.  Extraction  then 
follows.  When  the  points  of  the  hocks  are  found  at  the  brim 
of  the  pelvis  of  the  mare,  by  pressing  the  foetus  forward  with 
the  repeller  and  getting  the  hocks  up  towards  the  spine  of  the 
mother,  the  hind  feet  may  be  placed  in  position. 

In  cows  these  breech  presentations  are  generally  very  simple, 
and  removed  in  the  manner  just  shown. 

Ectopia  abdominis  is  sometimes  found  in  the  calf.  The  hind 
legs  are  doubled  forward  over  the  back  and  on  to  the  shoulders, 
with  the  head  and  fore  limbs  flexed  backwards  also  on  to  the 
shoulders.  The  walls  of  the  abdomen  are  partly  reflected  over 
the  limbs  and  head,  and  the  bowels  are  floating  loose  in  the  womb 
of  the  cow.  When  the  abdominal  viscera  of  the  foetus  are  pre- 
sented, first  remove  them  by  tearing  away  with  the  hand  and 
then  with  a  good  knife — a  shoeing  knife  preferably.  Cut  through 
the  spine  and  reflected  integuments,  the  latter  operation  being 
more  difficult.  Then  with  hooks  take  either  the  hind  or  fore 
portion,  whichever  is  most  favourably  presented,  and  pull  it 
away. 

Hydrocephalus,  or  water  in  the  head  of  the  calf. — Press  the 
embryotomy  knife  into  the  bladder- like  head.  The  fluid  escapes 
and  extraction  becomes  simple. 

With  Twin  Calves  be  very  careful  in  examining  and  securing 
the  legs  and  head  proper  to  each  calf.  Sometimes  the  fore  leg  of 
one,  and  the  hind  leg  of  another  are  drawn  into  the  passages ; 
at  other  times  the  head  of  one  calf  and  fore  legs  of  another. 

Constriction  of  the  Os  uteri. — In  the  cow  it  is  known  in 
Cumberland  as  "  Horny  Lyer."  Smear  the  parts  well  with  extract 
of  belladona,  and  give  the  animal  two  drams  of  gum  opium  sus- 
pended in  hot  water.  Then  wait  a  few  hours  before  attempting 
removal.  If  the  labour  pains  are  very  strong,  pass  a  cord  round 
the  body  of  the  mother,  and  through  it  put  a  stout  stick.     This  is 


VETERINARY   SCIENCE.  265 

used  by  an  attendant  to  twitch  and  tighten  the  rope,  thus 
preventing  the  abdominal  muscles  from  strong  and  violent  action 
until  the  opium  takes  effect.  Sometimes  the  os  has  to  be  cut,  but 
in  these  cases  you  must  not  only  have  patience,  but  exercise  it. 
Generally,  the  belladonna  application,  the  opium,  the  involuntary 
contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  uterus,  and  the  exercise  of 
patience  succeed  without  any  cutting  whatever. 

Retention  of  the  Foetus  is  occasionally  seen  in  cows.  At  the 
end  of  the  gestation  period,  the  pelvic  ligaments  become  relaxed, 
the  outer  parts  freshen,  the  udder  distends,  the  teats  stiffen  and 
become  pointed.  All  seems  in  full  and  natural  condition  for 
calving ;  but  there  are  no  symptoms  of  labour  pains.  Finally  the 
ligaments  tighten  up,  the  udder  scales  away,  and  the  animal  com- 
mences feeding.  Strange  to  say,  different  bones  belonging  to  the 
foetus,  such  as  the  jaw,  scapula,  ribs,  humerus,  and  several  others, 
are  passed  at  times  through  the  rectum.  These  are  interesting 
cases. 

Well-bred  sheep  in  frosty  weather  frequently  have  Eversion  of 
the  Vagina,  particularly  of  the  upper  portion,  with  the  os  uteri 
constricted,  and  the  ewe  paining  very  much.  Smear  the  vagina 
all  over  with  extract  of  belladonna,  and  return  it.  Then,  to  keep 
it  in  position  till  the  os  dilates,  put  two  stitches  of  tape  across  the 
opening,  and  give  the  sheep  from  8  to  10  ozs.  linseed  oil,  and 
Joz.  tinct.  opii.  P.B.  If  the  weather  be  mild  they  generally  do 
well,  but  if  severe  frost,  the  case  may  end  in  inflammation  and 
gangrene. 

In  all  cases  of  difficult  parturition  in  the  mare  wait  about  six 
hours,  and  if  by  that  time  the  after-birth  does  not  come  away,  it 
must  be  removed.  Then  wash  the  uterus  out  well  with  two  or 
three  gallons  of  tepid  water,  and,  after  this  has  been  expelled, 
inject  the  uterus  with  2  gallons  tepid  water  containing  i  oz. 
tincture  of  iron.     Give  the  following  draught : — 

Linseed  oil,  i  pint. 

Tincture  of  opium,  B.P,  2  to  3  oz. 

Aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia,  2  to  3  oz. 

In  some  seasons  the  retention  of  the  placenta  in  the  mare 
appears  almost  as  an  epidemic.  If  it  is  not  removed  within 
twelve  hours  after  parturition,  it  is  usually  followed  by  laminitis  or 
pyaemia  and  death.  Cattle,  on  the  other  hand,  can  retain  the 
placenta  for  from  six  to  eight  days  without  any  inconvenience. 

Great  care  should  be  used  in  removing  the  placenta  from  the 
mare ;  the  least  portion  left  will  cause  a  great  amount  of  con- 
stitutional disturbance.  Mares  out  at  grass  can  retain  the  placenta 
a  much  longer  time  without  any  bad  effects  than  those  in  the  stable. 


266  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Many  serious  accidents  are  met  with  in  parturition  in  the 
mare.  At  times  the  fore  feet  of  the  foetus  are  pressed  through 
the  top  of  the  vagina  into  the  rectum  and  out  at  the  anus.  All 
haste  must  be  exercised  in  pushing  the  foetus  back  and  putting 
the  feet  into  their  proper  position.  The  wound  thus  made  rarely 
heals  up,  as  the  parts  are  never  at  rest,  on  account  of  the  muscular 
action  of  the  rectum.  Some  of  the  faeces  pass  out  through  the 
vulva.  Mares  have  been  known  to  breed  with  this  defect  without 
any  bad  consequences. 

Again,  the  same  accident  is  succeeded  with  more  serious 
results  when,  by  the  pains  of  the  mother,  the  limbs  tear  through 
and  make  the  passages  into  one.  This,  of  course,  never  heals, 
and  the  faeces  and  urine  come  from  one  common  opening. 
Immense  sloughing  of  the  neighbouring  parts  sometimes  takes 
place. 

Eversion  of  the  uterus  is  very  common  in  the  cow,  and  in 
many  cases  it  is  only  returned  with  difficulty ;  but  in  the  mare  it 
is  extremely  rare.  These  are  cases  consequent  to  parturition.  At 
times  the  bladder  is  everted,  and  the  animal  has  considerable 
straining  and  paining,  with  a  constant  dribble  of  the  urine  from 
a  yellowish-blue  bag  hanging  from  the  opening.  It  is  readily 
returned,  but  difficult  to  keep  in  its  place. 

Post-partum  Hsemorrhage.— In  these  cases  a  cotton  bed- 
sheet  should  be  put  into  a  bucket  of  cold  water,  to  which  is  added 
I  oz.  tincture  of  iron.  The  cloth  is  partially  wrung  out  and  then 
packed  into  the  vaginal  canal,  leaving  it  till  it  comes  away  by 
itself  in  the  same  way  as  if  the  animal  were  cleansing.  Then 
keep  her  quiet. 

Milk  Fever. — The  attack  comes  on  within  twenty-four  hours 
of  calving;  the  cow  staggers,  then  lies  down  on  her  sternum, 
turns  her  head  on  her  shoulder,  and  breathes  heavily.  It  is 
greatly  due  to  three  shocks — (i)  the  expulsion  of  the  foetus,  and 
the  expansion  and  relaxation  of  the  womb ;  (2)  taking  away  the 
calf  from  the  cow ;  (3)  drawing  off  all  the  milk.  High  feeding 
causes  a  tendency  towards  it.  As  a  preventive  give  2  lbs. 
castor  oil  seven  or  eight  days  before,  and  two  to  eight  hours  after, 
calving.  Leave  the  cow  and  calf  together  for  a  few  days,  or 
draw  off  only  two-thirds  of  the  milk  each  time  for  five  days.  When 
the  attack  begins,  prop  the  animal  up,  and  give  i  pint  of  whiskey. 
If  it  falls  into  a  comatose  condition,  give  i  pint  whiskey,  i  quart 
beer,  2  lbs.  treacle,  and  4  ozs.  mustard.  Dash  cold  water  over 
the  beast,  and  keep  a  cold-water  blanket  around  it. 


(     26/     ) 


CHAPTER  VII. 


AGRICULTURAL   ENTOMOLOGY. 

The  pests  attacking  crops  are  either  (i)  animals  or  (2)  plants. 
Those  belonging  to  the  former  class  are  chiefly  insects ;  those  of 
the  latter  are  generally  fungi. 

(a)  Insect  Pests. 

Insects  belong  to  the  great  sub-kingdom,  Invertebrata  (those 
without  backbones).  Their  division  of  Insecta  is  divided  into 
the  two  tribes  of  Mandibulata  (biting-mouthed)  and  Haustellata 
(sucking-mouthed).  These  are  divided  again  into  the  following 
orders,  chiefly  with  reference  to  their  wings  : — 


I. — Mandibulata. 

I. 

Order. 
Coleoptera 

Characteristic. 
. .     Sheath  winged 

Examples. 
.     Beetles. 

2. 

4- 

k 
I: 

Euplexoptera 

Thysanoptera 

Orthoptera 

Trichoptera 

Neuroptera 

Hymenoptera 

Strepsiptera 

W.— Hausteh 

..     Tightly-folded  winged 
.     Fringe  winged     . . 
.     Straight  winged  . . 
.     Hairy  winged 
.     Nerve  winged 
.     Membrane  winged 
.     Twisted  winged  . . 

ata. 

.     Earwigs. 

.     Thrips. 

. .     Crickets,  grasshoppers. 
. .     Caddice  flies. 

.     White  ants,  May  flies. 

.     Saw  flies,  wasps,  bees. 
..     Bee  parasites. 

I. 

2. 
3- 
4- 
5- 

Order. 
Lepidoptera 
Diptera 
Aphaniptera 
Homoptera 
Heteroptera 

Characteristic. 
.     Scale  winged 
.     Two  winged 
.     Imperceptible  winged 
.     Similar  winged   . . 
.     Dissimilar  winged 

Examples. 
.     Butterflies,  moths. 
.     Beetflies,DaddyLonglegs 
.     Fleas. 

Aphides. 
.     Plant  bugs. 

Phases  of  Inseci  Life. 

All  insects  pass  through  certain  changes  before  being  full- 
grown,  and  it  is  very  rarely  that  the  mature  insect  is  similar  to 
the  one  which  comes  out  of  the  egg. 


268  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

The  Egg. — Insects  are  either  hatched  from  eggs  (oviparous), 
or  produced  alive  by  the  female  parent  (viviparous).  The  eggs 
of  the  cabbage  butterfly  can  readily  be  obtained  from  the  under 
surface  of  a  cabbage  leaf  and  examined.  They  are  of  a  whitish 
or  yellow  colour,  elliptical,  and  are  fastened  to  the  leaves  by  a 
gummy  secretion.  The  eggs  are  seen  to  contain  a  small  speck  or 
embryo,  which  gradually  increases  in  size,  and  at  length  bursts  its 
coat.  The  embryo  is  now  known  as  the  Larva  (grub,  caterpillar). 
It  should  be  remembered  that  insects  are  never  produced  by 
vegetable  or  other  organic  matter,  but  only  by  other  mature 
insects. 

The  LarvsB  are  generally  long  cylindrical  fleshy  grubs,  with  or 
without  a  few  pairs  of  short  fleshy  legs,  and  often  with  a  somewhat 
rudimentary  mouth.  The  larvae  of  coleoptera  are  usually  fleshy 
grubs,  having  scaly  heads  furnished  with  jaws  ;  sometimes  they 
are  legless,  but  commonly  have  a  pair  of  short  legs  on  each  of  the 
three  segments  next  to  the  head;  and  the  last  segment  of  the 
body  has  often  a  fleshy  foot  beneath  it.  Those  of  the  Lepidoptera 
are  nearly  cylindrical,  long,  soft,  and  variously  coloured,  spined 
or  tubercled  j  the  head  is  scaly  or  horny,  bearing  eyes,  jaws,  and 
a  pair  of  short  horns ;  the  three  segments  next  to  the  head  have 
usually  a  pair  of  horny  feet  on  each,  and  of  the  remaining  nine 
segments  the  tail  and  the  four  intermediate  ones  are  usually  each 
furnished  with  a  pair  of  sucker  feet.  The  grubs  of  the«Diptera 
are  fleshy  and  generally  footless,  sometimes  having  a  hard  head 
furnished  with  nippers  or  jaws ;  but  often  are  cylindrical,  truncate 
at  tail,  and  elongated  at  the  anterior  extremity,  which  contains  a 
soft  mass  answering  for  the  head,  and  bearing  a  pair  of  hooks 
instead  of  jaws.     (Miss  Ormerod.) 

The  larva  eats  voraciously,  and  increases  in  size,  casting  ofl"  its 
coat,  or  moulting,  whenever  it  becomes  too  little.  It  at  length 
reaches  a  certain  stage,  when  it  spins  a  cocoon  round  itself,  and 
changes  into  the  pupa,  or  chrysalis. 

The  Pupa. — In  this  state  the  perfect  insect  begins  to  gradually 
form,  and  it  is  a  kind  of  transition  state  between  the  grub  and 
the  mature  winged  form.  The  nervous  structure  is  rearranged ; 
the  segments  of  the  body  become  united  to  form  the  head, 
thorax,  and  abdomen;  the  legs  are  confined  to  the  thorax; 
wings  form ;  and  the  whole  structure  is  more  perfectly  developed. 
At  length  the  outer  covering  is  cracked,  and  the  insect  slowly 
draws  itself  out  of  its  tightly  fitting  case,  and  may  now  be  said  to 
be  mature.  The  wings  gradually  expand  and  the  body  coat 
hardens. 

Imago  is  the  scientific  name  of  the  perfect  insect.  Pairing 
soon  commences,  and  then  the  male  usually  dies.     The  female, 


AGRICULTURAL  ENTOMOLOGY.  269 

however,  is  of  longer  life,  having  to  deposit  her  eggs.  In  some 
species  both  male  and  female  live  through  the  winter  and  reappear 
in  spring. 

We  will  now  consider  briefly  the  chief  injurious  insects,  taking 
them  according  to  their  orders,  and  giving  the  prevention  and 
remedy. 

Insects  belonging  to  the  Coleoptera. 

Apple-blossom  Weevil  iA?ii/wnomus  pojnoriwi). — These  attack 
the  young  apple-blossoms,  biting  a  hole  into  the  yet  unopened 
flower,  and  then  the  female  lays  an  egg  inside  the  corolla.  Eggs 
hatch  in  April ;  the  grub  feeds  on  the  inner  parts  of  the  flower, 
causing  it  to  die  away.  The  maggot  turns  into  the  chrysalis 
in  the  bud,  and  in  about  a  month  the  weevils  come  out.  They 
feed  chiefly  on  the  apple  leaves,  and  live  under  the  rough  bark  and 
various  kinds  of  rubbish  until  next  year. 

Remove  all  rubbish  and  rough  bark.  Place  bands  of  some 
sticky  material  round  the  tree,  and  thus  prevent  the  female  from 
creeping  up.  Keep  the  trees  well  pruned.  Spraying  with 
solutions  of  soft  soap,  mineral  oils,  ammoniacal  liquor,  tobacco- 
water,  or  of  Paris-green  (|  lb.  to  150  gallons  water)  has  succeeded. 

Bean  Beetle  {Bruchus  rufimanus). — The  female  lays  her  eggs 
on  the  ovary  of  the  flower ;  the  maggot  soon  hatches  and  eats  its 
way  through  the  tender  pod  into  the  forming  seed.  Here  it  feeds, 
and  at  length  changes  into  the  chrysalis,  from  which  the  beetle 
comes  out  in  spring.  The  beans  thus  attacked  have  large  holes 
in  them,  often  covered  by  the  skin,  and,  although  the  germ  is  rarely 
attacked,  are  of  little  use  for  seed. 

Always  use  good  seed.  Soaking  the  beans  in  water,  or  in 
weak  solutions  of  copper  sulphate  or  carbolic  acid,  is  said  to  kill 
the  beetle. 

Cabbage  Gall-weevil  {Ceiiforhynchus  sulcicoUis). — The  female 
lays  her  eggs  in  small  holes  on  the  cabbage  root  or  the  turnip 
bulb.  The  maggots  feed  inside  these  galls,  which  soon  tend  to 
cause  the  whole  root  to  decay.  The  maggots,  when  full-grown, 
leave  the  galls,  and,  after  forming  an  earthy  case  round  themselves, 
change  into  the  pupa  in  the  soil.   The  beetle  may  be  found  in  spring. 

Burn  all  cabbage-stocks  as  soon  as  taken  from  the  land.  Apply 
about  two  tons  of  gas-lime  per  acre  in  autumn.  Wood-ashes,  or 
ashes,  and  soil  with  a  little  paraffin  oil  may  be  used. 

Wireworms  {Agnates  Uneatus^  A.  sputator^  A,  obscurus). — Wire- 
worm  is  the  name  commonly  applied  to  the  grub  of  the  click  beetle 
or  skip-jack,  so  called  from  its  manner  of  gaining  its  proper  position 
when  laid  on  its  back.     The  tgg  is  either  laid  on  the  ground  or 


270  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

on  leaves  close  to  the  ground.  When  hatched,  the  maggots  eat 
into  the  stem  slightly  below  the  surface.  They  feed  on  the  roots 
and  stem  of  many  plants,  but  particularly  on  those  of  wheat  and 
grasses,  for  from  three  to  five  years.  They  feed  very  voraciously, 
and  are  seldom  injured  by  cold,  as  they  go  deeper  and  deeper 
into  the  earth  during  frost.  When  about  to  form  the  chrysalis, 
they  go  deep  into  the  soil,  and  form  an  earth  cell.  In  about 
a  fortnight  the  perfect  beetle  comes  up,  generally  in  the  middle  of 
summer,  and  the  rotation  commences  again. 

Close  graze  the  pastures,  and  then  put  sheep  on,  or  roll  so  as 
to  consolidate  it.  Apply  fresh  gas-lime,  quicklime,  or  salt  (5  to 
10  cwt.  per  acre),  so  as  to  kill  the  pest.  Paring  and  burning, 
clears  away  many  insects.  Rape  dust  draws  the  attack  off  the 
crop,  and,  applied  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three  tons  per  acre,  soon 
clears  the  field.  Superphosphate,  guano,  and  nitrate  of  soda  are 
used  to  promote  a  strong  healthy  growth  of  the  plant. 

Turnip  Fly,  or  Flea  Beetle  {Haltica  \Phyllotreta\  nemorum). 
The  turnip  fly  is  a  very  small,  black,  or  greenish-black  beetle, 
having  a  broad  yellowish  stripe  down  each  wing-case.  During 
the  winter  the  flea  beetle  remains  under  clods  of  earth,  straw, 
fallen  leaves,  etc.,  and  in  spring  begins  to  feed  on  cruciferous  weeds, 
attacking  the  turnips  when  in  the  rough-leaf  state.  The  eggs 
are  laid  at  the  rate  of  one  per  day,  on  the  under  surface  of  the 
rough  turnip  (or  other  cruciferous)  leaves.  Maggots  hatch  from 
these  in  ten  days  and  immediately  begin  the  attack,  boring;  into 
the  leaf  and  feeding  on  the  soft  tissues  inside.  After  six  days, 
they  come  out  of  the  leaf  and  bury  themselves  just  below  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  changing  into  the  chrysalis  form.  The 
perfect  beetle  comes  up  in  fourteen  days,  and  begins  to  cause 
immense  damage  by  devouring  the  leaves. 

Clear  away  all  cruciferous  weeds  (such  as  shepherd's  purse, 
charlock,  wild  radish,  garlic  mustard,  hedge  mustard,  etc.),  as  it 
is  on  these  that  the  fly  lives  until  the  turnips  have  sent  up  their 
leaves.  Keep  the  land  moist,  if  possible,  by  not  working  it  too 
much  in  spring,  getting,  however,  a  fine  tilth.  For  this  purpose 
the  cultivator  is  specially  adapted,  as  it  does  not  expose  fresh 
soil  to  the  air.  Use  plenty  of  seed,  and  apply  some  active 
fertilizer  to  push  the  plant  on  as  rapidly  as  possible  through 
the  time  of  the  seed-leaves.  Nitrate  of  soda  and  guano  are 
often  used  for  the  latter  purpose.  Some  farmers  drive  sheep 
or  drag  bushes  over  the  rows  when  the  dew  is  on  the  leaf. 
The  beetle  cannot  jump  then,  being  clogged  with  moisture,  and 
consequently  many  die.  If  a  door  be  tarred,  put  on  wheels,  and 
dragged  across  the  turnip  field,  many  flies,  in  jumping  to  get 
out  of  the  way,  will  stick  fast  to  the  tar.     Mr.  Fisher  Hobbs 


AGRICULTURAL  ENTOMOLOGY.  2/1 

recommends  the  following  dressing,  to  be  applied  in  a  fine  powder 
early  in  the  morning  when  there  is  plenty  of  dew  on  the  leaf : 
^  bushel  gas-lime,  i  bushel  fresh  lime,  3  lbs.  sulphur,  and  5  lbs. 
soot  per  acre.  The  strawsonizer  is  an  excellent  machine  by 
which  to  apply  the  mixture.  Another  dressing,  to  be  applied 
at  night,  consists  of  i  bushel  of  fresh  lime,  2  bushels  of  road- 
scrapings,  and  14  lbs.  sulphur. 

Mustard  Beetle,  or  Black  Jack  {PhcBdon  betulce). — The  beetles 
pass  the  winter  under  any  convenient  shelter.  In  the  spring  they 
commence  to  lay  eggs  and  then  quickly  die.  The  grubs,  which 
hatch  from  these  eggs,  are  very  voracious,  and  turn  to  chrysalids 
in  the  ground.  The  summer  beetles  come  from  these  in  fourteen 
days,  and  commence  at  once  to  destroy  the  mustard  crop. 

Burn  all  the  straw,  if  possible.  If  the  crop  appears  to  be 
failing,  plough  it  into  the  ground.  Growing  no  mustard  on  the 
land  for  several  years  causes  the  numbers  of  insects  to  lessen 
greatly.  The  beetle  is  very  sluggish  in  its  flight,  and  hence  its 
progress  from  one  field  to  another  can  easily  be  stopped  by 
burning  damp  straw.     Dressings  of  any  kind  are  of  little  use. 

Clover  Weevil  {Apion  apricans  and  A,  assimile). — The  weevils 
(which  are  pear-shaped  and  have  long  probosci)  pair  in  spring, 
and  the  female  then  begins  to  lay  her  eggs  in  the  clover  blossoms. 
The  larvae  feed  on  the  ovules  (seeds)  of  the  flower.  When  full 
grown  they  change  into  the  pupa  form  at  the  base  of  the  blossom. 
The  weevils  come  out  in  a  fortnight,  or  may  remain  till  next  spring. 

Do  not  grow  clover  for  several  years.  If  attacked,  mow  the 
clover  when  green  and  feed  at  once,  or  make  into  silage.  Burn 
all  refuse  heads  seen. 

Insects  belonging  to  the  Thysanoptera. 

Corn  Thrips  (Thrips  cerealium). — The  thrips  is  a  very  small 
black  insect,  attacking  corn  and  grass  crops.  Its  eggs  are  laid  on 
the  plants  in  spring,  and  the  various  changes  of  the  insect  rapidly 
go  on,  the  mature  form  being  found  about  July.  The  thrips 
sucks  away  the  juices  of  the  plant  and  causes  the  grain  to  shrivel. 
They  live  through  the  winter  under  rough  clods,  etc. 

Drain  the  land  thoroughly,  as  they  are  found  most  frequently 
on  marshy  ground.  Till  it  well,  [and  remove  all  weeds.  Do  not 
allow  any  high  hedges.    Apply  gas-lime,  and  plough  the  land  deeply. 

Insects  belonging  to  the  Hymenoptera. 

Turnip  Sawfly  {Athalia  spinarum). — The  eggs,  which  are  very 
numerous,  are  deposited  in  small  holes  cut  in  the  leaf  by  the 
ovipositor  of  the  female.     They  hatch  in  about  a  week.     The 


2/2  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

caterpillars  are  black,  with  whitish  head,  and  have  numerous  feet. 
In  about  three  weeks  they  go  into  the  earth,  spin  a  cocoon,  and 
change  into  the  chrysalis.  The  time  in  which  the  insect  remains 
as  a  chrysalis  varies  greatly.  The  flies  rapidly  devour  the  leaves 
of  turnips,  and  cause  great  damage  to  the  crop. 

The  grubs  should  be  disturbed  as  much  as  possible  by  dragging 
branches  over  the  land.  The  larvae  moult  frequently  and,  if 
disturbed,  they  do  not  succeed  in  drawing  off  the  old  coat,  and 
die.  Also  they  drop  from  the  leaf  when  shaken,  and  find 
difficulty  in  getting  back.  As  the  fly  dislikes  moisture,  it  would 
be  well  to  apply  liquid  manure  or  weak  solutions  of  guano  or 
nitrate  of  soda  to  the  crop. 

Gooseberry  and  Currant  Sawfly  {Neuiaius  rihesii). — The 
female  appears  in  April,  and  lays  her  eggs  on  the  under  surface  of 
the  leaves.  The  grubs  hatch  in  a  week,  and  feed  on  the  leaf. 
After  a  while,  the  grub  drops  to  the  ground,  buries  itself,  and 
forms  a  chrysalis.  The  fly  may  come  out  the  same  summer  or 
remain  until  next  spring. 

Remove  the  surface  soil  from  under  the  bushes,  and  bury  it. 
Then  sprinkle  a  little  caustic  lime  about  the  roots,  and  put  in 
some  fresh  soil.  Soot,  flowers  of  sulphur,  salt  or  lime  may  be 
given  as  dry  dressings  in  a  fine  powder.  Washes  of  soap-suds, 
containing  a  little  soot  or  salt,  are  useful. 

Insects  belonging  to  the  Lepidoptera. 

White  Cabbage  Butterflies  (Pieris  brassicce,  P.  rapcs^  and 
P.  napi). — The  first  is  the  large  white  cabbage  butterfly,  the 
second  is  the  small  white,  and  the  third  the  green-veined  white 
cabbage  butterfly.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  clusters  on  the  under 
surfaces  of  leaves,  and  there  the  caterpillar  is  hatched.  The 
caterpillars  feed  on  the  leaves  of  the  cabbage  crops,  until  only 
the  veins  remain.  When  full-grown,  they  go  to  some  quiet 
spot,  hang  themselves  up  by  the  tail,  and  change  into  crysalids. 
These  form  the  perfect  insect  in  about  a  fortnight,  or  else  the 
chrysalis  does  not  come  out  until  next  spring.  The  caterpillars 
are  attacked  and  often  destroyed  by  small  ichneumon  flies,  which 
lay  their  eggs  in  the  backs  of  the  larvae. 

Clean  out  the  winter  shelters  of  the  chrysalis.  The  cater- 
pillars and  chrysalids  may  be  hand-picked  and  destroyed. 
Sprinkle  salt,  soot,  or  lime  in  a  fine  powder  over  the  plants. 
Give  washes  of  solutions  of  alum.  Large  amounts  of  water 
thrown  over  the  cabbages  in  the  evening  cause  the  leaves  to  be 
cold  and  moist,  and  in  consequence  the  caterpillars  are  severely 
purged  and  may  die. 


AGRICULTURAL  ENTOMOLOGY.  2/3 

Diamond-back  Moth  {Flulella  cruciferarum), — The  eggs  are 
laid  in  masses,  and  from  these  the  grubs  come  in  large  numbers, 
soon  clearing  away  the  leaves  of  turnips  and  rape.  The  chrysalis 
has  a  net-like  cocoon,  and  is  found  near  or  on  the  ground.  The 
summer  moths  come  out  in  three  weeks,  those  from  autumn 
cocoons  in  spring. 

Give  plenty  of  good  stimulating  dressings  to  the  crop,  nitrate 
of  soda  and  soot  have  been  much  recommended.  Soot,  applied 
when  the  leaves  are  wet  with  dew,  soon  kills  the  insect.  Mr. 
Fisher  Hobbs's  dressing  for  the  turnip  fly  might  prove  of  great 
use.  Pass  bushes  over  the  field  so  as  to  disturb  the  pest,  and 
destroy  all  cruciferous  weeds  which  might  favour  the  attack. 

Magpie  Moth  (Abraxas  grossulariatd). — The  female  lays  the 
%gg  or  eggs  on  leaves  during  summer.  The  caterpillars  appear  in 
August  and  September,  feed  a  short  time,  and  find  some  shelter 
in  the  ground  or  among  leaves  through  winter.  In  the  spring 
they  attack  the  leafage  of  gooseberr}^-  and  currant-bushes.  The 
caterpillar  assumes  a  looped  form  when  walking,  and  hence  is 
sometimes  known  as  a  "  looper."  The  chrysalis,  into  which  the 
grub  turns  when  full  fed,  about  the  end  of  May,  may  be  found 
attached  to  twigs,  or  in  crevices  of  walls.  The  moth  comes  out 
about  midsummer.  It  is  easily  recognized  by  the  wings  being 
white  with  numerous  black  spots. 

Clear  away  all  fallen  leaves  and  the  surface  soil  from  about 
the  bushes  in  early  winter,  when  the  bushes  should  also  be  well 
pruned.  Hand-pick  or  shake  the  bushes,  and  destroy  the 
caterpillars  thus  collected.  Put  a  sticky  band  round  the  stems. 
Dust  the  bushes  well  with  caustic  lime. 

Codlin  Moth  {Carpocapsa  pomonella). — The  eggs  are  laid 
usually  in  the  eye  of  the  apple.  The  grub  soon  hatches  and 
bores  its  way  into  the  apple,  not  injuring  the  core,  and  makes 
a  hole  through  the  skin  near  the  bottom,  through  which  it 
passes  the  rubbish.  When  full  grown,  it  pierces  the  core  and 
feeds  on  the  pips,  causing  the  apple  to  fall.  The  caterpillar  then 
leaves  the  apple,  ascends  some  tree,  seeks  a  hole  in  the  bark, 
spins  a  cocoon,  and  forms  the  chrysalis.  The  moth  comes  out  the 
next  summer  and  attacks  the  apples  itself. 

All  loose  bark  should  be  scraped  off  the  trees  and  burned. 
The  trees  should  then  be  washed  with  a  solution  of  soft  soap  and 
mineral  oil.  No  fallen  fruit  should  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the 
ground,  or  the  caterpillars  may  leave  it  and  escape.  The  remedies 
for  apple-blossom  weevil  are  of  use  against  the  codlin  moth. 

Winter  Moth  {Cheimatobia  brumaia). — The  female,  which  is 
nearly  wingless,  appears  in  October,  climbs  up  some  fruit  tree,  as 
apple,  pear,  cherry,  plum,  and  lays  her  eggs  in  crevices  of  the  bark 

T 


2/4  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

or  on  buds.  The  eggs  hatch  by  next  April.  The  caterpillars  feed 
on  the  leaves  and  flowers  of  the  tree,  destroying  everything  they 
attack,  and  effectually  preventing  the  formation  of  any  fruit. 
They  change  into  chrysalids  in  May,  in  the  ground.  The  moths 
come  out  in  autumn. 

Place  bands  of  sticky  material,  as  bird-lime  or  grease,  round 
the  trunks  of  the  trees  so  as  to  prevent  the  female  climbing  up. 
Prune  the  trees  late,  and  burn  all  the  prunings,  as  these  may 
contain  the  larvae.  Shake  the  insects  off  the  trees,  if  possible, 
and  then  burn  them.  Burn  the  surface  soil  just  under  the  trees. 
Give  washes  of  kerosene  and  soapsuds  (made  by  boiling  i 
gallon  water  and  i  lb.  soap,  and  adding  2  quarts  kerosene  oil). 
Sprayings  with  solutions  of  Paris-green  may  be  given.  The 
proportions  used  are  i  oz.  to  10  gallons  water  for  plums,  and 
I  oz.  to  20  gallons  for  apples.  The  strawsonizer  is  of  great 
service  in  applying  these  mixtures. 

Insects  bei-onging  to  the  Diptera. 

Hessian  Fly  {Cecidomyia  destructor). — The  eggs,  which  are 
very  small  and  of  a  reddish  colour,  are  laid  near  a  knot  on  the 
straw  of  some  cereal  crop  or  on  the  stems  of  couch  grass  or 
timothy.  The  maggot  is  white  and  legless,  with  a  very  rudi- 
mentary mouth,  and  is  produced  when  the  egg  is  four  days  old. 
It  lies  inside  the  leaf-sheath,  a  little  above  the  second  knot,  and 
there  sucks  away  the  juices  of  the  plant.  The  larva  has  a  peculiar 
process  just  below  the  mouth,  known  as  the  "  anchor  process,"  or 
'*  cecidomyous  appendage,"  thought  to  aid  in  clearing  away 
material  in  feeding.  The  attack  of  the  maggot  so  weakens  the 
straw  that  it  generally  bends  over,  and  consequently  the  head  lies 
on  the  ground  and  is  much  injured,  besides  being  impoverished 
by  the  attack.  After  twenty-eight  days,\the  larva  changes  into  the 
chrysalis  just  where  it  lies.  The  pupa  is  a  flat  brown  oval  body, 
resembling  flax  seed,  and  sometimes  called  by  that  name.  The 
case  of  the  chrysalis  is  at  first  smooth,  but  afterwards  becomes 
much  wrinkled.  The  fly  comes  out  in  about  three  weeks.  It  is 
brown  in  colour,  with  one  pair  of  grey  wings  (the  other  pair  being 
replaced,  as  in  all  Diptera,  by  a  pair  of  knob-like  processes  or 
"halteres").  It  is  \  inch  long,  with  long  legs  and  antennae 
(horns). 

Destroy  all  the  light  corn  obtained  when  threshing,  as  it  usually 
contains  a  large  proportion  of  "  flax  seeds."  It  may  be  either 
burned  or  boiled.  Sow  the  autumn  wheat  as  late  as  possible,  as 
then  the  flies  will  probably  be  dead  before  the  young  corn  comes 
yp.     Infested  stubbles  should  be  burned  if  convenient,  or  ploughed 


AGRICULTURAL  ENTOMOLOGY.  275 

SO  as  to  turn  the  furrow  slice  completely  over,  and  prevent  the  fly 
from  coming  to  the  surface.  In  threshing,  the  straw  should  be 
stacked  tightly,  and  not  left  lying  about ;  the  flies  are  kept  in  the 
stack,  and  die.  Use  a  firm  strawed  corn  which  will  not  readily 
bend  down ;  and  give  plenty  of  good  manures  to  keep  it  in  a 
healthy  condition. 

Daddy  Longlegs,  or  Crane  Ply  {Tipula  oleracea). — The  eggs 
are  laid  in  autumn  on  the  ground,  or  on  any  damp  rank  herbage 
near  the  ground.  The  eggs  are  numerous,  small,  and  black.  The 
grubs  are  i  to  ij  inches  long,  and  gnaw  their  way  among  the 
roots  and  stems  a  little  below  the  surface,  causing  great  damage. 
The  grubs  change  into  the  chrysalids  a  little  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  The  flies  come  out  towards  the  end  of  the  summer, 
leaving  the  empty  pupa-cases  sticking  up  out  of  the  earth.  The 
fly  is  noted  for  its  long  legs. 

As  the  eggs  are  chiefly  found  in  damp  rank  pastures,  mowing 
and  burning  rough  tufts  and  draining  the  pastures  prevent  egg- 
laying  greatly.  The  land  should  always  be  eaten  off  as  bare  as 
possible  with  sheep.  Applications  of  gas-lime  and  salt  have  been 
of  great  use.  Paring  and  burning,  and  deep  ploughing,  kill 
many  insects.  RoUing  may  destroy  the  grub  in  the  soil.  Guano, 
nitrate  of  soda,  salt,  and  superphosphate  promote  healthy  growth. 

Carrot  Fly  {Psila  rosce). — The  grubs  attack  the  lower  part  of 
the  root  of  the  carrot,  burrowing  into  it  and  causing  the  whole 
plant  to  gradually  die.  The  maggot  turns  into  a  chrysaUs  in  the 
earth.  The  flies  come  out  in  a  month  in  summer,  but  in  winter 
they  remain  as  pupa  till  next  spring.  The  attack  is  sometimes 
known  by  the  name  of  rust,  owing  to  the  colour  which  the  diseased 
parts  turn.  On  heavy  clays  the  attack  is  worse  than  on  peaty  01 
sandy  soils. 

Thoroughly  till  the  land  to  as  great  a  depth  as  possible.  Thin 
the  crop  early,  and  leave  no  broken  pieces  of  carrots  in  the  ground. 
Applications  of  salt,  soot,  and  parafiin  oil  are  useful.  Give  a 
dressing  of  gas-lime  to  the  land  in  autumn.  It  has  been  recom- 
mended to  mix  a  little  tar  with  the  soil  in  autumn,  and  work  it  in 
thoroughly.  Give  stimulating  dressings  to  the  crop.  After  the 
carrots  have  been  carted  away,  plough  the  land  deeply,  when 
many  maggots  are  buried. 

Beet  or  Mangel  Fly  {Anthomyia  betce). — The  eggs  are  laid  in 
patches  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves.  They  are  very  small, 
white,  and  oval  in  shape,  with  regular  hexagonal  markings.  The 
maggots  feed  on  the  inner  tissues  of  the  leaf,  causing  brownish 
coloured  bhsters.  After  a  month  the  maggots  change  into 
chrysalids,  either  in  the  leaf,  or  about  3  inches  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground.     The  flies  come  out  in  about  a  fortnight.     The 


2/6  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

first  brood  appears  from  March  to  May,  and  there  are  one  or  two 
later  broods. 

Give  plenty  of  good  artificial  dressings,  such  as  superphosphate, 
guano,  and  nitrate  of  soda.  Salt  is  said  to  check  the  attack. 
The  infested  plants  may  be  pulled  out  when  young  and  destroyed. 

Gout  Fly,  or  Ribbon-footed  Corn  Fly  {Chlorop  tceniopus).— 
The  eggs  are  laid  inside  the  sheathing  leaves  of  the  young  ear  of 
cereals.  The  maggot  attacks  the  ear,  wholly  or  partly  destroying 
it.  The  grub  then  eats  its  way  down  the  stem  to  the  topmost 
knot,  forming  a  blackened  channel.  There  it  changes  into  the 
reddish  chrysalis,  from  which  the  fly  comes  out  about  harvest. 
The  name  of  "  Gout  Fly  "  is  given  because  of  the  swollen  state  of 
the  stalk  near  the  ear,  which  the  fly  causes.  It  is  thought  that 
the  winter  is  passed  by  the  larva  among  various  kinds  of  grasses. 

Sow  the  grain  as  early  as  possible,  as  then  the  plant  is  strong, 
and  the  maggot  is  not  able  to  move  about  so  readily.  Drain  the 
land  well,  the  fly  being  most  prevalent  on  wet  parts.  Give  dressings 
ot  good  manures,  as  equal  parts  of  guano  and  superphosphate,  to 
the  crop,  and  thus  hurry  it  on. 

Wheat  Midge  {Ceddomyta  tritici). — The  eggs  are  laid  in  the 
evenings  by  the  female,  which  deposits  them  in  the  young  florets. 
The  maggots,  which  come  out  in  ten  days,  feed  in  the  ears  of  the 
wheat  until  full  grown,  when  they  go  down  into  the  earth  and 
change  into  chrysalids.     The  flies  appear  in  June  and  July. 

Plough  the  land  in  autumn  so  as  to  bury  as  many  flies  as 
possible  in  their  winter  shelters.  Also  burn  the  heaps  of  chaff 
obtained  in  threshing  infested  grain.  Clear  away  all  headlands 
of  grass  if  possible,  especially  those  of  meadow  foxtail  and  couch 
grass. 

Insects  belonging  to  the  Homoptera. 

Hop  Aphis  {Aphis  humuli), — There  are  two  kinds  of  females 
of  the  hop  aphis,  the  wingless  oviparous  and  the  winged  viviparous 
forms.  The  males  and  wingless  females  pair  in  the  end  of  summer, 
and  then  numerous  eggs  are  produced.  These  eggs  remain  through 
winter,  and  in  the  spring  produce  the  larvae.  These  feed  on  the 
leaves  of  the  hop.  The  winged  females  come  out  in  May  and 
June,  and  produce  several  broods  of  live  young.  The  latter  rapidly 
clear  away  the  leaves  of  the  hops,  owing  to  their  immense  numbers. 
They  feed  by  driving  their  beaks  into  the  leaves,  and  then  sucking 
up  the  juices.  The  leaves  in  consequence  soon  shrivel  up.  The 
wingless  oviparous  females  come  out  from  these  about  autumn. 
It  is  said  that  this  female  passes  the  winter,  if  possible,  on  plum- 
trees,  and  there  lays  its  eggs;  the  viviparous  form  migrating  to 
the  hops  in  spring. 


AGRICULTURAL  ENTOMOLOGY.  277 

All  pieces  of  dead  hops,  or  other  materials  which  might  shelter 
the  pest,  should  be  removed  at  once  from  the  field.  Mixtures  of 
paraffin  oil  and  ashes,  or  any  disagreeable  or  caustic  substance,  as 
quicklime,  gas-lime,  soot,  etc.,  when  put  around  the  hills  on 
which  the  hops  grow  in  winter,  prevent  the  plants  being  attacked 
by  the  wingless  female  and  by  the  larva.  Washes  of  soapsuds, 
and  solutions  of  quassia,  sprayed  over  the  hops  by  engines,  are 
very  useful.  Tobacco  water  and  mixtures  of  soapsuds  and  mineral 
oil  have  been  of  use  when  squirted  on.  The  washes  should  be 
used  on  the  plum-trees  as  well  as  on  the  hops. 

Ladybirds  {Coccinelld)  feed  voraciously  on  aphides,  and  they 
and  their  larva  should  be  protected. 

Bean  Aphis  {Aphis  rumicis). — The  wingless  females  produce 
living  young,  generally  at  the  tops  of  the  beanstalks.  These  also 
produce  living  young,  and  thus  the  breeding  goes  on,  enormous 
numbers  of  the  aphis  being  produced.  They  are  black  in  colour 
(hence  their  names  of  "  Collier,"  and  "  Black  Dolphin.")  They 
suck  away  the  juices  of  the  plant,  puncturing  the  epidermis  and 
causing  the  plant  to  be  in  a  very  dirty  sticky  state.  There  are 
three  kinds  of  females  j  the  winged  and  wingless,  producing 
living  young,  and  the  wingless  oviparous  female.  The  latter  lays 
her  eggs  in  autumn,  and  new  generations  start  from  them  in 
spring. 

The  tops  of  the  shoots,  as  soon  as  infested,  should  be  clipped 
off  with  all  the  insects  on,  and  immediately  destroyed.  Dressings 
of  soot  are  of  great  use,  as  are  also  washings  of  soapsuds  and 
paraffin  oil  well  mixed.  These  stick  to  the  aphis  and  prevent 
them  breathing,  which  is  otherwise  carried  on  by  means  of  tracheae 
(openings)  in  the  sides  of  the  insect  Keep  up  a  good  growth  with 
dressings  of  superphosphate,  etc. 

Plum  Aphis  {Aphis pruni). — There  are  three  kinds  of  females, 
similar  to  those  of  the  bean  aphis.  The  two  viviparous  females 
produce  numerous  broods  of  young  throughout  the  summer.  The 
oviparous  female  begins  in  November  to  lay  its  eggs.  The  insects 
excrete  substances  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  plant.  They 
obtain  their  food  from  the  leaves  by  their  suckers,  causing  the 
leaf  to  roll  up,  and  living  inside  the  roll. 

Give  washes  of  a  solution  of  soft-soap,  or  of  soap  and  paraffin 
oil.  The  following  mixture  has  been  found  useful :  10  gallons 
water,  20  oz.  each  of  quassia  and  soft-soap,  i  oz.  Paris  green; 
the  whole  well  boiled. 

Turnip  Aphis  {Aphis  r^/^).— The  life  history  is  similar  to 
those  of  other  aphides.  They  attack  the  under  surfaces  of  the 
leaves  of  swedes,  turnips,  and  sometimes  potatoes. 

Various  washes,  especially  when  distributed  by  the  strawsonizer, 


278  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

are  very  useful.  They  chiefly  consist  of  soft  soap,  tobacco,  quassia 
chips,  or  mineral  oil.  Twenty-eight  pounds  of  soap,  and  i  lb. 
tobacco,  per  loo  gallons  water,  or  ^  gill  paraffin  oil  per  gallon  ot 
water,  may  be  used. 

Corn  Aphis  {Aphis  granaria). — The  insects  attack  cereal  crops, 
driving  their  beaks  into  the  stems  and  leaves,  and  sucking  up 
their  juices.  Afterwards  they  attack  the  ears,  and  feed  on  this  part 
until,  as  it  gets  older,  it  hardens  and  prevents  them  piercing  it 
with  their  beaks. 

Sow  the  seed  early,  as  then  the  grain  will  be  more  mature 
before  the  attack  begins.  Clear  away  all  graminaceous  weeds, 
and  apply  dressings  of  fine  lime  and  soot. 

{f})  Other  Small  Animal  Pests. 

Stem  Eelworm  {Tylenchus  devasiatrix). — These  small  nematoid 
worms  belong  to  the  Scolecida.  They  got  their  name  of  eelworm 
from  their  long  slender  form.  They  have  a  spear-like  process  in 
their  mouth-cavity,  and  the  alimentary  canal  runs  right  through 
the  body.  They  are  produced  in  large  numbers  from  eggs.  The 
worms  attack  the  stems  and  flowers  of  clovers,  causing  clover 
sickness,  and  also  the  lower  parts  of  the  stems  of  oats,  causing 
tulip-root,  or  segging. 

Do  not  grow  clover  or  oats  on  the  same  land  for  many  years 
after  the  attack.  Skim-ploughing,  thoroughly  done,  will  bury 
numbers  of  worms.  A  mixture  of  sulphate  of  potash  3  cwts.,  and 
sulphate  of  ammonia  i  cwt.  per  acre  is  of  use,  as  is  also  2  cwts. 
sulphate  of  iron. 

Ear-cockles  {Tylenchus  iritici), — Belong  to  the  same  genus  as 
the  last.  The  small  worms  attack  the  grain  of  wheat,  and  may 
be  found  in  large  numbers  there.  They  cause  the  grains  to 
become  large,  and  of  a  purplish  colour,  and  to  appear  filled  with 
a  dense  cotton-like  mass. 

As  the  affected  grains  are  lighter  than  others,  they  can  be 
separated  by  throwing  the  seed  into  water,  and  skimming  ofi" 
those  which  float  on  the  surface.  Do  not,  if  possible,  allow  any 
of  the  infested  grain  to  remain  in  the  field  or  be  returned  in  the 
manure.  Steep  the  grain  before  sowing  in  a  solution  of  copper 
sulphate  (i  lb.  to  4  bushels  seed). 

Millepedes  {Julus  and  Polydesmus). — These  belong  to  the  sub- 
kingdom  Myriapoda.  They  have  a  worm-Hke  form  with  numerous 
legs.  The  eggs  are  laid  through  winter  in  the  ground,  or  amongst 
dead  leaves  or  other  rubbish.  The  millepedes  feed  on  vegetable 
matter,  and  often  attack  mangels,  and  the  roots  and  stems  of 
many  other  plants.    Centipedes,  which  closely  resemble  millepedes, 


AGRICULTURAL  ENTOMOLOGY.  270 

are  animal  feeders,  and  are  useful  in  destroying  many  small  insects 
and  grubs. 

Clear  away  all  rubbish  heaps,  and  skim  plough  the  field,  so  as 
to  bury  the  pest.  Solutions  of  salt  or  nitrate  of  soda  kill  the 
millepedes. 

Slugs  {Limax  and  Arion).  Belong  to  the  order  Mollusca. 
They  lay  their  eggs  in  the  ground.  They  attack  many  kinds  of 
plants,  chiefly  in  gardens. 

Give  repeated  dressings  of  salt,  quick-lime,  gas-lime,  or  soot. 


PART   II.— AGRICULTURAL    PRACTICE. 

CHAPTER   I. 
mechanical  improvements  of  the  soil. 

Tillage  Operations. 

Before  we  enter  into  the  details  of  tillage  operations,  there 
are  certain  preliminary  matters  to  be  considered.  It  is  particu- 
larly important  that  the  cost  of  the  different  kinds  of  work  be 
known,  and,  in  order  to  arrive  at  a  definite  conclusion,  the  price 
of  horse  labour  must  first  be  reckoned.  On  p.  428  will  be  found 
an  example  showing  the  cost  of  keeping  a  Clydesdale.  The 
amount  is  about  ;£'29  per  year. 

Taking  the  number  of  days  on  which  light  land  can  be  worked 
as  290,  and  the  number  on  which  employment  can  be  found  on 
heavy  clays  at  250,  we  find  that  on  the  former  the  daily  cost  of 
horse-labour  is  2^.,  and  on  the  other  about  2s.  ^d.  On  stiff  clays, 
two  horses  will  work  sixty  acres,  equalling  thirty  acres  each. 
From  this  the  cost  of  horse-power  per  acre  would  be  nearly  ;£i. 

Cost  of  Tillage  Operations. — We  have  just  seen  that  horse- 
labour  costs  about  2s.  6d.  per  day.  A  man  often  receives  the 
same  amount,  though  in  harvest  time  his  wages  may  be  doubled. 
A  boy  earns  about  half  as  much  as  a  man ;  a  woman  gets  a  little 
more  than  a  boy.  From  these  prices  the  cost  of  nearly  any 
agricultural  work  may  be  readily  reckoned  out,  if  the  number  of 
labourers  and  horses  and  the  time  required  for  a  certain  amount 
of  work  are  known.  We  give  the  costs  of  the  more  common 
tillage  operations  later  on. 

Fallowing. — The  theory  of  bare  fallows  is  given  on  p.  302, 
and  the  practical  details  of  the  operation  will  now  be  noted. 

The  work  commences  immediately  after  harvest,  the  stubbles 
being  ploughed  up  in  September  or  October,  if  possible.     When 


MECHANICAL  IMPROVEMENTS  OF  SOILS.  28 1 

many  autumn-sown  crops  are  grown,  the  farmer  will  not  be  able 
to  do  this.  The  land  is  left  in  the  rough  state  through  winter. 
Early  in  spring  another  ploughing  is  given  across  the  old  furrows  j 
and  then  two  or  three  harrowings  to  draw  out  the  weeds,  which 
are  collected  with  the  chain-harrow  and  destroyed.  Three  or  four 
more  ploughings  are  afterwards  given  at  intervals  of  from  one  to 
two  months,  finishing  in  August.  During  the  summer  the  land  is 
harrowed  as  many  times  as  possible,  as  many  as  a  dozen  harrow- 
ings and  draggings  being  often  given.  With  the  roasting  effects 
of  the  sun  acting  in  the  favour  of  the  farmer,  there  will  not  be 
many  weeds  left  after  such  a  course  of  operations.  Previous  to 
the  final  ploughing,  a  dressing  of  ten  to  fifteen  tons  of  farm-yard 
manure  or  compost  is  given,  and  then  covered  in  with  the  plough. 
In  some  parts  of  England  it  is  the  custom  to  fold  sheep  upon  the 
bare  fallows.  They  are  kept  within  hurdles  or  nets,  and  green 
fodder,  such  as  vetches,  is  brought  to  them  daily.  Sometimes 
they  receive  concentrated  food  in  addition.  As  soon  as  one 
plot  is  sufficiently  manured,  the  hurdles  are  shifted  on  to  a  fresh 
break. 

After  a  bare  fallow,  wheat  is  nearly  always  taken.  It  is  sown 
in  October,  and  does  not  usually  require  any  further  preparatory 
cultivation. 

Cost  of  Bare  Fallows. 

£  s.   d. 

Five  ploughings,  at  yj.  6^.      . .  , .  . .  . .  . .      i  1 7    6 

Four  drag-harrowings,  at  u.  60'.  . .  . .  . .  ..060 

Seven  harrowings,  at  ()d.        ..  .,  .,  ..  ..036 

One  rolling,  at  u.        . .          . .  . .  . .  . .  ..010 

Collecting  weeds          ..          ..  ..  ..  ..  .,030 

Filling,  carting,  and  spreading  dung  ..  ..  ..076 

Water  furrowing          ..          ..  ..  ..  ..  ..016 

Rents,  rates,  etc.         ,.         ..  ..  ..  ..  ..     i  15    o 

Cost  per  acre        . .  ;^4  1 5    o 


Autumn  Cultivation. 

The  benefits  derived  from  autumn  cultivation  are  numerous 
and  well-known.  At  no  better  time  of  the  year  can  the  soil  be 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  natural  atmospheric  agents.  The 
rains  and  frosts  of  winter  crumble  down  the  clods  and  produce 
the  best  tilths.  Oxidation  is  enabled  to  go  on  for  several  months 
together,  and  hence  the  reason  why  trench-ploughing  is  best  done 
in  autumn.  Again,  just  after  harvest  the  soil  is  in  a  mellow 
condition,  and  weeds  are  somewhat  weak  through  having  been 


282  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

overshadowed  for  such  a  long  time  by  the  corn  crop.  Work  is 
rather  slack  just  then,  and  these  three  conditions  make  autumn 
cultivation  highly  commendable  to  the  farmer.  More  especially 
on  the  stiif  clays  is  this  so.  In  the  spring,  the  periods  during 
which  they  can  be  tilled  with  advantage  are  often  few  and  far 
between,  and  the  farmer  who  has  got  his  land  cleaned  and  well 
worked  previously,  can  get  on  with  his  seeding  early. 

The  processes  of  autumn  cultivation  have  already  been 
indicated  to  some  extent  when  treating  of  the  preparation  of  the 
land  for  roots  in  the  "  Elementary  Text-book."  Should  thorough 
tillage  be  needed,  as  when  the  fields  are  very  weedy,  the  opera- 
tions are  more  numerous.  For  example,  on  light  soils  after 
ploughing,  which  is  most  effectually  done  by  the  chill  plough, 
the  land  is  harrowed,  the  drag  harrows  or  scufflers  being  used. 
This  breaks  up  the  furrows  and  tears  out  the  weeds,  which  may 
then  be  collected  with  the  lighter  harrows.  They  are  burned, 
and  a  rolling  is  next  given,  followed  by  another  harrowing.  All 
these  operations  cannot  often  be  done  in  autumn  on  account 
of  other  work;  a  ploughing  and  harrowing  are  all  the  land 
sometimes  gets.  Should  there  be  time  to  spare  after  doing  this, 
the  operations  may  commence  again  and  finish  up  with  a  deep 
winter  furrow  being  given. 

On  heavy  land  steam  cultivation  is  more  suitable.  A 
thoroughly  good  smashing  up  should  be  given  early  in  autumn, 
or  horse  labour  may  be  employed  in  a  somewhat  similar  manner 
to  the  preceding  case. 

I.  Ordinary  Tillage  Operations. 

Enough  has  already  been  said  upon  the  scientific  side  of 
tillage  in  the  "Elementary  Text-book  on  Agriculture,"  and  at 
present  we  will  deal  more  with  the  actual  operations. 

The  ordinary  tillage  operations  will  be  first  considered. 

Ploughing  involves  the  inversion  of  the  soil  by  means  of  the 
mould-board.  The  process  is  begun  by  the  coulter,  which 
divides  the  furrow-slice  from  the  land.  The  sock  or  share  then 
separates  it  below  and  raises  the  furrow-slice  on  to  the  mould- 
board,  which  turns  it  over  and  lays  it  on  one  side. 

In  order  that  the  operation  may  be  more  easily  performed, 
land  is  ploughed  into  ridges,  separated  one  from  another  by  an 
open  trench,  which  has  been  formed  by  throwing  the  soil  up  on 
both  sides.  The  widths  of  these  ridges  vary;  on  heavy  lands 
they  are  narrower  than  on  light.  The  open  trenches  also  provide 
for  surface  drainage.  In  Scotland  they  are,  as  a  rule,  broader 
than  in  England.     On  clay  soils  the  ridges  may  be  as  narrow  as 


MECHANICAL  IMPROVEMENTS  OF  SOILS.  283 

seven  feet,  and  fourteen  or  sixteen  feet  is  a  common  distance. 
On  light  soil  in  Scotland  eighteen  feet  is  the  usual  width ;  but  in 
drier  climates  they  may  be  up  to  thirty-three  feet.  The  ridges 
usually  run  from  north  to  south,  to  get  a  full  exposure  of  the  crop 
to  the  sun. 

The  first  process  when  the  land  has  to  be  raised  into  ridges 
from  the  flat  is  known  as  "  feering."  The  headland  is  marked 
with  a  furrow  by  the  plough,  and  then  from  one  side  of  the  field 
a  straight  line  is  set  off  about  a  quarter  the  width  of  the  ridge 
away.  From  this  line  all  others  are  now  measured  off.  A  line 
(which  we  may  call  A)  is  set  off  i^  ridges  away,  and  another  (B) 
a  quarter  ridge  off.  The  space  between  the  two  is  divided  at  C. 
A  and  B  form  the  crowns  of  two  ridges,  and  C  an  open  furrow 
between  them.  Ploughing  commences  by  first  throwing  together 
two  furrow-slices  at  B,  and  then  working  round  and  round  them 
until  the  ridge  is  finished.  From  A  another  ridge  is  set  out  and 
divided  into  equal  parts  at  D.  The  ridge  C  to  D  is  now  ploughed 
out,  and  so  the  work  proceeds. 

Another  quicker  method,  suitable  for  light  soils  and  dry 
climates,  is  the  "  two-out-and-two-in "  plan.  The  first  line  (call 
it  A)  set  out  is  one  ridge  breadth  (5  or  5^^  yards)  from  the  hedge, 
and  forms  the  ridge  of  a  land.  From  A,  three  times  this  distance 
is  stepped  out  to  B,  and  the  interval  between  A  and  B  divided 
into  three  equal  parts,  by  the  lines  C  and  D.  Ploughing 
is  commenced  around  the  line  A,  and,  when  finished,  another 
distance  of  two  ridges  is  measured  from  B,  and  the  land  between 
B  and  the  fresh  line  is  ridged  up  around  a  crown  furrow  as  before. 
The  interval  between  C  and  B  is  now  ploughed,  but  in  a  different 
direction  to  the  others.  When  at  work  on  the  two  previous 
pieces,  the  centre  line  was  always  on  the  right  hand,  and  the 
furrow  slices  were  consequently  thrown  in  towards  it.  Now  the 
position  is  reversed,  and  the  line  D  thus  becomes  an  open  furrow. 
After  this  has  been  done,  another  is  measured  out  as  before. 
In  this  manner  it  will  be  seen  that  the  distance  between  two 
open  furrows  is  as  wide  as  four  ridges. 

Among  the  points  to  be  attended  to  in  ploughing  are  (i)  a 
straight  furrow,  of  uniform  depth  and  width ;  (2)  furrow  slice  clean, 
free  from  ragged  edges ;  (3)  furrow  slices  not  pressed  hard  together ; 
but  all  laid  evenly,  and  none  with  higher  crests  than  others ;  (4)  all 
vegetation  to  be  completely  covered ;  (5)  the  ridges  should  be  of 
equal  size  from  the  crown  to  the  furrow  on  both  sides ;  (6)  the 
open  furrows  should  be  regular. 

The  forms  of  furrow-slice  vary  according  to  the  character  of 
the  plough.     Among  them  may  be  taken — 

I.  The   crested^  or  trapezoidal. — This  is  objectionable,  as  it 


284 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


leaves  some  soil  unmoved  in  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  is  not 
firm,  and  allows  the  seed  a  greater  chance  of  falling  through.  It 
is  narrow,  and  hence  is  a  slower  method.     The  advantages  are 


Fig.  33- 

that  it  harrows  down  and  covers  the  seed  well,  and  has  less  open 
space  below. 

2.  The  rectangular  furrow-slice. — It  does  not  harrow  down  so 
easily,  and  plough-irons  are  not  usually  made  to  set  to  it.     It  is, 


however,  better  in  most  respects  than  the  last.  The  furrow-slice 
lies  at  an  angle  of  45°,  and  the  proportion  of  depth  to  breadth  is 
as  seven  to  ten. 

3.  The  parallelogrammatic  furrow-slice. — This  is  the  best  form 


Fig.  35. 

of  the  three.  It  is  proportionately  wide ;  and  plough-irons  are 
easily  set  to  it.  No  soil  is  left  unmoved  in  the  bottom  of  the 
furrows ;  it  is  firm,  crested,  and  harrows  down  well. 

4.  The  «//^^,  ^(j?^  furrow-slice. — In  this  case  the  furrow-slice  is 


Fig.  36. 


turned  completely  over,  and  buries  any  vegetation.    It  is  made  by 
the  short  mould-boards  of  the  chill-plough.    It  is  very  suitable  for 


MECHANICAL  IMPROVEMENTS   OF   SOILS.  285 

light  lands,  as  there  a  large  amount  of  ground  can  be  covered  in 
a  day,  and  the  soil  gets  well  pulverized. 

Size  of  Furrow-slice, — An  ordinary  furrow-slice  is  ten  inches 
wide  by  six  inches  deep. 

Amount  done. — From  |  to  ij  acres  can  be  done  by  horse- 
power in  a  day  of  ten  hours.  On  stiff  clays  the  work  is  very  hard 
from  the  soil  sticking  to  the  plough,  and  then  three  or  even  four 
horses  may  be  required.  On  stubble  land  most  can  be  ploughed. 
The  average  pace  of  the  horses  is  i^  to  2  miles  per  hour,  and, 
with  a  ten-inch  furrow,  they  walk  a  little  less  than  ten  miles  per 
acre.  A  considerable  time  is  always  lost  in  turning,  besides  rests 
and  other  delays.  The  cost  of  ploughing  may  be  taken  at  yj.  dd. 
to  10 J.  per  acre. 

Rafte7-ing^  or  half-ploughing,  somewhat  resembles  the  work 
done  by  the  chill-plough.  It  is  sometimes  undertaken  when  the 
land  is  to  undergo  paring  and  burning.  The  land  is  ploughed  to 
a  depth  of  one  to  three  inches,  a  special  form  of  sock  being 
used.  The  furrow-shces  are  wide  and  are  made  to  fall  upon  the 
land,  so  that  alternate  strips  only  are  dug  out.     Thus,  in  the 


diagram,  the  furrow-slice  A  is  dug  out  of  B  and  spread  over  C, 
the  weeds  being  thus  caught  between  A  and  C. 

Double-mouldboard  Ploughing  is  practised  when  drills  are  raised 
or  split.  The  soil  must  be  in  a  fine  state,  and  it  is  then  thrown 
up  equally  on  both  sides  by  the  two  mould-boards. 

Harrowing  is  usually  performed  with  a  view  either  to  render 
the  surface  soil  fine  or  to  cover  in  seed.  Chain  harrows  are 
also  used  for  collecting  weeds  and  levelling  the  surface  in 
arable  cultivation,  and  for  working  in  composts,  etc.,  on  pastures. 
The  heavy  drag-harrows  break  down  clods  and  do  the  rougher 
work.  Seed-harrows  level  the  surface  and  cover  in  seeds.  For  the 
latter  purpose  they  first  pass  along  the  furrows,  and  then  across 
them,  and  may  sometimes  pass  along  again.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  harrow  corn  in  spring. 

The  amount  harrowed  in  a  day  will  vary  according  to  the 
kind  of  implement  and  the  soil.  A  two-horse  harrow,  covering 
7:^  feet,  will  get  over  eleven  or  twelve  acres  per  day,  giving 
a  single  turn.  Harrows  very  often  cover  more  than  this,  and 
with  one  ten  feet  wide  fifteen  acres  per  day  may  be  finished. 

For   the   light  harrows   dd,  to  9^.  per  acre  may  be  charged 


286  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

for  a  single   turn;  but   for  drag-harrowing  the   cost  is   usually 
doubled. 

Grubbing  or  Cultivating. — By  means  of  the  cultivator  the 
soil  is  stirred  without  being  brought  to  the  surface.  A  depth  of 
four  to  six  inches  can  thus  be  tilled.  For  spring  work  it  is  very 
useful,  and  especially  so  when  preparing  for  turnips  or  mangels. 
The  object  then  to  be  attained  is  to  get  a  fine  tilth  without 
favouring  the  evaporation  of  water,  and  this  is  certainly  better 
accomplished  by  the  grubber  than  by  the  plough.  This  imple- 
ment is  also  very  useful  in  drawing  out  long-rooted  weeds  like 
couch,  though  it  is  apt  to  pass  those  with  tap  roots. 

While  two  horses  only  are  needed  to  work  the  cultivator  on 
light  land,  three  or  even  four  may  be  required  where  the  soil  is  stiffer. 

Two  horses  with  a  five-tine  grubber  on  light  land  will  cultivate 
five  acres  per  day  to  a  depth  of  six  inches.  On  a  stiff  clay  a  three 
or  four-horse  cultivator  will  do  an  acre  more  at  the  same  depth. 

The  cost  per  acre  varies  from  2s.  to  4^.  on  the  heaviest  soils. 

Rolling  has  many  uses  :  (i)  it  breaks  down  clods  and  procures 
a  fine  tilth ;  (2)  it  consolidates  light  soils,  pressing  their  particles 
into  closer  relation  with  the  roots  of  the  crops ;  (3)  it  presses 
the  soil  more  firmly  around  newly  sown  seeds,  and,  before  they 
are  drilled,  a  fine  level  seed-bed  can  be  obtained  which  favours 
the  regular  distribution  of  the  seed.  For  pulverizing  clods,  the 
croskill  roller  is  most  suitable. 

Autumn  wheat  usually  receives  a  rolling  in  spring,  and  thus  any 
plants  thrown  out  of  the  ground  by  frosts  have  the  roots  covered 
again.  This  is  very  important  work,  and  should  be  done  whenever 
possible. 

Rolling  light  land  consolidates  it  to  some  extent  and  gives 
the  crop  a  better  chance  of  growing.  Grass  land  thrives  better 
after  a  good  rolling  given  in  rather  wet  weather.  The  operation, 
on  stiff  land  especially,  must  be  done  when  the  soil  is  dry,  or 
a  hard  condition  of  the  surface  soil  results. 

One  horse,  with  a  light  roller,  five  feet  wide,  will  finish  six 
acres  per  day ;  a  two-horse  roller,  six  feet  wide,  will  do  eight  or 
nine  acres  on  fallow  land,  ten  acres  on  a  seed-bed  for  corn,  and 
twelve  or  thirteen  acres  on  grass  land.  The  cost  per  acre  will 
consequently  vary  greatly ;  in  the  easiest  cases  it  will  not  be  much 
more  than  4^.,  but  the  price  may  rise  to  is. 

Digging  by  manual  labour  is  seldom  carried  out  now  on 
account  of  the  slow  progress  made  and  the  consequent  expense. 
It  is  of  use  (i)  when  thorough  cultivation  is  needed,  and  (2) 
where  a  certain  part  requires  special  cultivation.  For  the  growth 
of  teazles,  for  instance,  spade  husbandry  is  necessary;  but  the 
acreage  under  this  crop  is  insignificant,     To  dig  with  a  spade  an 


MECHANICAL  IMPROVEMENTS  OF  SOILS.  287 

acre  of  land  to  a  depth  of  nine  to  twelve  inches  will  take  a  man 
from  fourteen  to  twenty-one  days  in  recently  moved  soil.  If  old 
lea,  it  will  in  some  cases  take  double  that  time.  The  cost  of  this, 
taking  a  man's  wages  at  2s.  dd.  per  day,  is  easily  reckoned  out, 
and  is  seen  to  be  more  than  the  value  of  the  benefit  obtained. 

Hoeing  is  done  for  two  purposes :  (i)  weeds  are  kept  down, 
(2)  the  surface  soil  is  stirred  and  loosened.  Both  of  these  points 
assist  the  better  growth  of  the  crop,  which  must,  of  course,  be 
drilled.  A  horse-hoe,  doing  ten  or  twelve  acres  corn  land  per  day, 
costs  7^.  per  acre.  A  scuffler  or  simple  drill  hoe  finishes  about 
five  acres  of  roots  or  beans  at  a  cost  of  \s.  3^.  per  acre.  Hand- 
hoeing  is  performed  at  the  rate  of  half  an  acre  per  day  on  fairly 
clean  land ;  this  gives  the  cost  at  5^*.  or  6j.  per  acre.  On  very  foul 
land  only  a  quarter  of  an  acre  per  day  may  be  hoed,  thus  costing  8^. 
or  10 J.  per  acre. 

Steam  Cultivation. 

Steam  power  seemed  at  one  time  likely  to  a  great  extent  to 
supersede  horse  labour  on  the  farm,  but  practical  difficulties  have 
been  found  which  often  will  not  allow  its  use.  Steam  cultivation 
is  at  its  maximum  value  on  the  stiff  clays.  The  evil  effects  of 
the  treading  by  horses  are  avoided,  and  the  chances  of  forming 
indurated  pans  are  lessened.  The  steam  tackle  can  be  put  on 
the  stubbles  soon  after  harvest,  and  the  land  thoroughly  smashed 
up  in  a  short  time.  At  that  period  the  land  is  best  able  to  carry 
any  weight,  and  the  comparative  rapidity  with  which  steam 
cultivation  can  be  carried  out  gives  to  most  of  the  fields  the 
benefits  of  autumn  cultivation.  The  tillage  can  be  made  deeper 
and  more  efficient  than  by  horse  power,  and  the  cost  per  acre 
is  reduced.  When  the  land  is  in  a  fit  state,  its  cultivation  can  be 
got  on  with  more  rapidly.  This  is  a  great  advantage  on  clays,  on 
which  there  are  often  only  short  intervals  during  which  they  are 
fit  to  be  worked.  Steam  implements  enable  the  farmer  to  reduce 
his  staff  of  horses,  and,  as  the  rest  will  be  reHeved  of  the  hardest 
work,  they  can  be  kept  at  less  cost.  Steam  ploughs,  etc.,  it  must 
be  remembered,  do  not  cost  anything  more  for  keeping,  when 
not  working,  than  the  actual  interest  on  the  primary  outlay. 
Horses,  however,  require  to  be  fed,  whether  they  work  or  not. 
The  engine  can  also  often  be  used  for  other  purposes,  such  as 
threshing,  grinding,  chaffing,  etc.,  when  not  engaged  in  tillage  work. 

Among  the  drawbacks  to  steam  cultivation  are : — 

(i)  The  area  of  usage  is  limited  by  the  nature  of  the  ground 
and  size  of  the  fields.  Hilly  surfaces,  and  small  irregularly  shaped 
fields,  are  not  suitable. 

(2)  The   primary  outlay  is  considerable,  and  might  be  too 


288 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


much  for  a  small  farmer,  who  would  have  to  hire  the  tackle  or 
join  with  others  in  the  purchase. 

(3)  Considerable  time  is  taken  up  in  removing  from  one 
field  to  another,  much  more  so  than  with  horse  cultivation. 

(4)  A  certain  amount  of  injury  to  the  headlands  and  gate- 
posts is  often  caused. 

Systems. — There  are  two  chief  systems  of  steam-cultivation, 
viz.  the  single  and  double  engine  methods. 

The  latter  plan  is  most  suitable  for  large  farms.  The  tackle 
is  more  easily  removed  and  set  to  work,  and  nearly  twice  as 
much  work  can  be  done.  Two  engines  are  simply  placed  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  field.  Each  engine  has  a  winding  drum 
underneath  the  boiler,  worked  by  bevelled  gearing  from  a  crank- 


FIG.  3S 

shaft.  The  drums  have  about  four  hundred  yards  of  steel  wire 
each,  which  is  also  fastened  to  the  plough.  The  arrangement 
may  be  seen  in  the  figure.  The  procedure  is  very  simple.  The 
two  engines  at  the  ends  of  the  furrows  alternately  draw  the 
plough  or  other  implement,  guided  by  a  man,  toward  them. 
While  one  is  pulling  in  this  manner,  the  other  moves  forward 
a  little,  so  as  to  be  ready  to  form  a  fresh  series  of  furrows. 

The  single-engine  system  may  be  again  divided  into  two  plans. 
In  one,  the  implements  are  worked  by  ropes  from  an  engine  having 
double  drums  mounted  upon  itself;  in  the  other,  the  rope  proceeds 
from  a  portable  windlass,  carrying  two  drums,  which  are  driven  by 
a  pitch-chain  from  the  crank-shaft  of  an  ordinary  traction  engine. 
In  either  case  it  is  not  necessary  for  the  engine  to  move  while 


MECHANICAL  IMPROVEMENTS  OF  SOILS. 


289 


working,  and  it  can  therefore  be  placed  on  any  convenient  part  of 
the  headland. 

There  is  some  tackle  needed  in  the  single-engine  method, 
which  is  dispensed  with  in  the  other.  More  steel  rope  is  required, 
and  the  plough  runs  between  two  self-moving  "anchors."  These 
consist  of  a  strong  iron  or  wooden  frame  on  four  disc-wheels,  and 
carrying  a  strong  guide-pulley.  From  the  drums  near  the  engine 
the  two  ropes  pass  separately  over  guide-blocks,  and  thence  round 
the  anchors  to  the  plough  or  other  implement. 

The  implement  is  worked  backwards  and  forwards  by  alter- 
nately winding  up  the  rope  on  one  drum,  and  then  allowing  it  to 
run  out  while  that  on  the  other  drum  is  drawn  in.  The  anchors  are 
self-moving,  and  shift  their  position  nearer  to  the  engine  when  the 
plough  gets  to  them.  The  guide-blocks  between  those  at  the 
corners  and  the  anchors  need  to  be  moved  by  hand  as  required. 

Cost  of  Tackle.— 

Double-Engine  System   (Fowler). 


Two  engines 

900  yards  wire  rope 

Single  cj'Under. 

Double  cylinder.              1 

6  horse -power. 

12  horse-power. 

6  horse-power. 

12  horse-power. 

1065      0     0 

74    5    0 

1330   0  0 
94  10  0 

£ 
1200   0  0 

74    5    0 

£ 
1500  0  0 

94  10  0 

1139    5    0 

1424  10  0 

1274    5    0 

1594  10  0 

Single-Engine  System  (Fowler). 


Single  cylinder. 

Compound  cylinder. 

12  horse-power. 

12  horse-power. 

£ 

£ 

One  engine        

1i 

^% 

1200  yards  steel  rope 

68 

Self-moving  anchor      

66 

66 

Three  special   and   three  small    rope 

porters            

18 

18 

Claw-anchors  and  snatch-blocks 

20 

20 

Extra  self-moving  anchor  and  rope, 

required  when  working  with  engine 

stationary       

90 

90 

;^II47 

/1227 

4-furrow  balance  plough 
Turning  cultivator,  7  tines 
„      harrow,  15  ft.  wid 


£ 
102 

85 

97 

U 


290  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Work  done  by  Steam  Implements. 

The  steam-ploughs  and  cultivators  are  the  implements  most 
generally  used.  Both  are  made  to  extend  over  considerably  more 
ground  than  the  ordinary  forms,  and  break  up  the  soil  more 
thoroughly  and  to  a  greater  depth.  The  cultivator,  especially,  is 
a  very  useful  machine.  The  steam  digger  has  been  brought 
forward  prominently  lately.  It  is  a  very  effective  means  of 
smashing  up  the  land,  and  differs  from  other  steam  implements  in 
the  fact  that  the  single  engine  needed  has  the  working  parts 
directly  attached  to  it,  and  consequently  has  to  travel  across  the 
land. 

Steam  cultivation  is  particularly  suited  for  the  autumn,  but 
can  be  used  at  other  times  with  advantage.  About  eight  acres  are 
ploughed  per  day  by  the  double-engine  system,  this  being  at  the 
rate  of  two  acres  per  furrow.  When  hired,  the  charge  per  acre 
will  be  about  fourteen  shillings ;  but  where  the  farmer  has  his 
own  tackle,  it  need  not  cost  him  more  than  eight  or  nine  shillings. 
In  grubbing,  nine  inches  deep,  from  six  to  ten  acres  are  done 
per  day,  according  to  the  system  followed.  Thirty  acres  of  land 
can  be  harrowed  per  day  by  steam,  and  about  ten  acres  may  be 
dug  up  to  a  depth  of  eight  inches.  Twenty  acres  may  be  drilled 
per  day. 

2.  Occasional  Tillage  Operations. 

Besides  the  ordinary  tillage  operations  which  have  just  been 
described,  there  are  several  other  mechanical  means  of  increasing 
the  fertility  of  the  land  which  are  not  so  common,  and  do  not 
require  to  be  performed  annually. 

Subsoil  Ploughing. 

The  object  of  subsoil  ploughing  is  to  deepen  that  section  of 
the  soil  in  which  plants  will  be  able  to  grow.  The  ground  is 
stirred  and  loosened,  air  is  admitted  freely,  and  drainage  is 
facilitated.  Every  extra  inch  in  depth  means  an  enormous 
increase  in  the  plant-food  resources  of  the  soil.  Those  hardened 
layers  of  the  soil  known  as  pans  are  broken  up,  and  the  free 
percolation  of  water  thus  assisted. 

Mr.  Smith  of  Deanstone  recommended  that  the  subsoil  plough 
be  never  used  until  at  least  a  year  after  drainage.  This  allowed 
the  subsoil  time  to  get  into  a  fairly  dry  condition.  Many  failures 
in  subsoiling  have  arisen  through  working  the  subsoil  when  too 
wet.     Among  farmers  employing  steam  cultivation  the  operation 


MECHANICAL   IMPROVEMENTS  OF   SOILS.  29 1 

is  commonly  known  as  knifings  from  the  strong  steel  coulter,  or 
knife,  with  which  it  is  performed. 

Subsoiling  is  either  done  by  horse  or  steam  power ;  but,  as  it 
is  very  hard  work,  the  latter  method  is  preferable,  where  it  can  be 
carried  out.  All  that  is  needed  in  this  case  is  to  fix  a  deep,  strong, 
curved  coulter  to  each  plough-frame.  The  horse  implements,  in 
their  simplest  form,  consist  of  an  iron  beam,  as  in  the  ordinary 
ploughs,  but  rather  stronger,  with  a  strong  wrought-iron  body 
attached,  but  with  no  mouldboard.  The  land  is  first  ploughed 
deeply,  say  to  ten  or  twelve  inches,  with  the  common  plough. 
The  work  is  hard,  and  three  or  four  horses  will  be  needed.  Then 
the  subsoiler  follows,  breaking  up  the  land  to  a  total  depth  of 
about  two  feet.  For  this  purpose  from  four  to  eight  horses  will 
be  required.  An  improved  form  of  the  subsoiler  has  a  strong 
subsoiling  coulter  in  front,  breaking  up  the  land.  Farther  back 
and  to  the  left  is  a  mouldboard,  which  thus  throws  a  furrow-slice 
over  the  subsoiled  portion,  and  prevents  consolidation  by  the 
treading  of  the  horses. 

The  land  is  broken  up  most  thoroughly  by  steam  cultivation, 
a  depth  of  three  feet  being  then  obtainable. 

Subsoiling  gives  the  best  results  on  light  soils,  especially  when 
pans  are  present.  When  the  operation  is  once  done,  the  beneficial 
effects  are  visible  for  a  long  time  after.  On  stifi*  clays  the  tendency 
of  the  land  is  to  soon  close  together  again,  and  in  a  few  years 
very  few  traces  will  be  left.  The  operation  in  such  cases  is  also 
a  very  expensive  one,  and  hence  is  not  likely  to  commend  itself 
to  farmers  there.  For  the  first  few  years  good  results  would 
be  obtained  from  the  breaking  up  of  any  indurated  pans,  but  the 
effects  are  only  temporary. 

The  best  time  for  subsoiling  is  in  autumn,  as  soon  after  harvest 
as  possible.     It  is  usually  done  on  the  corn  stubble,  before  roots. 

Trench-ploughing. 

This  operation  differs  from  subsoil  ploughing  in  the  fact 
that  the  subsoil  is  here  brought  to  the  surface.  It  is  highly 
critical,  and  only  on  deep  rich  soils  can  it  be  advantageously 
performed.  Where  the  subsoil  is  of  poor  composition,  it  will  be 
easily  seen  that  the  supply  of  plant-food  in  the  soil  will  be  diluted, 
and  poorer  crops  result.  Again,  injurious  compounds  (such  as 
the  lower  oxides  of  iron  and  sulphides)  may  be  brought  up,  and 
utter  barrenness  result  for  a  time.  Of  course,  in  this  case, 
exposure  to  the  air  would  oxidize  and  neutralize  these  bodies; 
but  during  the  intervening  period  the  produce  would  only  be 
small.     A  third  objection  against  trench-ploughing  is  that  it  often 


292  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

brings  up  an  extraordinary  crop  of  weeds,  especially  charlock. 
The  seeds  of  this  troublesome  plant  are  small,  round,  heavy,  and 
oily,  and,  being  ripened  in  the  middle  of  summer,  they  often  fall 
down  the  cracks  which  may  then  abound  in  the  soil.  Their 
oleaginous  nature  prevents  their  decay  for  a  long  time,  and  hence, 
when  they  are  again  brought  to  the  surface,  as  by  trench-plough- 
ing, they  begin  to  grow  luxuriantly. 

From  these  considerations  it  will  be  seen  that  great  care 
must  be  taken  in  trench-ploughing.  Of  course,  on  soil  of  good 
depth  and  composition,  such  as  alluvium,  considerable  benefit  will 
be  derived  from  bringing  a  rich  subsoil  up  to  mix  with  a  more 
or  less  exhausted  surface  soil.  Also,  the  latter  may  be  deficient 
in  some  constituent,  such  as  lime ;  while  the  subsoil  may  be  cal- 
careous. In  that  case  good  results  might  be  expected  from  the 
operation. 

The  trench-plough  may  be  somewhat  similar  to  the  one  used 
for  subsoiling,  but  has  an  inclined  tail-board  at  the  back,  up 
which  the  earth  is  forced,  and  spread  on  the  surface. 

The  best  method  of  deepening  the  soil  is  to  do  it  gradually, 
not  at  one  operation  by  the  trench-plough.  Every  autumn, 
before  a  fallow,  the  land  should  be  ploughed  an  inch  or  two 
deeper  than  usual.  A  little  fresh  soil  is  brought  up  and 
incorporated  with  that  on  the  surface.  It  is  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere  all  through  winter,  and  any  injurious  substances 
it  contains  thus  get  thoroughly  oxidized.  This  plan  will  require 
plenty  of  time,  but  it  gives  much  better  results  in  the  end. 

Clay-burning. 

This  involves  the  incineration  of  the  surface  soil  to  a  depth 
of  several  inches.  The  land  is  broken  up  through  summer,  com- 
mencing in  May  or  June,  by  a  strong  plough,  requiring  three  or 
four  horses.  This  work  must  only  be  done  in  dry  weather.  The 
clay  is  then  brought  into  heaps,  scattered  at  wide  intervals  over 
the  land.  A  nucleus  is  first  made  of  brushwood,  roots  of  trees, 
slack  coal,  or  any  other  suitable  fuel.  The  clay  is  built  around 
this,  and  the  fire  then  lighted.  At  first  the  pieces  are  lifted  on 
by  hand,  but  as  the  heat  permeates  the  mass,  it  is  wheeled  on  in 
barrows.  Fresh  coal  is  gradually  added,  and  then  more  clay, 
until  the  heap  contains  as  much  as  two  hundred  cubic  yards  of 
material.  These  large  heaps  are  commonly  known  as  ''clamps." 
The  walls  are  built  of  the  larger  pieces,  and  the  small  clods  are 
used  in  filling  up  the  interstices. 

Considerable  skill  and  care  are  needed  to  get  good  results. 
The  fires  require  to  be  watched  day  and  night,  and  must  not  on 


MECHANICAL  IMPROVEMENTS  OF  SOILS.  293 

any  account  be  allowed  to  burst  through  the  walls  of  the  clamp. 
All  weak  places  are  covered  with  fine  soil  applied  with  a  shovel, 
and  in  order  that  the  flames  may  not  be  fanned  by  the  breezes, 
thatched  hurdles  are   often   erected  around  each  heap.     Slow 
combustion  is  to  be  aimed  at,  and  a  uniform  spreading  of  the 
heat  through  the  mass.     Should  the  combustion  be  rapid,  red 
clinking  brick-like  masses  are  the  result,  instead  of  being  black 
and  crumbling  as  desired.     On  the  other  hand,  the  fire  must  not 
be  allowed  to  die  out  before  the  operation  is  complete,  as  very 
great  difficulty  will  be  experienced  in  relighting  it 

When  the  clay  is  burned  enough,  the  fire  is  gradually  extin- 
guished by  preventing  the  access  of  air  as   much  as  possible. 
The  heaps  stand  some  time,  until  they  lose  their  heat,  and  are 
then   carted  away  and   spread  over  the  land.      From  forty  to 
fifty  cubic  yards  per  acre  is  a  common   dressing.     The  cost  of 
the  operation  varies.     The  instance  given  is  by  Mr.  C.  Randall 
in  Journal  V.  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,     He  says  that 
two  or  three  tons  of  raked  slack  (coals),  costing  nine  shillings 
per  ton,  will  burn  in  fine  weather  more  than  one  hundred  cubic 
yards  per  acre,  in  heaps  of  about  a  cartload  each.     The  cost  was 
as  follows : — 

£     s,  d 
Labour  of  burning  100  cubic  yards  per  acre,  at  dd.  , .       2  10    o 
Two  tons  of  coal,  at  Qj.  ..  ..  ..       o  18    o 

Wheeling  and  spreading  a  distance  of  50  yards  from 
the  heap,  and  filling  and  spreading  the  remainder, 
106  yards,  at  I J^.  ..  ..  . .       o  12    6 

Per  acre..  ..    £^    o    6 

One  hundred  cubic  yards  is,  however,  rather  a  heavy  dressing, 
and  where  the  fuel  used  is  waste  wood,  he  estimates  the  cost  at 
forty-one  to  fifty  shillings  per  acre.  Brushwood,  he  says,  is  better 
than  coal,  as  it  heats  the  mass  more  gradually.  After  clay-burning, 
Mr.  Randall  recommends  as  a  rotation— (i)  wheat;  (2)  clover 
(mown),  and  mixed  seeds  (grazed) ;  (3)  wheat ;  (4)  half  beans, 
half  fallow  crop,  reversing  their  position  each  rotation. 

Clay-burning  acts  (i)  mechanically,  and  (2)  chemically. 

(i)  The  soil  burned  is  rendered  very  friable,  and,  when 
ploughed  in,  to  a  great  extent  counteracts  the  tenacity  of  the  clay. 

(2)  The  amount  of  soluble  salts  is  increased,  the  increase 
being  principally  in  oxides  of  potash,  soda,  and  iron.  If  the  soil 
be  calcareous,  the  phosphates  will  be  rendered  more  available  by 
the  complete  disintegration  which  attends  the  conversion  into 
lime.  The  lime  will  also  attack  the  silicates  of  potash  in  the  soil, 
and  a  part  will  be  liberated  in  a  soluble  form.  To  secure  the 
last  two  advantages,  lime  should  be  mixed  with  the  heaps  when 


294  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

not  present  naturally.  On  the  other  hand,  the  amount  of  available 
phosphoric  acid  is  slightly  lessened.  Dr.  Voelcker,  however, 
found  that  when  much  wood,  etc.,  was  used  as  fuel,  the  amount 
thus  obtained  quite  counterbalanced  any  that  was  lost.  The 
great  objection  against  clay-burning  is  the  dissipation  of  nitrogen, 
owing  to  the  combustion  of  the  organic  matter.  The  other  bene- 
ficial effects  are,  however,  a  good  set-off  against  this.  When  the 
clay-burning  proceeds  too  rapidly,  the  results  are  not  very  good. 
The  mechanical  condition  is  not  improved,  and  this  is  one  of  the 
greatest  benefits  when  the  process  is  properly  carried  out 

Paring  and  Burning. 

This  is  not  such  an  expensive  or  permanent  operation  as  the 
last,  and  is  undertaken  simply  to  clear  the  land  of  weeds  and 
accompanying  pests. 

The  work  is  commenced  about  March,  as  the  land  is  cut 
more  easily  then  than  later  on.  Boggy  land  should,  however,  be 
dry,  so  as  to  give  a  better  footing.  The  surface  soil  to  a  depth 
of  two  or  three  inches  is  taken  off  by  a  paring  plough,  the  process 
of  raftering  being  very  suitable  here.  The  American  chill-plough 
may  be  used.  The  old  method  was  to  pare  it  off  with  a  *'  flauchter 
spade."  This  consisted  of  a  special  cutting  spade,  with  a  broad 
horizontal  T-handle,  which  was  pushed  along  by  the  thighs.  It 
was  a  very  slow  plan,  about  a  week  being  taken  for  each  acre. 

After  separating  the  sods  from  the  ground,  they  are  set  up  on 
their  edges  against  one  another  to  dry.  This  occupies  at  least 
a  fortnight.  The  process  of  burning  is  then  conducted  in  a 
similar  manner  to  clay-burning.  As  a  large  amount  of  vegetable 
matter  is  present,  very  little  fuel  is  needed. 

About  the  Cotswolds  the  method  varies  somewhat  from  the 
previous.  The  work  is  undertaken  after  a  corn  or  clover  crop, 
and  commences  in  this  case  in  autumn.  The  land  is  shallow- 
ploughed,  and  then  harrowed  and  rolled  to  reduce  the  size  of  the 
clods.  The  loose  weedy  soil  is  now  raked  together,  either  by 
horse  or  hand  rakes,  being  collected  into  numerous  small  heaps. 
It  is  lighted  by  means  of  wisps  of  straw,  and  then  the  small  clods 
are  put  on,  and  the  heap  increased  to  its  proper  size. 

After  allowing  the  mass  to  cool,  the  ashes  are  spread  over  the 
land,  but  should  not  be  ploughed  in  just  then.  Turnips  are  often 
taken  after  paring  and  burning,  and  a  good  crop  is  usually  obtained. 

Paring  and  burning  is  generally  undertaken  to  get  rid  of  all 
weeds.  This  it  speedily  does,  as  well  as  all  insect  pests.  For 
this  reason  it  may  be  undertaken  with  advantage  when  breaking 
up  old  sainfoin.    The  effects  on  the  land  are  much  the  same  as 


MECHANICAL  IMPROVEMENTS  OF  SOILS.  2g$ 

with  clay-burning ;  but  as  more  organic  matter  is  present,  there 
will  be  a  greater  loss  of  nitrogen.  This  is  a  very  serious  objection 
in  many  cases,  but  where  it  is  only  undertaken  to  get  rid  of 
rubbish  it  fulfils  its  purpose  most  thoroughly. 

About  the  Cotswolds  particularly  the  process  goes  under  the 
name  of  stifle-  or  close-burning.  The  cost  may  amount  to  two 
pounds  per  acre. 

Claying. 

Many  soils  are  naturally  so  light  and  sandy  that  their  texture 
has  been  found  to  be  greatly  improved  by  the  application  of  clay 
or  marl  to  them.  The  reverse  process  has  not  been  attended 
with  such  good  results,  and  hence  the  common  saying  that  a 
small  amount  of  clay  will  go  a  long  way  with  sand,  but  will  itself 
swallow  up  any  amount  of  the  latter. 

The  work  should  begin  in  autumn,  so  that  the  winter  frosts 
may  crumble  any  clods.  Sometimes  the  clay  has  to  be  carted 
from  pits  some  distance  away,  in  other  cases  it  forms  the  subsoil. 
The  peats  of  Lincolnshire,  for  instance,  rest  upon  the  Oxford  clay, 
and  in  many  cases  trenches  have  been  opened  down  to  clay, 
which  is  then  dug  up.  The  material  is  then  spread  over  the 
surface  at  the  rate  of  from  forty  to  one  hundred  cartloads  per  acre. 
The  distance  between  the  lines  of  trenches  varies  from  eight  yards, 
which  is  about  the  minimum,  to  twenty. 

It  is  not  usual  to  dig  a  long  trench ;  pits  have  been  found  to 
be  better,  as  they  are  more  easily  filled  up  again.  These  pits 
are  from  three  to  four  yards  wide,  and  six  to  nine  feet  long.  Two 
or  three  spits'  depth  of  clay  is  dug  out  of  each,  and  thrown  upon 
the  sides. 

The  effects  of  claying  are  almost  entirely  mechanical,  but  the 
fresh  soil  applied  to  some  extent  affects  the  composition. 

The  cost  varies  from  ;^2  los.  to  ^s  per  acre.  The  expense 
becomes  too  great  for  the  operation  to  be  profitable  when  the 
carriage  is  for  a  long  distance. 

Mixing  Soils. 

The  benefit  of  mixing  soils  is  readily  seen  where  the  edges  of 
two  or  more  formations  mingle,  or  on  alluvial  land.  There,  as 
a  rule,  the  soil  is  of  higher  quality  than  either  of  the  originals. 
Many  instances  of  this  may  be  seen  in  the  geology  of  England. 
Some  of  our  best  land  is  found  where  the  lower  chalk  joins  the 
upper  greensand,  and  where  the  London  clay  meets  the  chalk 
much  benefit  is  derived  from  the  improved  mechanical  condition. 

Marling,  chalking,  and  other  forms  of  mixing  are  conducted 


296  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

in  the  same  way  as  claying.  Chalk  should  always  be  spread  over 
the  land  in  autumn,  or  just  at  the  commencement  of  winter.  The 
frost  then  has  time  to  crumble  down  the  pieces. 

There  is  another  process  of  mixing  which  may  profitably 
occupy  a  little  of  the  spare  time  through  winter.  This  consists 
in  carting  on  to  bare  hillsides  soil  from  the  hollows,  into  which 
it  has  been  washed.  The  land  is  thus  covered  all  over  with 
a  reasonable  depth  of  soil. 


{    297     ) 


CHAPTER   II. 

FARM    CROPS   AND   THEIR    CULTIVATION. 

A. — Rotations  of  Crops. 

A  ROTATION  is  simply  a  systematic  plan  of  growing  crops 
extending  over  several  years.  It  is  very  interesting  to  see  how 
such  methods  have  arisen.  The  old  nomadic  tribes  simply 
grazed  the  land  till  it  was  too  bare,  then  they  moved  on  to 
pastures  new.  As  the  people  became  more  civilized,  the  land 
was  divided  up  into  plots,  and  crops  were  taken  just  as  the  owner 
desired.  Grain  was  chiefly  grown,  and  it  was  found  that,  after  a 
certain  number  of  years,  sufficient  return  was  not  obtained.  The 
fields  were  left  idle  (fallowed)  till  they  had  recovered,  when  they 
were  again  broken  up.  Such  a  plan  meant  a  great  deal  of 
irregularity  in  the  farming,  and  it  was  found  best  to  take  a  fallow 
at  fixed  intervals.  In  order  to  provide  a  proper  food  supply, 
certain  crops  were  regularly  taken,  and  thus  the  old  three-course 
rotation  employed  by  the  ancient  Teutonic  tribes  was  evolved. 
They  divided  their  land  up  into  three  parts,  on  one  of  which  was 
grown  winter  grain  (wheat) ;  on  another,  summer  grain  (beans, 
oats,  barley),  while  the  remaining  portion  was  fallow.  The 
rotation  thus  was  Fallow ;  Wheat ;  Beans,  barley,  or  oats.  This 
method  is  even  carried  out  now  on  certain  very  stifi"  soils.  It 
was,  however,  found  to  give  little  variety,  and  it  was  essentially 
unsuited  for  stock  farming.  Hence  alterations  were  gradually 
made,  and  more  fodder  crops  inserted ;  but  nearly  all  existing 
rotations  can  be  traced  back  to  the  old  three-course. 

Advantages  of  Rotations. — i.  One  ingredient  of  the  soil  is 
not  drawn  upon  to  an  undue  extent,  as  no  two  similarly  feeding 
crops  are  taken  together.  Turnips  remove  five  times  as  much 
potash  per  acre  as  wheat ;  hence,  if  they  were  grown  several  years 
in  succession  and  sold  off  the  farm,  that  constituent  would  become 


298  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

much  exhausted.  Besides  requiring  different  food,  plants  do  not 
all  search  for  it  in  the  same  layers  of  the  soil.  Some  with  their 
deep  roots  can  descend  into  the  subsoil,  while  others  are  only 
surface-feeders.  Among  the  former  are  wheat,  rye,  mangels,  rape, 
red  clover,  lucerne,  and  sainfoin ;  while  with  the  latter  are  ranked 
barley,  turnips  and  swedes,  white  clover,  and  potatoes.  Again, 
some  crops  require  their  food  to  be  in  a  readily  available 
condition.  Turnips,  for  example,  have  little  power  of  absorbing 
the  combined  phosphates  of  the  soil,  and  consequently  they 
remove  most  of  that  already  soluble. 

2.  Less  manure  need  be  applied  to  the  land  to  produce  the 
same  crop.  There  will  be  more  natural  plant-food  in  the  soil  to 
be  used.  This,  of  course,  means  less  expense,  and  consequently 
a  larger  profit  on  the  arable  land. 

3.  During  a  good  rotation  the  land  gets  thoroughly  cleaned. 
Contrast,  for  instance,  the  continuous  growing  of  a  wheat  crop 
and  the  growth  of  a  root  crop  in  a  rotation.  All  through  the 
summer  the  land  cannot  be  touched  in  the  former  case ;  weeds 
spring  up  and  bear  seed  to  be  scattered  all  around.  In  the  other 
instance,  not  only  is  the  land  kept  bare  until,  at  least,  late  in 
spring,  but  it  is  kept  clear  of  unnecessary  vegetation  through  its 
whole  period  of  growth.  The  cleaning  effects  will  be  felt  through 
the  entire  course.  Every  rotation  contains  either  a  bare  fallow 
or  some  fallow  crop,  as  turnips,  swedes,  mangels,  etc.,  which  are 
generally  grown  in  rows  so  as  to  allow  various  suitable  imple- 
ments to  be  worked  over  the  land  when  the  plants  are  above  the 
ground.  Absence  of  weeds  allows  greater  freedom  in  growth  of 
the  crop,  and  also  fertilizing  ingredients  are  put  to  their  proper 
use. 

4.  The  labour  of  the  farm  is  more  evenly  divided  over  the 
whole  year.  Suppose,  for  example,  that  a  farmer  is  solely  em- 
ployed in  growing  cereal  crops.  He  certainly  may  get  a  large 
proportion,  if  not  the  whole,  of  his  wheat  sown  in  autumn ;  but  it 
would  be  very  hard  work  to  get  his  crops  all  in,  and  the  land 
thoroughly  tilled  before  October.  Then  his  spring  corn  would 
be  sown  nearly  all  together.  But  the  chief  difficulty  would  be  at 
harvest  time.  With  all  his  crops  ripening  nearly  together,  a  large 
number  of  men,  horses,  and  machines  would  have  to  be  kept.  In 
a  rotation,  in  the  first  place,  less  corn  would  be  grown.  Then, 
again,  there  would  be  other  crops  cultivated,  and  with  these  the 
labourers  could  be  profitably  employed  at  other  periods  of  the 
year.  Fewer  men  and  horses  will  be  needed,  and  the  expenses 
consequently  kept  down. 

5.  There  is  a  continuous  supply  of  food  for  the  stock,  as  well 
as   of  crops   (such  as  grain)  to  be  sold.     Every  year  there  is  a 


ROTATIONS   OF  CROPS.  299 

large  proportion  of  roots  and  fodder  crops  to  be  eaten  by  the  farm 
animals,  as  well  as  of  grain,  potatoes,  etc.,  for  the  markets.  In  the 
simplest  forms  of  rotations,  such  as  the  Norfolk,  we  get  Fallow-crop, 
com,  fodder,  corn.  The  first  and  third  are  for  home  consumption, 
the  second  and  fourth  are  saleable.  In  some  rotations,  the 
Northumberland  for  instance,  more  food  for  the  stock  is  provided, 
and  often  a  catch-crop  can  be  taken. 

6.  Some  crops  are  good  preparations  for  others.  Thus  legu- 
minous plants,  especially  clover,  are  excellent  for  preceding  a 
crop  of  wheat.  They  store  up  nitrogen  in  their  roots,  and  thus 
provide  for  the  great  want  of  the  cereal  crop. 

7.  The  increase  of  destructive  insects  and  fungi  is  hindered, 
especially  that  of  the  former.  When  insects  or  fungi  feed  on  any 
particular  crop,  they  are  destroyed  or  starved  to  death  to  a  great 
extent  before  that  crop  comes  round  again.  The  conditions 
under  which  certain  plants  grow  may  be  favourable  to  them,  and 
the  pests  will  increase  if  the  same  thing  goes  on  year  after  year ; 
but  when  these  conditions  are  changed  by  different  methods  of 
growth  and  cultivation,  they  are  more  or  less  destroyed. 

8.  In  a  rotation  the  crops  are  more  vigorous.  When  only  one 
kind  is  grown,  not  only  does  the  soil  become  exhausted,  but  the 
quality  of  the  plants  is  lowered.  Their  seed  has  not  such  high 
germinative  power,  and  they  are  more  liable  to  disease.  When 
a  crop  of  clover  is  taken  for  several  years  in  succession,  it  becomes 
affected  with  what  is  known  as  clover  sickness.  This  cannot 
be  properly  stopped  except  by  discontinuing  the  growth  of  this 
crop. 

The  Construction  of  Rotations. 

Before  giving  actual  examples,  we  will  consider  some  of  the 
principles  affecting  their  construction. 

Every  rotation  consists  primarily  of  an  alternation  of  corn  and 
fodder  crops,  the  fallow  (bare  or  cropped)  taking  the  place  of  the 
latter  once  in  every  course.  Sometimes  two  fodder  crops  are 
taken  together,  when  a  large  number  of  stock  is  kept.  Again,  on 
light  lands,  two  root  crops  may  be  taken,  followed  by  two  of  grain. 
As  a  rule,  the  land  may  be  said  to  be  alternately  exhausted  and 
replenished,  and  the  crops  must  be  arranged  according  to  this 
plan. 

A  perfect  rotation  should  include  those  crops  which  the  situa- 
tion, soil,  and  climate  of  the  farm  will  admit  of  being  cultivated 
profitably.  We  know  that  there  are  many  variations  as  regards 
these  points,  and  the  following  conditions  modifying  rotations 
may  be  considered. 


300  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Conditions  Modifying  Rotations. 

I.  The  Soil. — Certain  crops  cannot  grow  with  advantage  on 
particular  soils,  and  in  all  rotations  this  point  must  be  carefully 
attended  to.  The  crops  suitable  to  the  chief  classes  of  land  are 
as  follows  : — 

Stiff  Clays. — Wheat,  beans,  mangels,  cabbages,  kale,  kohl-rabi, 
and  clover.     Bare  fallows  are  often  needed. 

Loams. — Nearly  any  crop.     They  are  the  best  soils  for  potatoes. 
Light  Land. — Barley,   rye,  peas,  vetches,  clover,  white  and 
yellow  turnips  and  swedes,  with  catch  crops. 

Calcareous  Soils. — All  leguminous  crops  (peas,  beans,  clover, 
vetches,  sainfoin,  lucerne)  flourish  on  such  soil.  They  grow  wheat 
well,  and  produce  excellent  barley.  Good  yields  of  nearly  any- 
thing are  obtained,  if  there  is  a  sufficient  depth  of  soil ;  and,  as 
they  are  easily  cultivated,  they  are  very  useful  soils. 

Featy  Soils. — Oats,  rape,  kohl-rabi,  and  potatoes.  Rape  is  one 
of  the  chief  stock  fallow  crops  on  peaty  soils.  Mangels  and 
turnips  are  apt  to  become  hollow  in  the  middle.  The  potatoes 
are  large  and  clear-skinned.  Nearly  all  strawy  crops  grow  fairly 
well. 

Sandy  Soils. — Rye,  barley,  lupines,  and  carrots.  Wheat  is 
unsuitable. 

Deep  Soils  will  grow  most  crops.  They  are  essentially  needed 
by  carrots. 

Shallow  Soils  are  not  so  good.  They  are  able  to  grow  fair 
barley  and  turnips. 

In  making  up  a  rotation  for  a  certain  soil,  use  the  crops  from 
the  above  list  which  are  most  suitable.  Thus  we  have  a  skeleton 
rotation  of  Fallow,  corn,  fodder,  corn.  On  light  lands  we  would 
take  Turnips,  barley,  clover  or  peas,  wheat ;  on  heavy  clays.  Bare 
fallow  or  mangels,  wheat,  beans,  wheat  would  be  given  in 
preference. 

2.  The  Climate. — Between  the  climates  of  the  east  and  west 
of  England  there  is  a  remarkable  difference.  The  former  is  dry, 
the  latter  humid,  consequently  one  is  fitted  for  grain-growing, 
the  other  for  stock-raising.  In  the  south-east  the  best  samples 
of  cereals  are  grown,  and  the  rotations  therefore  contain  plenty  of 
corn  crops.  In  the  north  and  west  the  seeds  are  usually  allowed  to 
lie  down  two  or  three  years,  less  corn  is  grown,  and  as  much 
food  as  possible  raised  for  the  stock.  Again,  in  the  south  the 
best  barley  and  wheat  are  grown.  In  the  north  first-class 
malting  barley  cannot  be  obtained ;  the  hardier  and  coarser  red 
wheat  takes  the  place  of  the  delicate  white.  Fine  crops  of  oats 
can,  however,  be  grown,  and,  consequently,  this  is  the  chief  cereal 


ROTATIONS   OF  CROPS.  301 

of  the  north.  Swedes  grow  remarkably  well  in  the  north,  while 
mangels  do  better  in  southern  counties.  In  the  latter  districts 
catch- cropping  is  extensively  pursued.  A  catch  crop  is  one  taken 
between  two  regular  successive  crops.  Thus,  on  light  land,  after 
a  corn  crop,  we  may  have  winter  rye,  vetches,  or  trifolium,  sown 
down  on  the  broken  stubble  and  fed  off  next  spring.  The  land 
is  then  cleaned,  and  swedes  taken.  Thus,  in  two  years,  three 
crops  are  obtained.  The  later  harvests  of  the  northern  districts 
to  a  great  extent  exclude  this  plan  of  operations. 

3.  The  Kinds  of  Live  Stock  kept  and  the  systems  of  their 
management  may  affect  the  rotation.  Cattle  need  a  large  acreage 
of  straw  and  fodder  crops ;  sheep,  a  considerable  proportion  of 
roots  to  be  eaten  off  on  the  land.  Dairy  cattle  require  succulent 
forage  crops ;  fattening  animals  should  have  more  dry  food,  such 
as  straw.  Horses  do  not  consume  many  roots ;  therefore,  when 
their  breeding  and  rearing  is  an  important  feature  in  the  farm 
management,  the  root  acreage  may  be  reduced. 

4.  The  Demand  for  Crops  and  their  market  value  may  affect  it. 
If  a  certain  crop  has  a  good  demand  and  sells  at  a  fair  price,  it 
is  better  to  give  it  an  important  place  in  the  rotation  rather  than 
grow  another  which  is  not  so  readily  saleable. 

5.  The  State  of  the  Land  with  regard  to  drainage,  cleanliness, 
etc.,  will  make  a  difference.  When  land  is  full  of  weeds,  such  a 
crop  should  be  taken  as  will  allow  of  the  land  being  thoroughly 
cleaned.     Roots  are  well  adapted  for  this  purpose. 

On  undrained  soils  the  number  of  crops  that  can  be  grown  is 
lessened.     The  rotation  may  thus  become  restricted 

6.  The  Lease  of  the  Tenant.— Some  tenants  are  only  allowed 
by  their  landlord  to  take  certain  crops,  and  these  often  have  to 
be  in  some  particular  order.  Thus  two  grain  crops  may  not  be 
allowed  to  follow  each  other ;  the  land  may  have  to  remain  at 
least  two  years  in  seeds,  and  other  restrictions  may  be  enforced. 

The  conditions  just  mentioned  must  all  be  taken  into  account 
before  the  rotation  is  decided  upon.  After  suitable  crops  have 
been  chosen,  there  is  the  proportion  in  which  they  are  to  be 
grown.  This  is  regulated  by  (i)  the  cost  of  their  cultivation,  (2) 
their  market  value,  (3)  their  value  for  home  consumption  and  the 
number  of  live  stock  to  be  provided  for. 

Then  we  must  fix  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  come,  and, 
with  regard  to  this,  the  following  points  require  attention  :  (i)  the 
special  food  requirements  of  the  crop,  (2)  the  ability  of  the  crop 
to  make  use  of  the  natural  plant-food  of  the  soil,  (3)  the  mechanical 
effects  on  the  land,  (4)  its  action  in  the  storage  of  plant-food  con- 
stituents, (5)  the  opportunity  given  for  cleaning  the  land.  From 
these  conditions,  we  see  that  there  must  be  some  fallow  (bare  or 


302  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

cropped)  in  the  rotation  ;  two  similar  crops  should  not,  as  a  rule, 
succeed  one  another;  and  from  point  4  we  see  why  wheat  is 
taken  after  clover  with  such  good  results. 

Fallows. 

Fallows  may  be  divided  into  four  kinds :  (i)  bare,  (2)  root 
allow,  (3)  half  or  ragged  fallow,  (4)  catch-crop  fallows. 

1.  Bare  Fallows  are  the  oldest  forms,  and  their  acreage  has 
now  been  greatly  reduced.  The  early  farmers  became  aware 
that  the  land  was  renovated  by  their  use.  But  when  the  turnip 
crop  was  introduced  on  suitable  soils,  it  was  found  to  give  an 
opportunity  for  thoroughly  cleaning  the  land,  and  also  had  the 
advantage  of  producing  valuable  food  for  stock. 

Bare  fallows  are  taken  on  three  classes  of  land  :  (i)  on  very 
stiff  soils,  (2)  on  very  foul  land,  (3)  on  sour  peats.  Stiff  clays 
grow  good  crops  of  turnip  with  difficulty,  and  then  very  often  the 
farmer  does  not  know  how  to  dispose  of  them.  They  cannot  be 
eaten  off  by  sheep,  and  to  cart  them  away  is  often  almost  as 
injurious.  The  excessive  pressure  causes  a  poor  wheat  crop,  and, 
consequently,  roots  cannot  be  advantageously  grown  on  such 
classes  of  land.  In  the  second  case,  a  root  crop  may  not  give 
sufficient  chance  of  cleaning ;  or  the  land  may  be  so  foul,  to  begin 
with,  that  it  cannot  be  got  ready  for  the  turnips.  In  the  last 
instance,  the  oxidation  brought  about  by  bare  fallowing  neutralizes 
some  of  the  organic  acids. 

By  bare  fallows  great  opportunity  is  given  for  the  oxidation, 
and,  consequently,  part  of  the  mineral  ingredients  of  the  soil  are 
rendered  soluble. 

One  great  objection  against  bare  fallows  is  their  expense. 
During  that  year  it  is  all  outlay,  no  return  being  obtained.  The 
fall  in  the  price  of  wheat  makes  them  much  less  profitable  now 
than  formerly,  and  it  can  be  seen  that  they  do  not  pay,  unless  we 
consider  that  their  expense  should  be  spread  over  the  whole 
rotation.  The  good  effects  are  certainly  not  exhausted  by  the 
next  crop  of  wheat. 

2.  Root  Fallows  are  the  most  important ;  they  allow  the  land 
to  be  thoroughly  cleaned  from  the  time  of  the  removal  of  the  corn 
crop,  say  in  September  or  early  in  October,  up  to  at  least  March 
or  April,  when  the  first  root  crops  (mangels)  are  sown.  Then  the 
seeds  are  nearly  always  drilled  in  rows,  at  such  distances  apart 
as  to  allow  the  free  use  of  horse-  and  hand-hoeing  implements 
between  the  lines.  There  are  four  reasons  why  roots  are  the  great 
fallow  crop,  (a)  They  are  not  a  success  unless  the  land  has  been 
thoroughly  tilled  and  is  in  good  condition.     {l>)  The  late  period 


ROTATIONS   OF  CROPS.  303 

of  sowing  (for  turnips,  especially)  gives  a  good  opportunity  of 
fallowing,  {c)  They  are  grown  at  wide  intervals,  so  as  to  allow  of 
hoeing  and  weeding  during  the  period  of  growth,  {d)  The  land 
must  be  well  manured. 

It  is  because  of  the  use  to  which  root  crops  are  put  that  they 
are  considered  renovating.  If  they  were  sold  off  the  farm,  they 
would  probably  be  found  very  exhausting.  Being  fed  to  the 
stock,  however,  most  of  their  constituents  are  returned  to  the  soil. 
On  light  lands  they  are  often  fed  off  on  the  ground  by  sheep.  There 
would  then  be  a  loss  of  only  those  materials  used  by  the  animals 
for  their  increase.  Against  this  would  be  the  excellent  consolidat- 
ing effects  from  the  treading  of  the  sheep. 

3.  Half  or  Ragged  Fallows. — In  this  plan  some  fodder  crop, 
such  as  vetches,  is  sown  in  autumn,  and  cut  for  fodder  late  in 
spring.  The  land  is  then  broken  up  in  June  or  July,  and  fallowed. 
Wheat  is  taken  in  autumn.  In  the  same  way  clover,  seeds,  trifolium, 
or  trefoil  may  be  used.  The  course  of  operations  is  suitable  for 
heavy  soils,  the  fodder  crop  being  mown  or  fed  at  a  time  when 
little  damage  is  done  to  the  land  from  treading. 

4.  Double-cropped  Fallows. — Suitable  for  light  land.  Vetches, 
trifolium,  trefoil,  rye,  winter  barley,  or  oats,  etc.,  are  sown  in 
autumn,  and  mown  or  fed  off  in  spring.  The  land  is  then  broken 
up,  and  turnips  or  swedes  taken.  In  this  way  a  greater  amount 
of  food  for  stock  is  obtained.  This  system  is  known  as  catch- 
cropping.  It  can  only  be  done  when  harvest  is  fairly  early,  and 
the  soil  must  also  be  clean. 

When  writing  down  any  rotation,  the  fallow  should  occupy 
first  place.  It  is  a  definite  starting-point,  and  its  recurrence  really 
bounds  the  rotation.  The  introduction  of  a  fallow  into  the  middle 
of  a  rotation  breaks  it.  Thus  the  following  may  be  taken  for  such 
a  faulty  example  : — 

(Roots,  oats,  clover,  wheat),  {turnips^  barley,  peas). 

It  really  consists  of  a  four  and  a  three  years'  course. 

Another  great  mistake  would  be  to  take  a  rotation  without  a 
fallow  j  such  as — 

Oats,  clover,  wheat,  beans,  wheat. 

Such  an  example  has  no  commencement  and  no  end. 

Examples  of  Rotations. 

Rotations  are  called  two-,  three-,  four-course,  etc.,  according  to 
the  number  of  years  occupied  in  getting  through  them. 

Two-course. — Wheat ;  beans  or  clover.     It  is  suited  to  some 


304  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

heavy,  fertile  clays,  but  is  rarely  used.  It  is  taken  on  some 
farms  in  America.  It  has  no  fallow,  and  does  not  provide  to 
any  extent  for  stock. 

Three-course. — Fallow  (bare) ;  wheat ;  beans,  oats,  or  clover. 
Employed  on  some  of  the  heavier  and  poorer  classes  of  soils.  It 
is  practically  the  same  as  the  old  three-field  course  of  the  Saxons. 
The  advantages  are,  that  it  requires  little  capital  and  there  is  a 
rapid  return  of  the  farmer's  money.  The  disadvantages  are,  that 
there  is  little  variety  of  crops;  few  stock  can  be  kept;  and  the 
rapid  recurrence  of  the  fallow  is  expensive. 

Four-course. — For  this  the  Norfolk  rotation,  a  most  typical 
example,  may  be  taken.     It  is — 

Roots;  barley;  clover;  wheat. 

The  roots  consist  of  turnips  and  swedes,  with  mangels,  cab- 
bages, rape,  kohl-rabi,  and  potatoes  in  less  abundance.  Italian 
rye-grass,  or  some  leguminous  crop  (peas,  especially),  may  occupy 
the  place  of  the  clover. 

It  is  very  well  suited  to  light  lands  and  the  feeding  of  sheep. 
The  sheep  are  folded  upon  the  turnips,  and  the  land  thus  becomes 
well  consolidated.  The  soil  is  left  in  an  excellent  mechanical 
condition  for  the  succeeding  barley,  upon  which  the  clover  is 
sown.  This  crop  stores  up  nitrogen  in  its  roots,  and  a  good  yield 
of  wheat  is  the  result. 

The  Norfolk  rotation  is  subject  to  many  modifications,  some 
of  which  we  will  consider  later  on. 

Five-course. — Roots;  wheat, barley, or  oats;  seeds;  seeds;  oats. 
This  is  known  as  the  Northumberland  or  Cumberland  rotation, 
and  is  very  suitable  for  a  cold,  humid  climate,  like  that  of  the  north 
of  England.  The  roots  consist  chiefly  of  turnips  and  swedes,  as 
these  flourish  better  than  mangels.  The  seeds  are  left  down  two 
years,  and  this  is  an  important  alteration  in  the  economy  of  the 
farm.  The  fallow  is  not  so  frequent,  and  there  is  only  two-fifths 
corn  instead  of  one-half,  as  in  the  Norfolk  rotation.  The  difference 
may  be  simply  expressed  thus  :  More  stock  and  less  com.  Wheat 
has  been  found  not  to  flourish  so  well  after  clover  in  the  north  as 
in  the  south.  Probably  the  colder  climate  prevents  the  proper 
decay  of  the  clover  roots.  The  humid  climate,  however,  favours 
the  full  development  of  oats,  and  hence  this  crop  is  often  taken. 
Another  important  feature  of  the  rotation  is  that  the  lea  need  not 
be  broken  up  until  January  for  oats.  With  wheat  to  follow, 
it  would  be  ploughed  up  in  August  and  September.  Thus,  in 
the  former  case,  the  autumn  and  winter  feed  is  increased,  and 
the  ewes  do  well  on  the  old  clover  then.  The  oat  straw  is  valuable 
fodder,  and  oats  still  keep  up  their  price  in  contrast  to  wheat. 


ROTATIONS  OF  CROPS. 


305 


Again,  the  labour  bill  is  reduced,  two-fifths  of  the  land  each  year 
requiring  little  attention. 

Six-course. — Fallow  (bare  or  cropped),  wheat,  clover  (mown 
or  fed),  wheat,  beans,  wheat.  Known  as  the  Holderness  rotation, 
and  practised  on  rich,  stiff  land. 

Potatoes  or  beans  (manured),  wheat,  green  crops  (manured), 
wheat  or  barley  (half  manured),  seeds,  oats  (top-dressed).  Known 
as  the  East  Lothian  six-course,  and  suited  for  heavy,  rich  land. 

Another  East  Lothian  rotation  is — Roots,  barley  (half  dunged), 
clover,  seeds  or  oats  (top-dressed),  potatoes,  wheat. 

Seven-course. — L  A  rotation,  from  the  Carse  of  Gowrie,  suit- 
able for  very  rich  clays  :  Fallow,  wheat,  barley,  clover,  oats,  beans, 
wheat.  II.  Mangels  and  vetches,  wheat,  clover  (twice  cut),  clover 
(once  cut,  then  fed),  wheat,  beans,  wheat. 


Modifications  of  Rotations. 

All  the  rotations  just  given  can  be  greatly  modified, 
will  take  the  Norfolk  rotation. 


Thus  we 


Original. 

Skeleton. 

Modifications. 

Roots. 
Barley. 
Clover. 
Wheat. 

Fallow. 
Com. 
Fodder. 
Corn. 

Mangels. 
Wheat. 
Vetches. 
Wheat. 

Swedes. 
Oats. 
Peas. 
Barley. 

Cabbages  or  rape. 

Wheat. 

Italian  rye-grass  or  clover. 

Wheat  or  oats. 

Again,  by  leaving  the  clover  and  seeds  down  two  or  more 
years,  a  five-,  six-,  or  seven-course  rotation  will  be  obtained. 

The  old  three-field  rotation,  being  found  to  give  too  little 
variety  of  crops,  has  been  altered  thus  : — 


(1)  Fallow. 

(2)  Wheat. 

(3)  Beans. 


.  .    (  Half  bare  fallow. 


Half  mangels  or  other  roots. 
2)  Wheat  or  oats. 
Half  beans. 
Half  clover. 


(3)  { 


In  the  new  form,  at  least  two  fresh  crops  are  introduced,  and 
the  bare  fallow  is  reduced  one-half. 

The  Northumberland  rotation  is  really  a  modification  of  the 
four- course,  with  seeds  taken  instead  of  clover,  and  left  down  two 
years.     We  also  find  other  forms ;  as — 

(i)  Roots  (and  green  crops).  (2)  Potatoes. 
Wheat.  Wheat. 

Barley.  Barley. 

Seeds.  Seeds. 

Wheat.  Seeds. 


306  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

Number  i  is  for  a  loam ;  number  2  is  suitable  where  most 
of  the  crops  are  to  be  sold  off  the  farm,  the  seeds  being  made 
into  hay.  In  the  latter  case  the  form  may  be  altered  by  giving 
barley  the  fifth  place,  the  seeds  succeeding  the  wheat 

The  number  of  six-course  rotations  are  very  great.  They  can 
be  divided  into  three  groups,  according  as  their  seeds  he  down 
one,  two,  or  three  years.  The  latter  forms  are  simply  extensions 
of  the  Northumberland ;  everything  being  the  same  except  that 
there  are  three  years'  seeds  instead  of  two.  The  labour  bill  is 
reduced,  and  more  stock  can  be  kept. 

The  following  are  on  the  first  plan  : — 

(3)  Roots. 
Wheat. 
Beans. 
Barley. 
Seeds. 
Wheat. 


(3)  Roots. 
Oats. 
Seeds. 
Seeds. 
Wheat. 
Barley. 


Rotations  for  Light  and  Heavy  Lands. 

In  making  up  rotations  for  these  soils  the  crops  mentioned 
previously  should  be  used  according  to  how  they  are  classed. 
The  most  typical  light  land  course  is  the  Norfolk.  It  has  been 
given  before  with  some  of  its  modifications. 

Among  other  suitable  rotations  are — 

I.  (i)  Vetches,  fed  and  followed  by  late-sown  turnips  fed  off. 

(2}  Early  sown  turnips. 

(3)  Wheat  (sown  in  autumn  chiefly). 

(4)  Barley. 

(5)  Winter  rye,  barley,  or  trifolium,  fed  off  in  spring.  The 
land  is  then  broken ;  swedes  are  taken  and  fed  off  by  sheep. 

(6)  Barley. 

(7)  Clover. 

(8)  Wheat. 

This  really  consists  of  two  rotations.  The  advantage  of 
having  two  root  crops  in  succession  is  that  they  provide  plenty 
of  food  for  the  wheat.  In  this  way,  on  poor  soils,  a  good 
wheat  crop   can  be  grown,  followed  by  a  fine  crop  of  barley  of 


(i)  Roots. 
Wheat. 
Beans. 

(2)  Turnips. 
Barley. 
Clover. 

Wheat. 

Oats. 

Seeds. 

Potatoes. 

Oats. 

Wheat. 

The  following  are 

examples  of  the  se( 

(I)  Roots. 
Barley. 
Clover  and  seeds. 

(2)  Turnips. 

Barley  or  oats. 
Seeds. 

Lea. 

Lea. 

Oats. 

Potatoes. 

Wheat. 

Wheat. 

ROTATIONS  OF  CROPS.  307 

excellent  malting  qualities.  Should  the  barley  precede  the  wheat, 
the  former  will  be  coarse,  and  the  latter  give  a  poor  yield. 

Others  are : — II.  Turnips,  barley  or  oats,  peas,  wheat.  III. 
Turnips,  barley,  seeds,  seeds,  oats.  IV.  Roots,  barley,  peas, 
wheat  and  oats,  clover,  clover,  wheat. 

On  heavy  land  bare  fallows  are  used.  Some  of  the  chief 
rotations  applicable  here  are — 

I.  The  Holdemess,  and,  II.,  the  old  three-course,  given  before. 

III.  (i)  Mangel-wurzel,  cabbages,  kale,  or  rape,  or  even  early 
sown  white  turnips,  (2)  wheat,  (3)  beans,  (4)  wheat,  (5)  oats. 

IV.  (i)  Winter  vetches,  fed  off,  and  the  land  then  broken  up, 
and  sown  with  white  turnips,  rape,  or  even  vetches  again. 

(2)  Wheat  sown  down  with  \a)  trefoil,  {b)  mixed  seeds,  and  {c) 
a  small  portion  of  the  stubble  with  trifolium. 

(3)  {a)  The  trefoil  is  mown,  and  then  broken  up  for  turnips ; 
{b)  seeds  mown  or  fed ;  {c)  trifolium  mown,  and  then  broken  up 
for  turnips,  rape,  eta 

(4)  Wheat. 

(5)  Winter  beans.  After  the  bean  stubble  has  been  cleaned, 
vetches  are  sown. 

This  rotation  was  constructed  to  enable  sheep-farming  to  be 
carried  out  on  stiff  clays. 

Bad  Rotations. 

In  every  rotation  there  should  be  a  fallow;  without  one  it 
may  be  considered  bad,  as  the  land  will  get  foul.  An  example 
would  be:  Beans,  clover,  wheat,  barley,  oats.  Again,  it  is 
not  generally  advisable  to  take  two  grain  crops  in  succession. 
When  a  farmer  has  got  his  land  into  a  high  state  of  fertility,  he 
may,  however,  do  this  without  injury.  Some  agriculturalists 
believe  in  continuous  wheat-growing.  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes  has  con- 
ducted experiments  upon  the  subject  at  Rothamsted.  With 
everything  removed  from  the  land,  the  average  yield  for  the  fifteen 
years,  from  1874  to  1888  inclusive,  was  iif  bushels.  With  four- 
teen tons  of  farmyard  manure,  however,  the  mean  for  the  same 
period  was  32/^  bushels;  and  this  would  not  point  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  land  was  being  exhausted.  If  the  price  of 
wheat  were  to  rise  again,  the  continuous  growth  of  this  crop  might 
come  into  favour.  The  method  would  go  against  stock-farming. 
While  wheat  appears  to  flourish,  clover  becomes  weak  and  subject 
to  "  sickness  "  by  being  taken  year  after  year.  Turnips  also  soon 
fail  when  no  farmyard  manure  is  given.  Thus,  at  Rothamsted,  a 
plot  giving  4  tons,  3|-  cwts.  one  year,  only  gave  135  cwts.  the 
second   year.      With   farmyard    manuie,  twelve  tons   per   acre. 


308  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

the  crop  was  almost  doubled  in  the  same  time.  With  plenty  of 
tillage  and  manure,  the  average  crops  of  wheat  may  be  kept  up ; 
but  it  will  not  p^y  the  ordinary  farmer,  especially  at  present  prices, 
to  go  in  for  such  a  course  of  farming. 

B. — Preparatory  Culture, 

We  have  already  studied  the  subject  of  rotations,  and  now 
proceed  to  look  more  thoroughly  into  the  individual  characteristics 
of  the  growth  of  each  crop. 

Professor  Wrightson  has  proposed  the  following  syllabus  for 
the  study  of  crops.  The  points  are  grouped  under  three  heads, 
viz.  those  based  {a)  on  certain  preliminary  considerations,  {b)  on 
chronological  events,  {c)  on  accidental  circumstances  connected 
with  the  plant. 

The  points  are : — 

{a)  I.  Position  of  the  crop  in  the  vegetable  world. 

2.  History  and  origin. 

3.  Cultivated  varieties. 

4.  Place  in  rotation. 

5.  Soils  suitable. 

ip)  6.  Preparation  of  the  ground. 

7.  Time  of  sowing. 

8.  Method  of  sowing. 

9.  Amount  of  seed  used. 

10.  Fertilizers  employed. 

11.  After  cultivation. 

12.  Harvesting. 

13.  Preparation  for  market  or  for  home  consumption. 

14.  Cost  and  return. 
{c)  15.  Insect  attacks. 

16.  Fungoid  diseases. 

17.  Nutrient  properties  or  composition. 

18.  Cost  of  production  and  realization,  etc. 

Under  these  headings  all  our  knowledge  of  farm  crops  can  be 
conveniently  arranged.  The  Insect  Pests  and  Fungoid  Diseases 
are  treated  in  separate  chapters. 

The  subject  of  crop  cultivation  we  will  divide  up  under  three 
heads :  (i)  The  Preparatory  Culture  (2),  The  Sowing  and  After 
Culture,  (3)  The  Harvesting. 

I.  The  Preparatory  Culture  of  Farm  Crops. 

As  cereals  are  of  the  greatest  importance,  they  are  taken  first. 
Wheat  does  not  always  occupy  a  fix^d  place  in  the  rotation. 


CULTIVATION  OF  CROPS.  309 

but  when  a  bare  fallow  is  taken,  wheat  usually  succeeds  it. 
The  soils  most  suitable  are  the  heavy  clays.  On  well-cultivated 
light  lands  good  crops  can  be  grown,  but  they  need  to  be  liberally 
treated  and  often  to  have  two  successive  root  crops.  The  climate 
should  be  fairly  dry,  and  the  elevation  must  not  be  above 
1000  feet.  Range  of  temperature,  from  44°  to  78°  F.  As  wheat 
is  taken  after  such  a  variety  of  crops,  the  preparation  of  the 
land  varies  greatly.  Again,  as  some  wheat  is  sown  in  autumn 
and  some  in  spring,  this  affects  the  consideration. 

(i)  After  bare  fallow  or  roots.  This  is  the  simplest  case  and 
least  expensive.  The  land  is  simply  shallow  ploughed,  say  to 
a  depth  of  four  inches.  A  little  farmyard  manure  is  sometimes 
spread  over  the  surface  before  the  ploughing.  The  seed  is  then 
sown,  and  harrowed  in. 

(2)  After  clover  and  seeds.  Plough  the  vegetation  under 
in  August  or  September,  using  a  skim  coulter,  and  not  going 
deeper  than  four  or  five  inches.  By  this  means  a  fine  top  and 
firm  bottom  are  obtained.  Then  harrow  well  after  about  six 
weeks,  and  drill  in  the  seed.  It  is  then  harrowed  in.  Another 
method  is  to  plough,  then  go  over  the  land  with  the  presser  or 
roller,  sow  the  seed  on  the  pressed  furrow,  and  harrow  it  in. 

(3)  After  peas  or  beans.  The  land  is  sometimes  dunged,  and 
then  ploughed  once.  It  is  harrowed  to  get  rid  of  the  weeds,  the 
clods  being  reduced  as  little  as  possible.  The  seed  is  then 
sown. 

In  all  these  operations  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  surface 
soil  should  not  be  made  too  fine,  or  it  is  apt  to  cement  together 
through  winter,  forming  a  hard  "  cap."  The  clods  also  protect 
the  young  wheat  from  cold  winds,  they  naturally  crumble  under 
the  action  of  frost,  and  are  easily  reduced  by  the  roller  in  spring. 
The  land  must  also  be  firm,  and  this  is  the  reason  why  it  is  nearly 
always  rolled  or  pressed. 

Barley  is  essentially  suited  for  light  soils.  In  the  Tertiary 
formations,  the  drift  soils  are  most  suitable.  Many  of  the  Cre- 
taceous are  excellent ;  the  Lower  Green  Sand  and  Gault  are  not 
adapted  for  barley-growing.  Most  parts  of  the  Oolite  are  good ; 
the  Oxford  Clay  and  the  Lias  are,  however,  the  reverse  to  this. 
On  the  soils  from  the  formation  below  this,  barley  can  usually  be 
grown  satisfactorily,  provided,  of  course,  they  are  of  good  com- 
position and  the  climate  not  too  cold  or  wet.  This  last  point 
should  be  well  remembered.  To  get  good  malting  samples,  the 
climate  must  be  warm  and  dry,  and  hence  the  reason  why  this 
cereal  is  most  commonly  grown  in  the  south-east  of  England. 
The  mean  summer  temperature  must  not  fall  below  49°.  Barley 
occupies  the  second  place  in  the  Norfolk  rotation,  succeeding 


310  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

roots.  By  this  plan,  however,  though  a  large  crop  may  be 
obtained,  it  is  often  coarse,  and  this  led  to  the  method  of  taking 
barley  after  wheat,  two  root  crops  being  grown  previously  to 
put  the  land  into  sufficiently  good  condition.  The  sample  thus 
obtained  is  much  more  valuable  for  malting  purposes. 

Winter,  or  six-rowed,  barley  is  often  used  as  green  fodder,  and 
preparation  of  the  land  for  it  is  all  done  in  autumn. 

As  soon  as  the  roots  are  got  off,  the  land  should  be  shallow- 
ploughed,  and  left  through  winter.  In  spring,  all  the  weeds  are 
got  rid  of  by  repeated  harrowings  and  scufflings.  As  soon  as  a 
fine  and  thorough  tilth  is  obtained  the  seed  may  be  drilled  and 
harrowed  in.     Barley  should  never  be  sown  on  a  stale  furrow. 

Oats  are  the  chief  cereal  of  the  North  of  England  and 
Scotland.  They  suit  nearly  all  soils,  and  develop  best  in  a  cool, 
moist  climate.  They  are  very  hardy  and  grow  in  higher  latitudes 
than  any  other  cereal  crop,  except  rye.  Friable  soils  are  the 
best  for  oats.  They  do  well  on  peaty  soils,  and  are  about  the 
first  grain  crop  taken  after  breaking  up  moorlands.  They  occupy 
the  fifth,  and  often  the  second,  place  in  the  Northumberland 
rotation.     Winter  oats  are  used  as  fodder. 

The  preparatory  cultivation  is  similar  to  that  for  wheat.  The 
leas,  which  it  usually  follows,  are  ploughed  down  in  autumn  and 
harrowed  well  in  spring.  The  seed  may  be  drilled  or  broad- 
casted, and  then  a  harrowing  given.  After  ploughing  up  the 
clover,  the  presser  is  sometimes  used.  The  seed,  when  broad- 
casted, will  then  often  be  deposited  in  the  lines  left,  and  will  be 
more  easily  covered  over  by  the  harrow.  Oats  do  best  on  a  well- 
prepared  seed-bed,  though  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  have 
a  very  fine  tilth. 

Rye  is  a  cereal  very  little  grown  in  England.  It  has  no  fixed 
place  in  any  rotation,  and  is  cultivated  more  for  the  green  fodder 
than  for  the  grain.  It  is  extremely  hardy,  and  suits  light  poor 
soils.  It  can  be  grown  on  a  nearly  pure  sand,  and  also  on  mossy 
land  where  oats  would  lodge.  It  is  usually  sown  after  wheat  and 
is  of  value  for  preceding  turnips,  when  used  as  a  catch  crop. 
The  preparation  of  the  land  simply  consists  of  about  two 
ploughings  and  as  many  harrowings  as  necessary  to  get  it  clean. 
Grubbing  would  do  well.  When  the  fields  are  clean,  one  plough- 
ing, at  a  depth  of  four  inches,  and  a  few  harrowings,  are  all  that 
are  needed.  After  sowing  the  seed  in  autumn,  a  harrowing  should 
be  given,  but  it  is  not  advisable  to  roll. 

As  rye  grows  well  under  trees,  small  amounts  are  sometimes 
sown  in  woods  for  pheasants. 

Beans  alternate  with  wheat  on  the  heaviest  classes  of  land.  In 
Scotland,  they  are  largely  grown  on  the  Carse  lands,  which  consist 


CULTIVATION  OF  CROPS.  31I 

of  alluvium.  Like  other  Leguminosae,  they  do  well  on  calcareous 
soils,  and  especially  on  the  marls.  Bulky  crops  are  obtained  on 
the  fenlands,  but  the  yield  of  seed  is  not  great,  and  the  straw  is 
usually  overgrown. 

A  dressing  of  farmyard  manure,  about  sixteen  tons  per  acre, 
is  often  given  to  beans.  The  dung  is  spread  over  the  field,  and 
then  ploughed  in  soon  after  harvesting  the  previous  crop.  The 
land  is  then  harrowed,  and  the  seed  sown  either  in  autumn  or 
spring.  In  the  latter  case  some  of  the  harrowings  would  be 
given  through  winter.  In  the  north,  the  bean  land  is  usually 
made  up  into  ridges,  twenty-four  inches  apart,  just  as  for  turnips. 
The  dung  is  spread  between  the  ridges,  which  are  then  split  over 
it  by  means  of  the  double-mouldboard  plough.  The  seed  is  then 
put  in  as  before. 

Peas  are  suited  for  the  lighter  calcareous  soils.  They  grow 
well  on  gravelly  and  sandy  soils  when  these  have  been  recently 
limed.  They  are  not  often  grown  as  a  regular  crop  in  a  rotation, 
and  are  not  an  ordinary  farm  crop.  They  may  be  taken  with 
beans,  in  the  proportion  of  two  of  beans  to  one  of  peas.  Most 
of  the  crop  is  grown  in  the  south-east  of  England. 

The  fields  for  peas  should  be  ploughed  as  soon  as  possible 
after  harvest,  as  the  crop  does  best  on  a  stale  furrow,  in  opposition 
to  beans.  The  land  should  be  clean  and  in  a  fine  state  of  tilth, 
this  being  obtained  by  numerous  harrowings.  The  scufflers  would 
be  at  work  first ;  they  are  followed  by  the  drag-harrows  and  then 
by  the  light  harrows.  The  ground  should  never  be  worked  when 
wet;  the  seed  should  also  be  drilled  during  fine  weather,  and 
harrowed  in. 

It  is  not  advisable  to  dress  the  land  intended  for  peas  with 
dung,  as  the  crop  is  rendered  coarse  and  the  flavour  of  the  peas 
deteriorated. 

We  now  come  to  the  Root  Crops,  which  have  been  mentioned 
before  as  being  used  for  cleaning  or  fallowing. 

The  preparatory  cultivation  of  all  our  root  crops  is  almost  the 
same,  and  consequently  can  be  well  considered  together.  It 
is  essential  that  the  land  be  thoroughly  clean,  and  in  a  fine 
state  of  tilth.  For  this  purpose  autumn  cultivation  is  most 
suitable. 

As  soon  as  possible  after  harvesting  the  preceding  corn  crop, 
the  land  should  be  shallow-ploughed  to  a  depth  not  greater  than 
three  or  four  inches.  The  object  is  to  pare  off  the  surface  weeds, 
and  consequently  the  old  practice  of  raftering  might  here  be  per- 
formed with  advantage.  The  weeds  are  buried,  so  as  to  be  rapidly 
decomposed.  After  this  ploughing,  the  land,  when  light,  has 
the  cultivators  passed  through.     Their  long,  curved  teeth  drag 


312  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE 

out  such  creeping  weeds  as  couch  grass.  Then  use  the  scuffler, 
which  increases  the  fineness  of  the  clods ;  and  collect  the  weeds 
by  means  of  the  chain-harrow.  Burn  the  rubbish.  This  plan  ot 
operations  may  have  to  be  repeated,  taking  care  that  the  surface 
soil  be  not  rendered  too  fine.  It  is  very  necessary  that  all  these 
operations  be  performed  in  dry  weather.  If  worked  when  wet, 
the  soil  dries  into  hard  clods,  which,  when  broken  down  by 
harrows  or  rollers,  do  not  crumble,  but  only  form  small  angular 
fragments.  These  particles  are  totally  unsuited  for  being  the 
home  of  young  plants.  As  the  period  after  harvest  during  which 
land  can  be  worked  without  injury  is  somewhat  short,  steam 
cultivation  has  often  been  recommended.  The  land  is  quickly 
operated  upon,  and  is  thoroughly  smashed  up.  The  cultivator 
is  the  most  suitable  implement  for  this  purpose.  It  should  be 
worked  twice  across  the  fields,  the  second  turn  being  at  right  angles 
to  the  first.     Between  the  two  operations  a  rolling  may  be  given. 

Owing  to  other  work,  such  as  the  preparation  of  land  for  wheat 
or  beans,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  get  all  the  root  land  thoroughly 
cleaned  before  winter.  The  part  intended  for  mangels  should 
therefore  be  cleaned  before  the  rest,  as  this  crop  is  sown  much 
earlier  than  the  others.  The  land  is  prepared  in  a  manner  similar 
to  the  above.     A  dressing  of  dung  is  given,  and  then  ploughed  in. 

The  work  is  commenced  again  as  soon  as  possible  in  the  next 
year.  In  January  or  February,  if  fine,  the  land  may  be  cross- 
ploughed,  the  direction  being  at  right  angles  to  the  former  furrows. 
Some  farmers  recommend  a  harrowing  just  before  this  to  produce 
a  level  surface.  The  object  is  now  to  produce  a  fine,  moist  seed- 
bed, and  in  order  to  push  forward  the  work  the  steam-cultivator 
may  again  be  used  with  advantage.  The  ordinary  grubbers  and 
drag-harrows  have  often  to  be  used  instead;  and  in  the  former  case, 
also,  they  will  soon  succeed  the  steam  implements.  After  the 
grubber  will  come  the  lighter  harrows,  and  then  the  weeds  brought 
to  the  surface  will  be  collected  by  the  chain  harrow.  These 
operations,  if  properly  carried  out,  ought  to  leave  the  surface  soil 
fine  enough.  In  the  north,  the  stubble  is  simply  ploughed  in 
autumn,  cross-ploughed  and  well  cultivated  in  spring ;  when  fine 
enough,  the  land  is  formed  up  into  ridges  with  the  double-mould- 
board  plough,  and  a  dressing  of  about  twelve  to  sixteen  tons  of 
farmyard  manure  spread  between  the  ridges.  The  dung  is 
usually  deposited  in  small  heaps  from  a  cart,  enough  being  left 
each  time  for  about  five  rows.  The  cart  goes  up  the  middle  of 
this  plot,  and  the  manure  is  then  spread  in  the  bottoms  of  the 
ridges,  by  women  with  forks.  The  artificial  manure  is  sown,  the 
ridges  split  over  the  manure,  and  the  seed  drilled  in  on  the  top. 
One  great  advantage  of  this  system  is   that  the  surface  soil  is 


CULTIVATION   OF   CROPS.  313 

grouped  more  about  the  roots  of  the  young  plants,  which   are 
also  immediately  over  a  rich  store  of  plant-food  constituents. 

In  the  method  employed  chiefly  in  the  south  of  England,  no 
ridges  are  raised.  After  the  last  harrowing,  the  land  is  rolled  to 
get  it  as  flat  as  possible.  The  dung  is  applied  before  the  com- 
mencement of  the  spring  cleaning  operations,  being  simply 
ploughed  in. 

Roots  have  a  more  critical  cultivation  than  any  other  common 
crop.  Everything  depends  so  much  upon  the  weather,  that  the 
farmer  has  to  possess  considerable  foresight.  The  bad  effects  of 
working  the  land  when  wet  have  been  mentioned.  The  land 
should  never  be  rolled  or  harrowed  when  moist,  as  hard  masses 
generally  form.  When  the  soil  is  light,  in  a  dry  climate  a  good 
rolling  consolidates  it,  and  helps  it  to  retain  moisture.  The  effect 
of  harrowing  at  such  a  time  would  be  to  favour  the  evaporation  of 
water,  and  the  result  would  be  that  the  crop  would  not  be  able  to 
grow.  The  conservation  of  moisture  is  of  such  importance  that 
some  farmers  scarcely  touch  their  land  in  spring.  They  clean  it 
thoroughly  in  autumn,  and  then  give  it  a  deep  winter  furrow.  A 
short  time  before  sowing  the  seed,  the  land  is  harrowed  a  few 
times,  formed  up  into  ridges,  and  the  seed  sown. 

Though  cross-ploughing  in  January  or  February  may  do  good 
on  dry  soils,  yet  it  is  not  generally  advisable  to  use  the  ordinary 
plough  afterwards.  The  fine  surface  soil  is  buried,  and  the  bene- 
ficial effects  of  much  of  the  previous  treatment  are  rendered 
useless.  The  rough  material  brought  up  is  often  not  sufficiently 
pulverized  before  seed-time,  and,  if  dry  weather  continue,  the 
loss  of  moisture  from  the  surface  would  produce  injurious  results. 

On  heavy  lands  it  will  be  seen  that  autumn  cultivation  is 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  root  crop.  A  dressing  of  dung  should 
be  applied  then,  and  a  good  deep  winter  furrow  given.  The 
latter  partly  provides  for  the  surface  drainage  of  the  land.  On 
light  soils  there  is  not  such  great  need  of  autumn  cultivation. 
They  are  easily  worked  in  spring.  On  the  two  classes  of  land 
there  is  an  important  difference  in  the  manner  of  destroying  the 
weeds.  On  the  former  they  are  killed  in  the  clods,  therefore 
these  should  not  be  reduced  too  much  in  size,  and,  as  the  death  of 
weeds  is  caused  by  lack  of  moisture,  they  should  be  frequently 
turned  in  dry  weather.  On  the  light  soils  the  surplus  vegetation 
is  destroyed  by  exposure  on  the  surface. 

On  clean  land  few  cleaning  measures  need  be  undertaken. 
Almost  all  that  need  be  done  in  this  line  is  to  send  a  set  of 
labourers  with  forks  over  the  fields  in  autumn.  Any  stray  patches 
of  couch  or  other  weeds  are  dug  out  with  the  forks,  and  then 
collected  and  destroyed. 


314  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Turnips  and  Swedes,  being  the  principal  fallow  crops,  occupy 
the  first  place  in  nearly  every  rotation.  They  are  best  suited  for 
light  and  loamy  lands.  On  the  weakest  sands,  white  turnips  are 
taken  ;  on  the  light  loams,  yellows  as  well  are  grown.  Swedes, 
with  the  other  two,  are  cultivated  on  the  clay  loams ;  this  crop 
does  not  thrive  on  very  light  sands.  As  to  climate,  the  cool  and 
humid  north  of  England  and  Scotland  grow  both  larger  and 
better  crops  than  the  south.  A  difference  in  the  preparation  of 
the  land  is  also  seen  in  the  two  parts;  in  the  former  it  is  put 
into  ridges;  in  the  latter  it  is  left  flat.  However  advantageous 
the  ridges  may  be  in  their  own  districts,  they  do  not  succeed 
in  the  south.  The  objection  against  them  is  that  they  assist 
the  evaporation  of  moisture,  leaving  the  land  too  dry  for  the 
plants,  and  favouring  the  attack  of  that  fungoid  disease  known 
as  mildew. 

Mangel-wurzel  are  another  important  fallow  crop.  They  do 
best  on  good  deep  loams,  and  suit  heavy  soils  very  well.  They  are 
a  failure  on  the  thin  chalks.  They  succeed  most  in  warm  climates, 
and  stand  drought  well.  For  this  reason  they  are  largely  grown 
in  the  southern  counties.  The  cultivation  is  very  similar  to  that 
already  given ;  the  land  must  be  cleaned  in  autumn,  and  some 
long  dung  ploughed  in  during  December.  Early  in  spring  a 
dressing  of  seaweed  may  be  given,  if  near  the  sea.  Work  with  the 
harrows  until  a  fine  tilth  is  obtained  ;  then  form  up  into  ridges,  if 
the  district  is  at  all  suitable,  and  drill  the  seed.  On  heavy  clay 
as  little  work  as  possible  should  be  done  in  the  spring,  oi  a 
proper  seed-bed  will  not  be  obtained. 

Carrots  are  not  a  very  regular  crop.  They  grow  best  on  good 
deep  light  soils,  free  from  stones.  On  heavy  lands,  besides  a 
poorer  yield,  the  crop  would  be  very  difficult  to  dig  up.  Carrots 
essentially  need  deep  cultivation ;  subsoiling  is  often  of  great 
use.  The  autumn  preparation  of  the  ground  is  the  same  as  for 
mangels,  the  ploughing,  however,  being  deeper.  Little  is  done 
in  spring,  owing  to  the  early  seeding.  The  land  may  be  harrowed 
and  rolled  in  dry  weather,  before  sowing. 

Parsnips  are  only  rarely  grown  as  a  farm  crop.  They  need 
almost  the  same  cultivation  as  carrots,  but  it  is  less  critical. 

Cahbag'es. — The  most  suitable  soils  are  deep  rich  loams,  but 
they  grow  well  on  very  stiff  clays.  They  are  well  adapted  for  the 
latter  classes  of  land  for  several  reasons,  (i)  Stiff  soils  give  good 
crops.  (2)  Being  sown  in  small  plots,  and  then  transplanted  in 
September  or  in  April,  they  allow  of  the  autumn  cultivation  of  the 
land.  (3)  They  can  be  fed  off  on  the  land  in  July  and  August, 
when  little  damage  will  be  done  by  trampling. 

The  land  is   thoroughly  cleaned   after  harvest,  the   stirring 


CULTIVATION   OF  CROPS.  315 

being  to  a  good  depth.  Very  fine  surface  soil  should  not  be 
aimed  at,  as  it  is  best  for  the  frost  to  crumble  down  the  clods. 
A  heavy  dressing  of  dung  should  be  given.  It  is  laid  at  the 
bottom  of  the  ridges  as  for  mangels,  and  covered  in  the  same 
way.  Ridges  are  not,  however,  always  formed,  the  crop  being 
often  grown  on  the  flat.  In  this  case  the  farmyard  manure  is 
applied  in  autumn,  before  the  winter  furrow  is  given. 

Kohl-rabi  grows  well  on  loamy  soils,  whether  heavy  or  light, 
and  also  on  the  fen-land.  It  is  hardy,  but  is  not  often  seen  in 
the  north,  being  chiefly  cultivated  in  the  southern  and  midland 
counties.  The  land  is  worked  the  same  as  for  mangels,  being 
deeply  ploughed  in  autumn  and  then  grubbed  in  spring. 

Rape  suits  alluvial  or  peaty  soils  best,  and,  after  these,  heavy 
clays.  It  is  grown,  however,  upon  a  great  variety  of  soils,  and 
does  well  upon  the  chalk.  Its  cultivation  is  very  similar  to  that  of 
swedes ;  plenty  of  manure  is  required. 

Thousand-headed  Kale. — The  preparatory  cultivation  of  this 
crop  is  the  same  as  for  cabbages.  It  suits  a  wide  range  of  soils, 
and  has  been  found  to  do  well  on  poor  chalky  land. 

Potatoes  grow  best  on  deep,  warm  loams.  The  best  potatoes 
are  said  to  be  grown  on  the  Old  Red  Sandstone.  The  heavy  clays 
and  weak  sandy  soils  are  more  unsuited  to  their  growth,  though 
with  plenty  of  manure  the  last  named  may  give  good  crops. 
Peaty  soils  produce  very  good  tubers,  but  on  the  fenlands  the 
quality  of  the  very  heavy  crops  obtained  cannot  always  be  relied 
upon.  They  are  apt  to  be  hollow  and  watery.  As  regards  the 
season,  they  do  best  with  plenty  of  rain  at  first  and  then  dry 
weather  after.  Their  place  in  rotation  is  not  always  with  the 
fallow  crop.  They  answer  well  for  preceding  wheat  and  succeed- 
ing oats. 

The  land  for  potatoes  must  contain  plenty  of  available  plant- 
food  ;  it  must  be  clean,  well  drained,  and  free  from  acidity.  The 
last  two  points  need  attention  on  peaty  soils. 

Potatoes  are  grown  on  three  systems  :  (i)  on  the  ridge,  (2)  on 
the  flat,  (3)  on  the  lazy-bed  method.  The  first  plan  is  decidedly 
the  best.  The  stubbles  are  ploughed  up  in  autumn,  and  culti- 
vated as  for  roots  until  the  sets  are  planted.  On  the  second 
method,  the  land  is  ploughed  in  autumn,  and  gets  twenty  or  thirty 
tons  of  farmyard  manure  per  acre.  Another  ploughing  is  given 
in  spring,  before  planting.  The  lazy-bed  method  is  suitable  for 
wet  boggy  lands,  or  those  that  are  rocky.    It  is  described  later  on, 

We  must  now  consider  the  chief  fodder  crops. 

Vetches  suit  nearly  any  class  of  land,  provided  it  contains  a 
sufficient  amount  of  lime.  Like  many  fodder  plants,  they  are 
chiefly  grown  as  a  catch  crop,  for  which  purpose  a  moist,  but 


3l6  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

warm,  climate  assists  greatly.  The  cultivation  is  very  simple. 
They  are  generally  taken  after  a  corn  crop  (wheat  especially),  and 
the  stubble  needs  ploughing  up.  Dress  with  ten  or  twelve  tons  of 
dung  per  acre,  and  then  plough  to  a  depth  of  four  inches. 
Harrow  until  the  furrow  slices  are  broken  up,  drill  the  seed  and 
harrow  it  in.  All  these  operations  are  got  through  as  quickly  as 
possible,  so  that  at  least  part  of  the  crop  may  be  got  in  during 
autumn. 

Trifolium,  or  crimson  clover,  produces  good  crops,  especially 
on  loamy  soils.  It  may  do  well  on  land  of  heavier  description, 
but  does  not  thrive  on  weak  sandy  soils  or  on  chalky  land. 
It  requires  the  warm  climate  of  the  southern  counties.  The 
cleanest  piece  of  stubble  is  lightly  cultivated  or  drag-harrowed 
two  or  three  times,  then  the  seed  is  sown,  harrowed  in,  and  rolled. 
On  heavy  land  a  shallow  ploughing  may  be  given  to  begin  with ; 
but  it  is  better  not  to  use  the  plough  at  all.  It  loosens  the  soil 
too  much,  and  a  firm  seed-bed  is  needed  by  the  plant. 

Trefoil  thrives  best  on  the  calcareous  soils  of  the  south.  No 
previous  preparation  of  the  land  is  made  specially  for  this  crop,  as 
It  is  sown  upon  the  young  corn. 

Italian  Ryegrass  may  be  sown  upon  wheat  or  by  itself.  In 
the  latter  case,  which  is  not  so  common,  the  soil  needs  to  be 
cleaned  and  harrowed  as  soon  after  harvest  as  possible. 

Sainfoin  is  most  suitable  for  calcareous  soils.  It  is  sown 
down  with  barley,  on  very  clean  land. 

Lucerne. — A  deep  calcareous  loam  is  best,  with  dry  climate. 
The  ground  should  be  cleaned  thoroughly  in  autumn,  and 
ploughed  just  before  winter.  In  spring,  a  dressing  of  rotten  dung 
should  be  given,  and  a  good  seed-bed  prepared. 

Lupines  suit  sandy  soils,  but  are  seldom  grown  in  this 
country.  The  land  needs  to  be  cleaned  in  autumn  and  spring,  as 
for  the  other  crops. 

Gorse  may  be  grown  on  poor  sandy  soils.  The  land  is  broken 
up  as  much  as  possible,  so  as  to  get  a  fine  seed-bed,  and  the 
seed  sown  in  March  or  April. 

Prickly  Comfrey  may  be  taken  in  out-of-the-way  corners, 
especially  when  low-lying  and  wet.  It  requires  a  somewhat  deep, 
rich  soil.  The  land  needs  to  be  cleaned  and  well  manured  with 
dung  before  planting. 

Mustard. — The  brown  mustard,  grown  for  seed,  is  cultivated 
chiefly  on  the  rich  alluvial  soils  of  South  Lincolnshire.  The 
white  variety,  used  for  forage  and  green  manure,  is  not  good 
enough  for  the  very  fertile  soils.  It  may  be  grown  upon  the 
higher  loams. 

The  tillage  operations  should  be  deep,  and  the  soil  must  be 


CULTIVATION   OF  CROPS.  317 

well  divided  up.  A  good  dressing  of  well-rotten  dung  may  be 
given.  The  seed  is  sown  in  April.  With  the  forage  crop,  the 
seed  may  be  sown  upon  a  shallow  furrow,  and  ploughed  in. 

Maize  is  scarcely  suited  for  an  English  climate.  The  land 
needs  to  be  well-prepared  and  dunged. 

Hops  suit  rich  calcareous  loams  with  a  warm  climate.  The 
greater  part  of  the  crop  grown  in  Great  Britain  comes  from  Kent. 
The  ground  needs  to  be  sheltered  and  well  drained. 

The  land  is  trench-ploughed  or  deeply  ploughed  and  subsoiled 
in  autumn.  The  former  operation  is  best,  when  properly  per- 
formed. A  heavy  dressing  of  dung  is  given  about  the  same  time. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  fold  sheep  upon  the  land  in  autumn,  and  give 
them  a  liberal  allowance  of  cake  or  corn. 

Flax  requires  rich  fertile  land  in  good  tilth  and  clean  con- 
dition. It  does  not  suit  either  heavy  clays  or  gravels.  It 
usually  follows  a  corn  crop,  but  also  does  well  after  potatoes. 

The  land  should  be  ploughed  at  the  beginning  of  winter,  and 
then  cross-ploughed  in  spring,  during  fine  weather.  Work  out  the 
land  with  the  harrows,  getting  a  firm,  even  seed-bed. 

Hemp  is  grown  in  small  amounts  on  rich  alluvial  soils  in 
Lincoln  and  Dorset  The  preparatory  culture  is  the  same  as 
for  flax. 

Buckwheat  suits  poor,  light,  dry  soils,  and,  as  it  does  fairly 
well  under  trees,  is  sometimes  sown  in  small  quantities  in  woods 
and  odd  corners,  for  pheasants  or  poultry.  It  may  follow  a  com 
crop  if  the  land  be  clean  enough. 

Teazles  are  grown  chiefly  on  poor  clays  in  the  south.  The 
land  is  ploughed  and  cleaned  in  autumn,  and  the  plants  dibbled  in. 

Jerusalem  Artichoke  suits  the  poorest  sands  and  any  odd 
corners.  The  soil  is  simply  ploughed  up,  cleaned  a  little,  and 
manured. 

2.  Seeding  and  After  Cultivation. 

Previous  to  reading  through  this  section,  the  diflerent  machines 
by  means  of  which  crops  are  sown  should  be  studied  (see  pp.  36-38). 

Wheat  may  be  sown  either  in  autumn  or  in  February,  and 
from  this  fact  we  get  autumn  and  spring  wheat.  The  usual  time 
for  putting  in  the  former  variety  is  in  October  or  November. 
After  a  bare  fallow  it  may  be  sown  a  little  earlier. 

Wheat  should  be  sown  on  a  moist  seed-bed,  and  on  light  lands 
it  can  scarcely  be  too  wet.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  ground 
be  not  harrowed  much  when  in  a  wet  condition.  The  tilth  does 
not  need  to  be  so  fine  for  autumn  as  for  spring  corn  ;  the  clods 
protect  the  young  plants  from  the  winter  blasts,  and  gradually 
crumble  down  under  the  influence  of  atmospheric  agencies. 


3l8  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

The  amount  of  seed  per  acre  varies  from  one  and  a  half  to 
three  bushels.  Less  wheat  is  sown  per  acre  in  autumn  than 
in  spring,  and  the  reason  for  this  is  readily  apparent  The 
former  has  much  longer  time  to  grow,  and  tillers  more.  The 
term  tillering  applies  to  the  number  of  stems  a  plant  produces. 
In  elevated,  cold,  or  wet  districts,  thick  seeding  is  practised. 
The  crop  does  not  tiller  much,  and  unless  the  straw  is  close 
together  it  has  a  greater  liabiHty  to  be  blown  down.  In  the 
Midlands  and  South  of  England,  with  a  warmer  climate,  the  least 
amounts  of  seeds  are  used,  and  one  bushel  and  a  half  is  a  very 
usual  quantity  when  drilled. 

Spring  wheat  should  always  be  grown  from  spring  wheat,  and 
autumn  wheat  from  that  which  has  been  always  sown  at  that  time. 
Spring  wheat  is  not  so  hardy  as  the  other  variety,  and  could  not 
stand  the  winter  so  well.  The  hardihood  of  the  autumn  kind 
would  not  be  of  any  great  use  if  sown  in  spring,  and,  being 
naturally  a  slower  grower,  it  would  be  later  in  maturing,  and 
would  probably  yield  a  poorer  crop. 

Before  sowing,  the  seed  is  often  steeped  in  a  solution  of 
blue-stone,  three  ounces  to  the  bushel,  or  in  boiling  water,  to  kill 
bunt  and  smut  germs.  At  the  same  time  it  may  be  dressed  with 
tar,  one  pint  to  four  bushels,  to  keep  birds  off. 

There  are  two  chief  methods  of  sowing,  (i)  by  means  of  drills, 
(2)  broadcast.  The  second  method  is  performed  usually  by  the 
hand,  but  there  are  also  broadcasting  machines.  When  done  by 
the  hand,  about  fifteen  acres  can  be  finished  per  day  by  one  man. 
The  seed  is  contained  in  a  linen  bag  fastened  round  the  man's  body, 
and  often  over  his  shoulder,  and  may  be  distributed  either  by  one 
hand,  or  both.  The  arm  is  brought  round  with  a  sweep,  the 
fingers  gradually  opening,  and  an  advance  being  made  with  the 
foot  at  the  same  time.  If  the  actions  be  not  simultaneous,  an 
equal  distribution  will  not  be  secured.  The  broadcast  machine 
deposits  the  seed  very  regularly,  and  is  much  used  instead  of 
the  old  method.  Drilling  is  now  greatly  employed,  and  has 
three  advantages  over  broadcasting:  (i)  less  seed  is  used,  2  to  3 
bushels  being  required ;  (2)  the  seed  is  more  evenly  deposited, 
and  is  all  at  one  depth ;  (3)  the  land  can  be  hoed  between 
the  rows.  The  disadvantages  are  that  drilling  entails  more 
labour  and  takes  longer  than  broadcasting.  In  drilling,  the  rows 
are  usually  eight  or  ten  inches  apart.  A  good  way  of  seeding  is  to 
run  a  presser  over  the  land,  broadcast  the  seed  and  harrow  it 
in.  It  is  really  a  modified  form  of  drilling,  as  most  of  the  seed 
falls  into  the  hollows  left  by  the  presser.  Two  to  three  hands,  with 
the  same  number  of  horses,  drill  ten  acres  in  a  day  of  eight 
hours. 


CULTIVATION  OF  CROPS.  319 

After  broadcasting  the  seed,  the  land  is  harrowed  as  soon  as 
possible.  This  covers  the  grain,  and  prevents  the  ravages  of 
birds.  After  this  the  furrows  between  the  "  lands,"  or  "  cuts,"  are 
cleaned  out,  so  as  to  allow  of  surface  drainage.  This  is  most 
important  with  autumn  wheat  on  heavy  clay. 

In  spring  the  wheat  may  be  rolled  and  harrowed.  The  rolling 
presses  the  soil  firmly  about  the  young  roots.  When  the  autumn 
wheat  is  very  forward  many  farmers  fold  sheep  on  the  land.  The 
young  sprouts  are  eaten  down,  and  the  soil  consolidated.  Harrow- 
ing is  said  to  thin  too  thick  wheat,  and  increase  the  number  of 
plants  when  too  thin  (by  promoting  tillering).  A  turn  of  the 
harrow  is  also  given  to  the  autumn  wheat  in  spring,  to  break 
down  any  clods  when  in  a  dry  state. 

Should  the  crop  not  be  doing  well,  it  may  receive  a  dressing  ot 
I  cwt.  nitrate  of  soda,  and  i^  cwts.  superphosphate,  or  of  2  cwts. 
Peruvian  guano,  applied  about  April.  Manure  is  not,  however, 
often  given  to  the  crop. 

Drilled  wheat  is  hoed  during  its  early  growth.  The  operation 
must  not  be  performed  when  the  ground  is  at  all  wet.  Either  the 
horse-  or  hand-hoe  may  be  used.  With  the  former,  from  eight  to 
twelve  acres  can  be  done  per  day ;  with  the  latter,  half  an  acre. 
The  land  is  kept  clear  of  weeds,  but  the  process  is  expensive. 
Horse-hoeing  costs  nearly  one  shilling  per  acre ;  hand-hoeing  from 
three  and  sixpence  to  six  shillings. 

The  Lois-  Weedon  System  of  Cultivation. — This  plan  has  been 
devised  to  allow  of  continuous  wheat-growing,  and  is  based  upon 
the  precepts  laid  down  by  Jethro  Tull.  The  land  is  thoroughly 
cultivated,  and  then  wheat  is  sown.  Three  rows  are  drilled  in  a 
foot  apart,  then  comes  a  three  feet  interval,  followed  by  three 
more  rows  of  grain.  The  wide  intervals  are  thoroughly  tilled 
during  the  growth  of  the  crop,  and  serve  as  next  year's  seed-bed. 
By  this  method  very  good  crops  of  wheat  can  be  grown  year  after 
year.  The  tillage  expenses  are  heavy,  and  the  system  seems  to 
have  nearly  died  out. 

Barley  is  sown  from  about  the  middle  of  March  to  the  end  of 
April,  and  even  as  late  as  May.  Late  seeding  is  not,  however,  to 
be  recommended. 

The  seed-bed  should  be  deep  and  fine.  Broadcasting  by 
hand  does  not  answer  so  well  for  barley  as  for  other  cereals;  owing 
to  the  state  of  the  soil  at  the  time,  the  seeding  will  not  be  even. 
The  broadcast  machine  and  the  drill  do  good  work.  Great  care 
must  be  taken  with  the  seeding,  as  it  is  very  important  that  the 
crop  be  very  regular,  otherwise  the  sample  will  be  uneven,  and 
reduced  in  market  value. 

The  amount  of  se^d  used  varies  from  2^  to  4  bushels  per 


320  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

acre.  Less  is  required  when  sown  early  than  late.  As  little  as 
two  bushels  may  be  used  with  the  drill. 

Warm,  moist  weather  secures  a  rapid  germination ;  but  heavy 
rain,  especially  when  accompanied  by  cold  breezes,  causes  a  poor 
crop. 

Barley  does  not  require  much  after-cultivation.  It  may  be 
harrowed  or  rolled  soon  after  seeding,  and,  when  it  has  been 
drilled,  may  be  hoed  the  same  as  wheat. 

Being  a  quick-growing  crop,  barley  requires  a  plentiful  supply 
of  readily  available  plant-food.  A  dressing  of  2  cwts.  super- 
phosphate with  I  cwt.  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia 
may  be  given.  The  ammonium  sulphate  may  be  put  in  with  the 
seed ;  when  the  nitrate  is  used  the  manure  may  be  applied  as  a 
top-dressing  a  few  weeks  later. 

Winter  barley  {Hordeum  hexasiichum)  may  be  sown  broadcast 
in  autumn.  It  does  not  require  such  careful  cultivation  as  the 
ordinary  varieties,  and  is  used  for  forage. 

Oats  are  usually  put  into  the  ground  during  March,  though 
the  seed  time  may  be  prolonged  into  April.  The  earlier  time  is 
the  best.  The  commoner  kinds  are  sown  first ;  the  improved 
varieties  may  be  kept  a  little  longer.  The  early  sorts  are  most 
suited  for  exposed  districts. 

The  seed  may  be  sown  either  broadcast  or  with  the  drill. 
The  broadcast  machine  is  very  often  used.  The  amount  of  seed 
per  acre  is  from  2\  to  5  bushels;  the  larger  quantity  is  more 
common.  It  has  been  recommended  to  sow  mixtures  of  two  or 
more  varieties  of  oats  together. 

The  land  is  harrowed  well  before  and  after  seeding,  all  traces 
of  the  old  furrows  being  got  rid  of.  No  further  cultivation  is 
usually  needed. 

The  manuring  is  the  same  as  for  barley.  Peruvian  guano  is  a 
very  good  top-dressing.  It  must  be  remembered  that,  in  practice, 
none  of  the  three  great  cereal  crops  are  manured,  as  a  rule. 

Rye  is  usually  sown  in  autumn,  September  being  the  best 
month.  The  land  is  ploughed,  harrowed,  the  seed  sown  and 
harrowed  in.  The  amount  of  seed  used  is  from  two  bushels  when 
drilled,  to  three  or  four  when  broadcasted.  No  attention  is  needed 
through  winter,  and  by  March  or  April  it  will  be  fit  for  folding. 

Beans  are  sown  both  in  autumn  and  spring.  The  autumn 
beans  should  be  planted  as  early  as  possible  (in  October,  or  early 
in  November),  so  that  they  may  get  well  established  before  the 
frosts  commence.  The  spring  beans  are  sown  in  February,  if 
possible ;  the  work  may  be  continued  into  March,  but  none 
should  be  sown  after  this  month.  The  greater  part  of  the  crop 
is  usually  of  the  spring  variety. 


CULTIVATION   OF  CROPS.  32 1 

Beans  are  sown  either  in  ridges,  in  rows,  or  simply  on  the  flat 
surface.  In  the  more  northern  counties  the  first  method  is  in 
favour.  The  ridges  are  from  twenty-four  to  thirty  inches  apart,  and 
allow  of  the  free  use  of  the  horse-hoe.  They  are  more  commonly 
grown  in  rows  on  the  flat.  The  distance  between  the  rows  varies 
from  fifteen  to  twenty,  or  even  thirty  inches.  When  wide  apart, 
the  land  can  be  hoed  more  easily,  but  a  less  number  of  plants 
can  be  grown.  Fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  between  the  rows  may 
be  taken  as  the  usual  distance.  It  has  been  recommended  to 
grow  the  beans  in  rows  alternately  twelve  and  twenty  inches  apart. 
Beans  are  usually  drilled  in,  but  they  may  be  sown  broadcast  on 
a  smooth  surface.  Sometimes  they  are  dibbled  in.  Mechanical 
means  may  be  used  for  this,  or  a  labourer  may  make  the  holes 
with  a  dibble,  and  the  beans  are  dropped  into  these,  and  covered  in. 

The  amount  of  seed  used  varies  from  two  to  three  bushels  in 
autumn,  and  two  to  four  bushels  in  spring.  Before  drilling  on  the 
flat,  the  land  should  be  well  harrowed,  and  afterwards  two  or 
three  harrowings  are  given.  After  dibbling,  the  harrows  should 
be  worked  once  or  twice.  One  advantage  of  dibbling  on  heavy 
land  is,  that  the  danger  of  treading  by  horses  is  removed. 

The  manure  for  beans  consists  of  ten  or  twelve  tons  farmyard 
manure  (the  poorer  kind  will  do),  ploughed  in  during  autumn.  A 
dressing,  of  i  cwt.  sulphate  of  potash,  and  i  cwt.  superphosphate, 
may  be  given  about  March.  When  no  dung  is  applied,  the 
following  mixture  may  be  used  instead:  2  cwts.  sulphate  of 
potash,  2  cwts.  superphosphate,  i  cwt.  bone  meal,  and  i  cwt. 
sulphate  of  ammonia.  This  should  be  put  in  about  the  same 
time  as  the  seed  is  sown. 

When  the  young  plants  appear  above  the  surface  on  the  ridge 
system,  say  ten  days  after  sowing,  the  saddle-harrows  are  put  to 
work  loosening  the  soil.  Dry  weather  is  needed  for  this.  As  the 
crop  gets  a  little  higher,  the  land  is  horse-hoed  once  or  twice. 
After  this  they  are  hand-hoed  enough  to  keep  them  clear  of  weeds. 
When  the  rows  are  near  together  the  after  cultivation  does  not 
include  horse-hoeing.  After  the  plants  begin  to  flower  it  is  not 
safe  to  work  amongst  them ;  previous  to  this  they  should  be  hand- 
hoed  three  or  four  times. 

The  method  of  sowing  in  rows,  and  the  subsequent  hoeing, 
explains  why  such  a  rotation  as  wheat,  beans,  can  exist.  The 
beans  act  as  a  fallow  crop,  as  well  as  nitrogen-collectors. 

Peas  are  usually  sown  in  February  or  March.  They  are  some- 
times, though  not  often,  put  in  during  autumn.  There  is  a  little 
difference  in  time,  according  to  the  variety :  for  instance,  the  field 
pea,  with  blue  blossoms,  is  the  earliest ;  then  come  the  round 
blues  and  white  peas,  while  the  wrinkled  peas  are  sown  in  April. 

Y 


322  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Peas  may  be  sown  broadcast,  or  with  the  seed-barrow.  In 
the  former  method  they  are  broadcasted  upon  a  fine  drilled 
surface,  and  harrowed  in.  This  way,  however,  was  found  to 
encourage  the  growth  of  weeds,  and  led  to  peas  being  sown  in 
rows,  from  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  apart,  in  order  to  allow  of 
hoeing.  They  are  drilled  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches.  After 
lea,  peas  are  sometimes  dibbled  in,  the  holes  being  nine  inches 
apart. 

Owing  to  the  difficulty  of  hoeing  the  land,  from  the  spreading 
habits  of  the  crop,  peas  are  often  sown  with  beans,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  to  two  or  three.  The  beans  act  as  supports,  and, 
as  one  crop  is  shallow-rooted,  and  the  other  somewhat  deeper, 
they  do  not  interfere  with  each  other  to  any  great  extent. 

The  quantity  of  seed  varies  from  two  or  three  bushels  drilled, 
to  four  or  five  broadcasted.  Heavier  seeding  is  practised  in  the 
north  than  in  the  south. 

Heavy  dressings  of  farmyard  manure  produce  peas  of  coarse 
quality.     Liming  is  said  to  improve  the  quality  very  much. 

Turnips  and  Swedes  are  sown  in  late  spring,  and  all  through 
summer.  Early  white  turnips  may  be  sown  in  May,  and  early 
June  j  swedes  in  May  and  early  June ;  white  turnips  and 
yellows  in  June  and  early  July ;  late  turnips  in  July,  August,  and 
early  September.  Both  turnips  and  swedes  are  sown  nearly  a 
month  later  in  the  south  than  in  the  north.  The  reason  for  this 
is,  that  when  early  sown  in  the  former  districts  they  are  much 
more  liable  to  mildew. 

There  are  three  methods  of  sowing,  i.e.  broadcasting,  drilling 
on  the  flat,  and  drilling  on  the  ridge. 

Broadcasting  turnips  has  nearly  gone  out  of  fashion.  When 
sown  late,  say  in  August,  this  plan  may  be  followed,  because  the 
object  being  to  produce  as  much  food  as  possible  during  the  short 
period  of  growth,  drilling  would  give  fewer  number  of  plants  per 
acre,  and  these  do  not  reach  any  great  development. 

Drilling  on  the  flat  is  practised  chiefly  in  the  south  of  England. 
The  ground  is  first  harrowed  well,  and  then  rolled.  Then  the  seed 
is  drilled  in  rows  from  fourteen  to  twenty-four  inches  apart. 
Two  kinds  of  drills  are  used,  viz.  the  dry  and  the  wet.  In  the 
former,  the  artificial  manures,  mixed  with  the  ashes  of  weeds,  etc., 
are  placed  in  a  suitable  receptacle,  and  are  deposited  with  the  seed. 
In  the  other,  a  tank  takes  the  place  of  the  box  for  manures. 
The  fertilizers  are  dissolved  in  the  water,  and  are  lifted  into 
the  tubes  by  dredging  wheels.  In  working  this  machine,  from 
two  hundred  to  eight  hundred  gallons  of  water  are  needed  per 
acre.  It  has  been  found  that  during  a  droughty  season  the 
dry  drills  give  best  results.     The  other  form  encourages  rapid 


CULTIVATION   OF  CROPS.  323 

germination,  but,  after  the  temporary  effects  of  the  water  have 
passed  away,  the  young  plants  receive  a  severe  check,  which 
renders  them  very  liable  to  mildew. 

The  ridge  system  is  very  suitable  for  the  humid  districts  in 
which  it  is  carried  out.  The  width  between  the  drills  is  usually 
twenty-seven  inches,  but  it  varies  from  twenty-five  to  thirty.  The 
method  of  forming  the  ridges  has  already  been  given.  The  soil 
must  be  in  a  fine  state  of  division  for  the  operation. 

The  usual  amount  of  seed  is  3  lbs.  per  acre.  Early  turnips 
may  need  2  to  3  lbs. ;  the  ordinary  crop  does  not  require  mucli 
more  than  2  or  2-|  lbs.  seed.  When  sown  broadcast,  2  lbs.  is 
sufficient.  Owing  to  the  plants  being  grown  afterwards  at  wide 
intervals,  only  a  few  ounces  are  really  needed  to  seed  an  acre  of 
land.  It  has  been  found  best  to  sow  2  or  3  lbs.,  as  then  there 
are  more  to  pick  from  when  singling,  and  the  crop  is  not  so 
readily  destroyed  by  the  turnip  fly. 

In  manuring  turnips  and  swedes  note  must  be  taken  of  the 
great  benefit  received  from  the  application  of  phosphatic  fertilizers. 
These  root  crops  have  very  little  power  of  absorbing  the  combined 
phosphoric  acid  of  the  soil,  and  hence  superphosphate,  or  similar 
manures,  are  nearly  always  given.  About  ten  or  twelve  tons  of  farm- 
yard manure  are  ploughed  into  the  land,  and,  besides,  the  following 
mixture  may  be  given : — 3  cwts.  superphosphate,  i  cwt.  bone  meal, 
and  I"  to  f  cwt.  nitrate  of  soda.  The  superphosphate,  bone  meal, 
and  a  little  nitrate  are  drilled  in  with  the  seed.  The  rest  of  the 
nitrate  of  soda  is  broadcasted  soon  after  the  leaves  have  appeared 
above  the  ground.  In  the  north,  a  dressing  of  about  4  cwts. 
guano  may  be  given  instead  of  the  above  artificials.  Owing  to 
the  caustic  nature  of  this  manure,  it  must  be  put  in  with  the 
dung.  Should  no  farmyard  manure  be  given,  a  mixture  of  4  cwts. 
superphosphate,  2  cwts.  bone  meal,  i  cwt.  nitrate  of  soda,  and  2 
cwts.  kainit  may  be  used  instead.  The  nitrate  of  soda  is  of 
use  in  hurrying  the  young  plants  past  the  smooth-leaf  stage,  when 
they  suffer  most  from  the  attacks  of  the  turnip  fly.  A  large 
amount,  however,  may  have  an  injurious  eff"ect,  by  producing 
a  rapid  growth  at  first,  which  is  not  kept  up  when  the  artificial 
supply  of  nitrogen  fails.    A  liability  to  mildew  is  the  consequence. 

The  after  cultivation  of  turnips  is  very  important.  On 
the  ridge  system,  it  briefly  consists  of  (i)  saddle  harrowing, 
(2)  stitch  harrowing,  (3)  singling,  (4)  stitch  harrowing,  (5)  stitch 
grubbing,  (6)  hand  hoeing,  (7)  stitch  hoeing.  The  first  two 
operations  clear  away  many  of  the  weeds  and  loosen  the  soil. 
The  singling  begins  as  soon  as  the  permanent  leaf  has  fully 
formed.  Most  of  the  plants  are  pulled  out,  only  the  best  being 
left,  at  intervals  of  eight  to  ten  inches.     This  allows  of  their 


324  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

greater  development.  There  are  one  or  two  machines  for  this 
purpose,  but  the  operation  is  nearly  always  performed  by  manual 
labour.  The  plants  are  removed  either  by  means  of  a  hoe,  or  by 
pulling  out  with  the  hand.  From  a  quarter  to  one-third  of  an 
acre  can  be  done  in  a  day  of  ten  hours.  The  workers,  while 
pulling  out  the  surplus  plants,  also  remove  the  weeds.  The 
remaining  operations  rapidly  succeed  each  other,  until  the  growth 
of  the  leaves  prevents  the  implements  working  between  the  rows. 

On  the  flat,  harrowing  across  the  rows  is  sometimes  practised. 
Many  plants  are  thus  pulled  out,  and  the  singling,  which  soon 
follows,  is  rendered  easier.  After  singling,  the  land  is  horse - 
hoed,  and  then  hand-hoed,  and  may  afterwards  receive  another 
horse-hoeing.  In  these  operations  great  care  must  be  taken  that 
the  horse-hoe  does  not  go  too  near  the  rows,  as  in  dry  weather 
the  stirring  would  favour  the  evaporation  of  water,  and  the 
consequent  withering  of  the  plants. 

Mangels  are  about  the  first  root  crop  sown.  They  should 
be  got  in  during  the  latter  part  of  March,  April,  and  early  in 
May. 

The  method  of  sowing  is  very  similar  to  that  of  turnips ;  the 
flat  and  ridge  systems  being  used  in  their  respective  districts. 
The  width  between  the  rows  varies  from  eighteen  to  thirty  inches. 
It  is  not  desirable  to  have  them  wider  than  this,  as  the  mangels 
would  grow  to  a  large  size,  but  be  very  watery  and  of  low  feeding 
value. 

The  amount  of  seed  used  is  6  or  7  lbs.  per  acre.  Each  so- 
called  seed  is  really  a  tough  capsule  enclosing  three  real  seeds,  one 
of  which  cannot  grow,  as  a  rule.  The  hard  covering  usually 
prevents  germination  to  some  extent,  and,  consequently,  in  order 
that  it  may  be  early,  the  seed  is  steeped.  There  are  several 
ways  of  doing  this.  Thus  the  seed  may  be  put  in  warm  water 
for  twelve  hours  or  so;  other  farmers  allow  it  to  remain  for  as 
long  as  thirty-six  hours  in  cold  water.  Others,  again,  use  liquid 
manure.  After  this,  the  seed  is  allowed  to  dry  some  Httle  time 
before  sowing. 

The  manure  for  mangels  is  somewhat  different  from  that  for 
turnips.  In  this  case  phosphates  do  not  produce  such  wonderful 
effects,  but  nitrate  of  soda  acts  very  beneficially.  The  Beta 
viaritima^  from  which  the  mangel  originally  sprung,  being  a  sea- 
side plant,  common  salt  may  be  given  with  good  results.  A 
common  dressing  for  mangels  consists  of  10  or  12  tons  farmyard 
dung  (ploughed  in),  with  i  cwt  nitrate  of  soda,  2  cwts.  super- 
phosphate, and  4  or  5  cwts.  common  salt.  The  nitrate  is  given 
in  two  lots — one  with  the  seed,  when  the  superphosphate  and  salt 
are  also  drilled  in ;  the  other,  with  a  little  salt,  is  given  a  short  time 


CULTIVATION   OF  CROPS.  325 

before  the  last  horse-hoeing.  Instead  of  the  above,  if  near  the 
sea,  give  10  to  12  tons  farmyard  manure  and  6  to  8  tons  seaweeds, 
with  perhaps  2  cwts.  superphosphate  drilled  with  the  seed.  When 
no  farmyard  manure  is  given,  apply  2  or  3  cwts.  superphosphate, 
I  cwt.  bone  meal,  i-|-  cwts.  nitrate  of  soda,  2  cwts.  kainit,  and  5 
cwts.  salt.  Mangels,  it  must  be  remembered,  are  very  rapid 
growers,  and  take  up  comparatively  large  amounts  of  the  plant- 
food  constituents  of  the  soil. 

The  after  cultivation  on  the  ridge  system  is  much  the  same  as 
for  turnips.  The  land  is  first  saddle-harrowed,  by  which  means 
two  stitches  are  cleaned  at  a  time.  About  a  week  after  this,  they 
are  stitch-harrowed  between  the  rows.  The  stitch  grubber  is  next 
used,  and  then  singling  commences  when  the  plants  have  a  fairly 
strong  leaf.  The  distances  between  the  mangels  left  should  be 
between  twelve  and  sixteen  inches.  It  should  be  noted  that, 
if  a  blank  place  occurs,  some  of  the  young  plants  pulled  out 
from  other  parts  may  be  put  in  to  fill  the  vacancies.  After  this 
the  land  needs  an  occasional  working;  generally  two  grubbings, 
a  stitch-harrowing,  and  a  hand-hoeing  are  given. 

On  the  flat,  a  horse-hoeing  is  adopted  when  the  plants  are 
high  enough.  The  work  for  the  first  time  should  be  done  in  the 
early  morning,  if  possible,  as  soon  as  the  rows  can  be  clearly  seen. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  go  too  near  the  plants.  Little  more 
than  the  surface  soil  will  be  stirred  on  the  first  occasion,  but  at 
each  succeeding  hoeing  the  cultivation  becomes  deeper  and 
deeper.  After  the  first  horse-hoeing,  the  crop  is  roughly  hand- 
hoed,  then  horse-hoed  again.  Thinning  now  commences,  and 
is  followed  by  horse-hoeing,  and  then  the  operation  is  repeated 
by  hand.  After  the  hoeing  has  been  done  about  three  times  in 
both  ways,  the  leaves  will  have  met  across  the  rows,  and  further 
cultivation  is  unnecessary. 

Carrots  are  sown  in  the  end  of  March  or  beginning  of  April, 
the  former  time  being  preferable.  Before  sowing,  the  land  is 
harrowed  and  rolled  in  dry  weather,  and  then  the  seed  is  drilled 
in  with  the  manure.  When  on  the  flat,  there  is  from  fifteen  to 
eighteen  inches  between  the  rows ;  sometimes,  though  not  very 
often,  they  are  grown  in  raised  drills  twenty-seven  to  thirty 
inches  wide.  The  wide  raised  drills  allow  of  the  land  being 
more  easily  and  thoroughly  cleaned ;  usually  two  rows  of  seed  are 
sown  in  the  same  drill. 

The  amount  of  seed  per  acre  is  eight  or  ten  pounds.  Like  that 
of  mangels,  it  may  be  previously  steeped  in  water  to  secure  rapid 
germination.  The  hairy  character  of  the  |eed  causes  it  to  cling 
together,  and  gives  some  difficulty  in  drilling.  To  prevent  this, 
it  should  be  rubbed  up  with  two  bushels  of  dry  sand  or  earth. 


326  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

The  seed  must  not  be  covered  in  drilling  to  a  greater  depth  than 
one  inch.  It  should  be  harrowed  in.  Owing  to  the  small 
and  finely  divided  character  of  the  leaves,  they  are  difficult  to 
hoe,  and  soon  become  overgrown  with  weeds.  Hence  a  small 
amount  of  oats  are  often  mixed  with  the  carrot  seed.  The  oats 
show  the  position  of  the  drills  and  allow  of  easier  hoeing. 

It  has  been  recommended  to  sow  alternate  rows  of  mangels 
and  carrots,  as  the  crops  in  no  wise  interfere  with  one  another. 
In  Belgium,  carrot  seed  is  sometimes  broadcasted  over  the  young 
rye  in  spring,  and  harrowed  in.  The  rye  is  cut  in  June  with 
a  cradled  scythe,  care  being  taken  not  to  injure  the  tops  of  the 
young  carrots.  After  clearing  off  the  stooks,  the  land  is  harrowed, 
and  then  receives  a  dressing  of  liquid  manure.  No  further 
cultivation  is  needed  until  the  crop  has  to  be  taken  up. 

In  the  ordinary  way,  the  hoeing  goes  on  just  the  same  as  for 
other  crops.  The  thinning  takes  place  when  the  plants  are  from 
one  to  three  inches  high ;  the  intervals  between  them  vary  from 
four  to  eight  inches. 

Parsnips  are  sown  in  February  or  March.  The  amount  of 
seed  per  acre  is  six  to  eight  pounds  per  acre,  usually  mixed  with 
a  little  oats  or  turnip  seed.  They  are  sown  in  much  the  same 
way  as  carrots,  and  need  very  similar  cultivation.  The  plants  are 
singled  out  to  six  or  eight  inches  apart. 

Cabbages  are  generally  raised  by  transplantation.  A  piece 
of  vacant  ground  in  the  corner  of  some  field  is  ploughed,  dunged, 
and  harrowed  down  fine.  The  seed  is  then  drilled  in  rows  from 
nine  to  twelve  inches  apart.  The  period  for  doing  this  commences 
about  the  middle  of  July,  and  finishes  about  the  second  week  in 
August.  From  one  to  two  pounds  of  seed  may  be  sown  for  every 
acre  to  be  transplanted,  and  for  this  amount  a  plot  of  sixty  square 
yards  will  be  needed.  A  dressing,  equal  to  3  cwts.  superphosphate 
per  acre,  may  be  drilled  in  with  the  seed.  By  October  the  young 
cabbages  will  be  large  enough  for  transplanting.  The  rest  of  the 
land  has  been  previously  got  into  a  fine  state  of  division,  and 
drills  are  marked  out  from  twenty-four  to  thirty  inches  apart.  The 
latter  distance,  rather  than  the  former,  should  be  employed.  The 
plants  are  drawn  from  the  seed-bed  and  put  into  their  fresh 
positions  with  as  little  delay  as  possible.  Dull  showery  weather 
is  preferred  for  the  operation.  The  roots  of  the  young  plants 
should  be  dipped  in  the  puddle  of  the  dung  heap  before  trans- 
planting. Planting  is  usually  done  with  a  dibble.  A  man  makes 
a  hole,  inserts  a. plant,, and  then  presses  the  earth  firmly  round  it. 
Some  people  prefer  to  make  the  hole  with  a  spade.  The  plants 
are  about  twenty-seven  to  thirty  inches  apart  in  the  rows. 

Transplanting   is   very   often   left   till    March    or  April,    the 


CULTIVATION   OF  CROPS.  327 

following  year.  Drumheads  may  be  sown  in  March,  and  planted 
out  in  May  or  June. 

When  the  plants  are  firmly  rooted  again  they  may  receive  one 
to  two  hundredweights  nitrate  of  soda.  About  one  hundredweight 
per  acre  may  be  dropped  around  the  stems  of  the  plants  as  a  first 
dressing,  and  then  another  hundredweight  may  be  broadcasted 
over  the  land  before  they  are  finally  earthed  up. 

The  crops  are  first  flat-hoed,  then  horse-  and  hand-hoed.  These 
last  two  operations  are  repeated  as  many  times  as  necessary  to 
keep  the  land  clean.  About  the  end  of  July  a  double-mould- 
board  plough  passes  between  the  lines,  so  as  to  throw  the  earth 
up  on  the  rows. 

Kohl-rabi. — The  seed  may  either  be  sown  on  the  flat  or  on 
ridges  like  turnips,  or  the  plants  may  be  raised  in  seed-beds,  and 
then  transplanted  into  rows,  twenty-five  to  twenty-seven  inches 
apart,  with  ten  to  sixteen  inches  distance  in  the  lines.  When  the 
latter  method  is  adopted,  from  ten  to  sixteen  ounces  of  seed  are 
sown  in  rows  about  twelve  inches  apart.  The  seed-bed  needs  to 
be  well-prepared,  and  requires  to  be  about  thirty-six  square  yards 
in  area.  The  seed  is  not  all  sown  at  the  same  time ;  it  may  begin 
in  March  and  continue,  at  intervals,  up  to  the  end  of  May  or  early 
in  June.  The  plants  remain  at  least  two  months  in  the  seed-bed, 
and  are  transplanted  when  about  eight  inches  high.  They  are 
dibbled  in  the  same  as  cabbages,  and  as  the  earlier  ones  will  have 
more  time  to  grow,  they  are  at  greater  distance  apart  than  the 
later-sown  plants. 

Some  authorities,  however,  say  that  the  heavier  crops  can  be 
obtained  by  ordinary  drilling,  which  also  saves  the  trouble  and 
cost  of  transplanting.  The  crop  is  sown  in  the  latter  part  of  April 
or  early  in  May ;  from  two  to  four  pounds  of  seed  are  required 
per  acre. 

The  land  must  be  in  a  fine  state  for  the  seed,  and  may  receive 
a  dressing  of  dung.  Nitrogenous  manures  should,  however,  be 
always  given.  Two  to  four  hundredweights  of  Peruvian  guano 
and  sulphate  of  ammonia  or  blood-manure  should  be  broadcasted 
over  the  land  after  it  has  been  grubbed,  and  then  harrowed  in. 

When  drilled,  the  plants  need  to  be  thinned  out  to  distances 
of  from  ten  to  fifteen  inches.    They  are  hoed  similarly  to  root  crops. 

Rape, — The  earUest  seeding  is  in  April,  but  the  main  crop  is 
sown  in  June,  and  small  patches  may  be  put  in  afterwards. 

The  land  is  well  dunged  and  tilled,  and  the  seed  is  sown  on 
the  flat  in  rows,  about  fifteen  inches  apart.  Four  or  five  pounds 
of  seed  is  the  usual  amount.  Rape  may  be  sown  broadcast,  ten 
or  twelve  pounds  of  seed  being  required.  It  can  also  be  trans- 
planted.    In  order  to  get  the  largest  yield,  thinning  should  be 


328  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

practised,  the  plants  being  left  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  apart. 
Though  this  operation  is  sometimes  performed,  it  is  generally 
roughly  done,  and  very  often  the  crop  is  left  to  grow  all  together. 
The  intervals  between  the  rows  may  be  horse-  and  hand-hoed,  so 
as  to  keep  the  land  somewhat  clean. 

Besides  dung,  rape  may  have  three  or  four  hundredweights  of 
superphosphate  drilled  in  with  the  seed. 

Vetches  may  be  broadcasted  over  rows  of  rape,  and  the  two 
will  form  an  excellent  food  for  sheep. 

Kale  may  be  sown  direct  or  transplanted.  In  the  former  case 
it  is  sown  in  April,  at  the  rate  of  four  or  five  pounds  per  acre. 
A  small  amount  may  be  sown  in  August,  for  feeding  in  late  spring. 
Transplanting  is  said  to  give  the  best  crops.  The  seed  is  sown 
early  in  August,  and  transplantation  goes  on  during  October  and 
November.  The  land  needs  to  be  well-prepared,  and  gets  a  heavy 
dressing  of  dung.  A  top-dressing  of  nitrate  of  soda,  dropped 
around  each  plant,  gives  good  results. 

Potatoes. — The  early  varieties  are  planted  in  February  and 
March  ;  the  later  kinds  in  April. 

When  the  land  is  heavy  the  farmyard  manure  is  sometimes 
applied  in  the  autumn,  but  the  common  method  is  to  raise  the 
land  in  ridges  and  apply  the  manure  between  them  in  the  spring. 
The  seed  potatoes  are  then  planted,  usually  by  women,  at  distances 
of  ten  to  fifteen  inches,  according  to  the  variety.  All  or 
part  of  the  artificial  manures  may  be  sown  at  the  same  time. 
The  ridges  are  then  split  by  the  double-mouldboard  plough, 
and  thus  the  whole  is  covered  in  within  a  few  hours  of  planting. 
It  is  often  the  rule  to  have  the  ploughs  opening  drills  one  way, 
and  closing  them  on  return.  A  considerable  staff  is  needed  to 
keep  the  work  in  full  swing.  We  may  reckon  on  having  two  men 
and  four  horses  to  open  and  close  drills,  two  boys  and  four  horses 
carting  manure  from  the  dung-heap  to  the  drills,  two  men  filling 
carts  at  dung-heap,  one  man  emptying  the  carts,  six  women  spread- 
ing manure  in  the  drills,  six  women  planting  sets,  one  man  sowing 
artificial  manures.  This  is  a  total  of  five  men,  two  boys,  twelve 
women,  and  eight  horses.  From  four  to  five  acres  can  be  finished 
daily.     The  machines  for  potato-planting  are  not  often  used. 

On  the  flat,  a  fine  seed-bed  is  obtained  in  spring  by  means  of 
grubbing  and  harrowing.  Then  the  land  is  ploughed  with  a 
turn-wrest  plough,  and  the  sets  are  planted  in  every  third  furrow 
from  nine  to  fourteen  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  Another  method 
is  sometimes  pursued,  for  which  more  manual  labour  is  required. 
A  man  walks  across  the  field,  making  holes  at  the  proper  distances 
with  a  spade.  A  boy  following  drops  a  set  into  each  hole.  As 
they  return,  the  man  makes  a  fresh  line  of  holes,  and  also  fills 


CULTIVATION   OF  CROPS.  329 

in  the  last  row.     Again,  the  potatoes  may  be  dibbled  in.     A  hole 
is  easily  made,  then  a  potato  is  dropped  in,  and  the  hole  closed. 

The  lazy-bed  method  is  pursued  much  more  commonly  in 
Ireland  than  in  the  other  parts  of  the  British  Isles.  The  usual 
method  is  to  mark  off  the  ground  into  beds  four  or  five  feet 
broad,  between  which  are  trenches  one  and  a  half  to  two  feet  wide. 
A  dressing  of  dung  is  spread  over  the  beds,  and  the  potatoes  are 
then  planted  on  the  surface.  Earth  from  the  trenches  is  laid  over 
the  dung  to  a  depth  of  three  or  four  inches ;  and  as  the  size  of 
the  plants  increases,  more  earth  is  spread  over  them.  The  advan- 
tages of  this  system  are  (i)  that  the  trenches  act  as  good  drains, 
and  (2)  by  shifting  the  position  of  the  trenches  each  year  the  land 
is  thoroughly  dug  up  to  a  depth  of  two  feet  or  more. 

The  seed  of  the  potatoes  is  not  a  suitable  means  of  propa- 
gation, as  the  plants  which  grow  from  it  cannot  be  relied  upon. 
Some  may  be  good,  but  many  are  the  reverse,  and  the  plants 
grown  are  seldom  exactly  the  same  as  the  parents.  The  tubers, 
which  are  swollen  parts  of  the  underground  stem,  are  used  instead. 
They  are  kept  stored  up  in  some  dry  place  through  winter,  and, 
while  the  land  is  being  got  ready  for  the  "  seed,"  they  may  be 
sorted.  All  soft  ones  should  be  thrown  to  one  side,  as  well  as 
others  that  are  suspicious  in  any  manner.  As  very  small  potatoes 
produce  puny  plants,  they  may  be  separated  into  two  lots  by 
means  of  a  i^-inch  riddle.  The  small  are  rejected,  and  the 
rest  are  dressed  by  means  of  a  i|-inch  riddle.  Those  which 
pass  through  may  be  used  as  they  are;  the  others  are  cut  up 
into  proper  sets.  Cutting  the  potato,  if  properly  done,  does  not 
prevent  it  in  any  way  from  producing  a  good  plant,  and  by  this 
means  fewer  potatoes  will  be  needed  per  acre.  The  potatoes 
for  cutting  must,  of  course,  not  be  below  medium  size,  as 
small  sets  give  poor  results.  The  **rose"  end  only  should  be 
used,  as  the  sprouts  from  the  "heel"  end  are  weakly.  It  is 
necessary  to  leave  at  least  two  eyes  in  each  cutting.  It  has  been 
found  that  from  the  eyes  groups  of  fibres  ramify  through  the  sub- 
stance of  the  potato  toward  the  point  where  the  root  enters  at  the 
"heel"  These  bundles  of  fibres  should  be  left  as  intact  as 
possible  in  each  set,  and  hence,  after  removing  the  "  heel "  half, 
the  remainder  should  be  cut  lengthwise  into  sets.  The  cut 
sets  should  not  be  kept  too  long  before  planting,  but  some 
of  them,  at  least,  must  be  stored  some  little  time.  It  is,  indeed, 
advisable  to  keep  them  all  a  day  or  two  before  planting,  as  a  thin 
crust  forms  over  the  incised  surface,  which  prevents  their  decay 
to  a  great  extent  in  the  soil.  If  to  be  kept  any  length  of  time, 
a  dusting  with  lime  has  been  recommended.  By  forming  a  crust, 
it  prevents  the  exudation  of  sap. 


330  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

M.  Girard  has  found  that  medium-sized  potatoes,  planted 
whole,  give  much  better  results  than  either  small  potatoes,  planted 
whole,  or  large  ones  cut  into  sets.  This  result  has  been  confirmed 
by  numerous  English  and  Scotch  experiments. 

In  order  to  secure  early  growth,  the  potatoes  are  often  sprouted 
before  planting.  For  this  purpose  medium-sized  potatoes  may  be 
placed  whole  in  wooden  trays.  These  are  piled  up  in  some  fairly 
warm,  dry  place,  such  as  the  cattle  byre.  Two  or  three  inches  of 
a  tough  blue  stem  are  developed  from  the  eyes,  and  consequently, 
after  planting,  which  needs  some  care,  the  crop  is  already  growing. 
Nourishment  is  stored  up  more  rapidly,  and  early  maturity  results. 
A  fortnight  or  three  weeks  will  make  a  vast  amount  of  difference 
between  the  selling  price  of  early  potatoes.  The  seed  tubers,  when 
stored  in  pits,  should  be  turned  towards  the  end  of  February,  to 
prevent  excessive  sprouting.  Although  a  little  is  to  be  desired, 
too  much  will  exhaust  the  potato. 

The  amount  of  seed  varies  from  twelve  to  fifteen  hundred- 
weights, according  to  the  kind.  When  sprouted,  this  quantity, 
must  be  increased  a  little. 

A  crop  of  eight  tons  of  potatoes  removes  from  the  soil — 


Nitrogen     . . 

63  lbs. 

= 

4  cwts.  nitrate  of  soda. 

Phosphoric  pentoxide 

28  „ 

= 

2    , ,     superphosphate. 

Potash  (K2O) 

102  ,, 

= 

2    „     muriate  of  potash. 

As  the  crop  is  usually  sold  off  the  farm,  the  land  may  be  said  to 
have  lost  these  amounts  of  fertilizing  constituents.  From  fifteen 
to  twenty  tons  of  farmyard  dung  maybe  applied,  with  i  cwt.  super- 
phosphate, ^  cwt.  bone  meal,  and  ^  cwt.  muriate  of  potash. 
Should  no  farmyard  manure  be  given,  2  cwts.  superphosphate, 
I  cwt.  bone  meal,  2  cwts.  Peruvian  guano,  and  2  cwts.  kainit,  or 
I  cwt.  nitrate  of  soda,  ij  cwts.  dissolved  bones,  3  cwts.  super- 
phosphate, and  2  cwt.  kainit  may  be  applied. 

The  after  cultivation  consists  of  as  many  horse-  and  hand- 
hoeings  as  are  needed  to  keep  the  land  clear  of  weeds.  These 
operations  are  commenced  as  early  as  possible,  and  are  kept  up 
until  the  tubers  are  ripe.  When  the  tops  are  eight  or  ten  inches 
high,  the  rows  are  earthed  up.  For  this  purpose  the  double- 
mouldboard  plough  is  most  suitable,  though  the  hand-hoe  can 
be  used. 

Clover  and  Seeds. — Rotation  grasses  and  clovers  are  usually 
sown  upon  a  corn  crop  about  April.  In  the  Norfolk  rotation  the 
corn  crop  selected  is  barley,  but  in  the  Northumberland  they  may 
follow  wheat  or  oats.  No  preparatory  cultivation  is  made  specially 
for  the  seeds;  they  are  distributed  over  the  surface  with  the 
broadcast  barrow  when  the  foster-crop  is  a  few  inches  high.   They 


CULTIVATION  OF  CROPS.  33 1 

may  then  be  harrowed  in  with  a  very  light  seed  harrow,  care  being 
taken  that  the  seed  is  not  buried  deeper  than  half  an  inch. 
The  horse-rake  may  be  used  instead.  A  seed-drill  is  sometimes 
employed,  but  is  not  so  good.  After  the  drilling,  the  land  should 
be  rolled.  It  is  not  advisable  to  sow  the  seed  before  the  corn 
crop  has  appeared  above  the  ground.  In  some  districts  seeds  are 
sown  in  August  without  a  cereal  crop,  the  ground  being  well 
cleaned  previously. 

The  kinds  and  quantities  of  the  seeds  of  various  grasses  sown 
depend  upon  the  number  of  years  they  have  to  lie  down,  and  the 
character  of  the  land  they  are  grown  upon.  For  a  one-year  mixture 
only  those  plants  must  be  taken  which  are  at  their  best  during 
the  first  year.  After  this  they  will  become  more  and  more  per- 
manent.    For  one  year's  lea  we  may  take  14  lbs.  Italian  rye-grass, 

2  lbs.  timothy,  2  lbs.  cocksfoot,  8  lbs.  red  clover,  3  lbs.  alsike, 

3  lbs.  yellow  clover.  For  two  years'  lea  use  10  lbs.  Italian  rye- 
grass, 5  lbs.  perennial  lye-grass,  2  lbs.  timothy,  4  lbs.  cocksfoot, 
2  lbs.  meadow  fescue,  i  lb.  meadow  foxtail,  4  lbs.  broad  red 
clover,  2  lbs.  perennial  red  clover,  2  lbs.  alsike,  2  lbs.  white 
clover.  For  a  three  or  four  years*  lea  the  following  mixture  is 
suitable : — 12  lbs.  perennial  rye-grass,  5  lbs.  Italian  rye-grass, 
5  lbs.  cocksfoot,  3  lbs.  timothy,  2  lbs.  meadow  fescue,  2  lbs. 
meadow  foxtail,  3  lbs.  perennial  red  clover,  2  lbs.  alsike,  3  lbs. 
white  clover,  2  lbs.  yellow  clover. 

When  clover  and  grass  seeds  are  sown  with  a  broadcast 
barrow,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  perform  the  operation  in  two 
parts,  the  two  kinds  of  seeds  being  sow^n  separately.  If  this  were 
not  done,  the  heavier  character  of  the  clover  seed  would  cause 
it  to  run  out  more  quickly,  and  an  uneven  seeding  result.  With 
the  cup-drill  the  two  can  be  sown  together. 

In  the  Norfolk  rotation,  the  clover  will  be  grazed  by  sheep 
through  the  next  spring  and  summer,  and  is  broken  up  for  wheat 
in  August  or  September. 

In  the  Northumberland  five-course,  the  mixtures  contain 
more  grass  and  less  clover  seeds.  During  the  first  year  it  is 
mown,  and  then  the  aftermath  is  grazed.  Through  the  winter 
the  land  carries  little  or  no  stock,  but  is  again  grazed  in  spring, 
summer,  and  following  winter,  being  ploughed  up  for  oats  in 
January  and  February. 

Vetches  are  usually  sown  in  breaks,  so  that  a  succession  of 
food  may  be  had.  The  first  sowing  may  take  place  as  soon  after 
harvest  as  possible ;  the  next  may  be  in  October,  and  afterwards 
in  November;  then  in  early  February,  and  up  to  May,  or  even 
later. 

The  amount  of  seed  varies  from  2^  to  3^  bushels  per  acre. 


332  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

It  may  be  sown  in  rows  eight  inches  apart  or  broadcast,  and 
then  harrowed  in.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  mix  the  seed  with  a 
little  wheat,  winter  oats  or  winter  barley.  These  support  the 
vetches,  which  would  otherwise  creep  along  the  ground,  and  thus 
often  cause  the  lower  part  of  the  straw  to  become  rotten. 

Vetches  are  not  always  manured,  but  sometimes  get  a  light 
dressing  of  farmyard  manure,  which  should  be  allowed  to  lie  on 
the  surface  for  a  few  weeks  before  ploughing  in.  A  top-dressing 
of  i:^  cwts.  Peruvian  guano  is  given  by  some  farmers.  Three 
or  four  hundredweights  of  kainit  gives  good  results ;  it  should 
be  appHed  before  the  seed. 

Vetches  are  at  their  best  for  feeding  when  in  full  flower,  but, 
as  the  period  during  which  they  are  fed  is  usually  prolonged,  it 
is  advisable  to  commence  a  little  before  this.  The  usual  plan 
is  to  fold  sheep  upon  them,  enclosing  a  sufficient  area  by  means 
of  hurdles  or  nets.  Instead  of  this  method,  the  vetches  are  often 
mown  daily,  and  fed  to  the  stock.  The  crop  is  available  from 
April  to  October,  when  suitably  sown. 

The  produce  per  acre  is  ten  to  fifteen  tons  green  fodder,  or 
twenty-five  to  thirty  bushels  of  seed  and  a  ton  and  a  quarter  of 
straw. 

Trifolium  is  sown  in  August  or  early  in  September.  The 
seed  is  sown  at  the  rate  of  twenty  pounds  per  acre,  by  means  of 
the  broad-casting  barrow,  and  is  then  harrowed  in  well.  After 
this  the  land  is  heavily  rolled,  preferably  with  a  Cambridge  roller. 
This  crop  requires  a  firm  seed-bed,  with  shallow-surface  culti- 
vation. Instead  of  sowing  trifolium  alone,  Professor  Wrightson 
recommends  a  mixture  of  i6  lbs.  trifolium,  |-  bushel  of  winter 
vetches,  and  ^  bushel  of  winter  oats. 

Trifolium  is  excellent  spring  forage,  and  is  disposed  of  in  a 
similar  manner  to  vetches.  It  may  be  made  into  hay,  but  it  is 
better  not  to  do  so  if  possible,  as  it  is  too  stemmy.  After  one 
cutting,  the  land  is  broken  up  and  turnips  may  be  taken. 

Trefoil. — Twenty  pounds  of  seed  are  sown  with  the  broadcast 
barrow  upon  the  young  corn.  It  is  then  covered  by  gently  har- 
rowing or  rolling.  The  produce  may  be  cut  in  April  or  May, 
and  cleared  away  in  time  for  a  crop  of  turnips.  It  gives  a  very 
fine,  sweet  hay,  though  the  yield  is  only  low.  The  proper  place 
for  trefoil  (or  yellow  clover)  is  among  mixtures  of  clover  and 
seeds. 

Italian  Rye-grass  may  either  be  sown  alone  or  in  mixtures. 
Not  being  perennial,  it  may  be  excluded  from  permanent 
pastures.  It  is  well  suited  for  sewage  meadows,  and  then  yields 
very  heavy  crops,  as  much  as  sixty  tons  per  acre  of  green  fodder 
being  sometimes  obtained.     The  amount  of  seed  per  acre,  when 


CULTIVATION   OF   CROPS.  333 

sown  alone,  varies  from  two  to  four  bushels;  but,  in  mixtures, 
less  than  one  bushel  is  the  proper  quantity.  Two  methods  of 
seeding  have  been  recommended.  One  is  to  sow  it  broadcast 
over  the  young  wheat  in  April ;  the  other  is  to  sow  it  on  part 
of  the  fallow  land  in  August,  and  up  to  the  middle  of  September. 
There  is  not  much  to  choose  between  the  two  ways,  but  the  first 
is  the  simplest,  and  allows  the  plant  to  get  a  firmer  root  before 
winter. 

Rye-grass  is  sown  by  hand,  or  by  means  of  the  broadcast 
barrow.  When  sown  on  a  corn  crop,  gently  harrow  the  surface, 
put  in  the  seed,  and  roll  or  harrow  it  in.  When  sown  without 
another  crop,  the  land  is  dunged  and  worked  to  a  fairly  fine  tilth. 
The  seed  is  broadcasted  and  harrowed  in. 

Italian  rye-grass  will  stand  very  heavy  manuring.  On  the 
sewage  meadows  several  cuttings  are  obtained  each  year.  Nitrate 
of  soda  causes  a  rapid  development  of  the  crop. 

The  produce  of  hay  per  acre  varies  from  one  to  two  tons. 
Thirty  bushels  of  seed  are  obtained,  but  scarcely  any  farmers 
take  the  trouble  to  secure  it. 

Sainfoin. — The  land  needs  to  be  clean  and  in  good  condition. 
The  seed  is  sown  down  upon  barley.  It  may  be  mixed  with  the 
cereal  crop  and  drilled  with  it,  or  it  may  be  drilled  separately 
across  the  other  rows,  in  lines  six  or  eight  inches  apart.  Another 
method  is  to  broadcast  it  soon  after  getting  in  the  barley.  A 
harrowing  should  then  be  given.  The  amount  of  seed  per  acre 
varies  from  four  bushels  of  the  rough  seed  (in  the  pod)  to  fifty-six 
pounds  of  milled  (clean)  seed.  As  only  a  poor  crop  of  sainfoin 
is  obtained  the  first  year,  about  six  pounds  of  trefoil  are  often 
mixed  with  it.  The  treatment  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  clover 
crop ;  the  first  year  it  is  mown  for  hay,  and  afterwards  it  is  grazed. 
Old  sainfoin  gives  a  very  good  run  for  sheep,  and  the  hay  is  also 
of  good  quality.  To  secure  the  latter  at  its  maximum  value,  it 
should  be  cut  before  flowering.  About  two  tons  are  obtained  per 
acre ;  the  yield  of  seed  may  be  taken  at  thirty  bushels. 

As  sainfoin  gets  old  it  gradually  becomes  overrun  with  such 
weeds  as  couch-grass,  etc,  and  to  prevent  this  it  is  usually  broken 
up  in  its  sixth  or  seventh  year.  Sainfoin  should  not  be  grown 
upon  the  same  piece  of  land  oftener  than  once  in  twenty  years. 

After  breaking  up  the  land,  it  is  usual  to  take  a  crop  of 
turnips,  as  wheat  would  get  very  weedy,  and  probably  be 
attacked  by  insect  pests,  wireworm,  etc. 

Lucerne  is  sown  in  April,  so  as  to  give  a  cutting  in  the  follow- 
ing  autumn.  It  is  drilled  upon  a  fine,  rich  seed-bed,  in  rows 
nine  to  twelve  inches  apart.  The  land  must  be  clean,  and  should 
be  well  dunged  previously.     The  amount  of  seed  is  ten  to  twenty 


334  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

pounds  per  acre.  The  ground  must  be  kept  clear  of  weeds 
by  repeated  hoeings — best  performed  when  the  soil  has  been 
moistened  by  rain.  During  the  first  season  only  one,  or,  at  most, 
two  cuttings  are  obtained ;  care  being  taken  that  the  plants  are 
not  mown  down  too  near  the  ground.  After  this  it  may  be  cut 
three  or  four  times  each  season ;  the  produce  is  very  often  used 
for  soiling.  Twenty  to  thirty  tons  of  green  fodder  are  obtained 
each  year. 

The  crop  is  usually  ploughed  up  in  its  fourth  year,  as  it  gets 
full  of  weeds. 

Lupines. — One  to  two  bushels  of  seed  is  drilled  in  rows,  fifteen 
inches  apart,  during  May  and  June.  It  may  be  cut  for  fodder 
in  the  end  of  July,  when  about  to  flower,  or  it  may  be  left  to 
seed.  Lupine-seed  meal  is  excellent  for  young  calves.  The 
produce  amounts  to  fifteen  or  twenty  tons  green  fodder,  or  twenty- 
five  bushels  seed. 

Gorse  may  be  sown  at  the  rate  of  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds  per 
acre,  in  rows  at  least  one  foot  apart,  during  March.  The  young 
plants  are  kept  clear  of  weeds  by  hoeing,  and  a  cutting  will  be 
obtained  in  the  autumn  of  the  second  year.  Some  varieties  do 
not  grow  well  from  seed,  and  are  raised  from  cuttings.  These 
are  transplanted  into  rows  eighteen  inches  apart,  with  eight  inches 
in  the  lines.  The  cutting  is  performed  by  means  of  a  heavy 
hook ;  the  produce  is  often  tied  up  into  bundles  of  twenty  pounds 
each.  As  the  cutting  takes  place  every  second  year,  it  is  advisable 
to  cut  every  alternate  row  annually.  Thus,  some  will  be  ready 
each  season.  The  crop  equals  about  twenty  tons  per  acre,  and 
is  perennial. 

Before  feeding  to  stock,  gorse  needs  to  be  bruised. 

Prickly  Comfrey  is  usually  propagated  by  means  of  cuttings. 
These  are  dibbled  in,  in  rows  two  or  three  feet  apart,  and  with 
one  and  a  half  to  three  feet  in  the  lines.  The  work  is  performed 
during  spring.  Another  plan  is  to  sow  about  six  pounds  of  seed 
upon  oats  in  March  or  April.  The  land  needs  to  be  manured 
heavily,  and  the  intervals  are  kept  clean  by  the  horse-  and  hand- 
hoes.  From  six  to  eight  cuttings  yearly  are  obtained  after  the  first 
season,  and  the  produce  will  amount  to  forty  or  fifty  tons. 

Mustard. — The  usual  seeding  is  a  quarter  of  a  bushel,  sown 
broadcast  in  the  end  of  April.  The  white  mustard  will  be  ready 
for  folding  sheep  early  in  July. 

The  brown  mustard  needs  to  be  kept  clean  by  hand-weeding, 
but  otherwise  the  two  are  cultivated  on  much  the  same  lines. 

Maize  may  be  sown  at  wide  intervals,  in  rows  one  and  a  half 
feet  apart.  The  seeds  are  dibbled  in  upon  well-prepared  and 
dunged  land,  some  time  between  the  middle  of  May  and  the 


CULTIVATION  OF  CROPS.  335 

beginning  of  June.  The  plants  may  need  singling.  The  crop 
is  cut  green  about  August. 

Hops  require  very  careful  cultivation.  The  land  is  first  trench- 
ploughed,  and  receives  a  dressing  of  farmyard  manure.  The  hop 
plants  are  raised  from  cuttings,  which  are  taken  from  the  "  hills  " 
early  in  spring.  They  are  then  reared  in  a  nursery  until  the 
autumn,  when  they  may  be  planted  out  Planting  also  takes 
place  in  early  spring.  The  cuttings  are  then  inserted  in  rows 
about  six  feet  apart  and  six  feet  distances  in  the  rows.  There 
are  two  methods  of  planting,  i.e,  either  in  square  or  quincunx 
order.  The  latter  is  preferable,  as  more  plants  can  be  grown 
per  acre,  and  the  horse-hoe  can  be  worked  nearer  to  them.  Three 
cuttings  are  usually  planted  together  on  a  hill. 

As  there  is  usually  no  produce  the  first  year,  the  spaces 
between  the  rows  may  be  planted  with  cabbages  or  some  other 
such  crop. 

The  land  must  be  kept  quite  clear  of  weeds,  and  should  be 
heavily  manured.  In  the  spring  of  the  first  year  the  bines  are 
tied  to  poles,  one  being  stuck  in  the  middle  of  each  hill.  In  the 
following  spring  the  ground  is  dug  and  manured,  and  three  poles 
are  given  to  each  hill.  The  poles  now  given  are  much  longer 
than  the  former  ones.  The  best  are  of  ash  or  chestnut,  and  are 
from  fifteen  to  eighteen  feet  long.  They  are  placed  at  equal 
distances  around  the  hill,  and  must  be  firmly  inserted.  The 
three  best  bines  are  fastened  to  their  respective  poles  by  means 
of  rushes.  The  binding  continues  from  near  the  ground  to 
about  five  feet  high.  The  remaining  bines  are  cut  out  and 
cleared  away. 

The  intervals  between  the  hills  are  hoed  by  means  of  the 
"  nidget,"  a  kind  of  horse-hoe.  Nearer  the  bines  themselves, 
hand-hoeing  may  take  place.  In  June  the  hills  are  earthed  up 
with  the  spade,  and  a  little  pruning  may  be  done  about  the  same 
time.  Picking  proceeds  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  at  the  proper 
stage  of  ripeness.  After  picking,  the  poles  are  stored  away 
through  winter,  in  conical  piles.  During  autumn  the  land  is 
dug  up,  usually  with  the  "  spud,"  which  is  a  three-pronged  fork. 
Early  in  spring  the  old  bines  and  superfluous  growth  are  cut 
down  and  removed,  and  then  the  poles  are  inserted  again. 

Hops  need  very  heavy  manuring.  A  dressing  of  farmyard 
dung  and  shoddy  is  usually  given  in  autumn  or  early  in  spring. 
The  rate  is  at  about  twenty  tons  farmyard  manure,  and  from  half 
to  one  and  a  half  tons  shoddy  or  other  wool  waste.  During 
summer  some  artificials  are  usually  applied.  Six  hundredweight 
superphosphate  is  a  common  dressing ;  or  guano,  blood  manure^ 
rape  dust,  etc.,  may  be  used. 


33^  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

As  the  hop  is  a  dioecious  plant  (that  is,  some  are  males  and 
others  are  female),  both  kinds  need  to  be  planted.  The  males 
are  simply  used  to  fertilize  the  others,  and  are  planted  in  the  pro- 
portion of  one  to  ten.     They  yield  no  marketable  produce. 

Flax  is  drilled  or  broadcasted  late  in  March  or  early  in  April, 
at  the  rate  of  six  to  eight  pecks  per  acre.  It  may  be  sovm  in 
rows  nine  inches  apart,  and  is  lightly  harrowed  in.  The  best 
seed  comes  from  Riga.  The  crop  is  weeded  during  its  growth, 
and  comes  into  bloom  in  June.  It  is  pulled  any  time  after  this. 
When  grown  for  fibre  it  is  not  advisable  to  manure  the  crop. 
Flax  is  usually  sown  at  intervals  of  about  eight  years ;  growing 
it  more  frequently  than  this  on  the  same  land  is  a  failure. 

Hemp. — From  three-quarters  to  one  bushel  of  seed  is  drilled 
in  rows  a  foot  and  a  half  apart,  in  the  end  of  April  or  early  in 
May.  The  plants  are  afterwards  thinned  out  to  one  foot  apart. 
The  crop  is  dioecious,  like  hops ;  the  male  plants  are  pulled  out 
when  seeding  commences. 

Buckwheat  is  sown  late  in  May,  either  by  means  of  the  drill 
or  by  broadcasting.  In  the  former  case  the  rows  are  one  to  one 
and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  one  bushel  of  seed  is  needed.  When 
broadcasted,  three  bushels  may  be  used.  It  does  not  all  ripen 
at  the  same  time,  but  should  be  cut  when  the  largest  amount  is 
ready.     About  thirty  bushels  of  seed  per  acre  may  be  obtained. 

Teazles. — Two  pecks  of  seed  per  acre  are  drilled  in  during 
April,  and  then  harrowed.  This  produces  a  large  number  ot 
plants,  and,  soon  after  the  harvest,  part  of  the  corn  stubble  is 
ploughed  up  and  cleaned.  In  October  the  teazles  are  trans- 
planted from  their  seed-bed  into  the  prepared  field,  being  dibbled 
in,  sixteen  inches  apart  each  way.  The  land  is  dug  over  several 
times  with  the  spade  during  the  following  spring  and  summer,  to 
keep  down  the  weeds.     The  plant  is  a  biennial. 

Jerusalem  Artichoke. — The  tubers  are  planted  in  March,  in 
rows  three  feet  apart,  and  with  eighteen-inches  intervals  in  the 
rows.  The  cultivation  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  potatoes. 
After  one  planting  they  produce  crops  year  after  year,  the  small 
tubers  left  in  the  ground  when  digging  up  the  crop  being  sufficient 
for  "  seed."  The  quality  of  the  produce,  however,  degenerates, 
and  hence  it  is  best  to  plant  fresh  every  year  or  alternate  year. 

As  the  amount  of  seed  sown  may  either  be  measured  by  the 
volume  or  the  weight,  we  now  give  the  weights  per  bushel  of  the 
seeds  of  some  of  our  chief  crops. 

Cereals. — Wheat,  d^i  lbs. ;  barley,  55  lbs.  ;  oats,  white,  42  lbs., 
black,  38  lbs. ;  rye,  54  lbs. 

Black  Straw  Crops. — Beans,  64^  lbs. ;  peas,  64  lbs. 

Root  Crops. — Swedes,  turnips,  cabbages,  and  rape,  50  lbs. ; 


CULTIVATION  OF  CROPS.  337 

mangels,  21  lbs.  ;  carrots  and  parsnips,  15  to  18  lbs.;  kohl-rabi, 
55  lbs. ;  potatoes,  sets  45  lbs. 

Fodder  Crops,  etc, — Vetches,  64  lbs.;  trifolium,  trefoil,  and 
clovers,  64  to  dd  lbs. ;  Italian  rye-grass,  20  lbs. ;  sainfoin,  28  lbs. ; 
lucerne,  60  lbs. ;  lupines,  62  lbs. ;  mustard,  54  lbs. ;  flax,  54  lbs. ; 
hemp,  40  lbs. ;  buckwheat,  50  lbs. 

3.  Harvesting. 

Some  of  our  crops  are  not  harvested  at  all ;  they  are  eaten 
off  on  the  land  by  stock,  usually  sheep.  Others  may  either  be 
carted  home  or  fed  off  on  the  lands ;  and  some,  such  as  the 
cereals,  are  always  harvested. 

The  three  cereal  crops,  wheat,  barley,  and  oats,  being  almost 
identical  as  to  their  method  of  harvesting,  may  be  well  considered 
together. 

Wheat,  Barley,  and  Oats. 

Harvest  sometimes  begins  at  the  end  of  July,  but  August  is 
the  most  general  month  for  commencement.  The  work  may  be 
prolonged  into  September,  and  even  into  October  in  the  north. 
The  time  for  cutting  depends  upon  the  degree  of  ripeness  and 
the  kind  of  plant.  Wheat  and  oats  are  cut  before  they  are  fully 
ripe ;  barley,  after  it  has  become  so.  The  reasons  for  cutting 
wheat  and  oats  at  such  a  stage  are  : — 

1.  If  left  till  too  mature,  the  bran  thickens  at  the  expense  of 
the  grain.     Woody  fibre  forms  in  the  straw  and  bran. 

2.  The  value  of  the  straw  for  feeding  purposes  is  decreased. 
Indigestible  lignin  forms,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  food  con- 
stituents are  carried  upwards  to  the  ear. 

3.  After  the  corn  crop  commences  to  ripen,  it  ceases  to  be 
dependent  upon  the  soil  for  food,  hence  a  larger  crop  is  not 
obtained  by  leaving  it  long  in  the  ground.  After  this  point  has 
been  reached,  there  is  simply  a  transference  of  materials  from 
the  straw  to  the  grain. 

Among  the  subsidiary  reasons  are  : — 

4.  By  early  cutting  the  farmer  saves  risk  from  wind.  It 
should  be  noted  that  it  is  the  best  and  most  matured  grain  that 
is  lost  in  this  way. 

5.  The  risks  from  bad  weather  are  less. 

6.  The  land  is  cleared  sooner.  This  allows  it  to  be  cultivated, 
and  gives  an  opportunity  of  sowing  some  early  fodder  crop. 

7.  Over-ripe  grain  may  sometimes  sprout  in  the  ear  in  damp 
weather. 

Barley  is  left  till  it  is  very  ripe,  because  in  this  way  the  best 

z 


338  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

coloured  samples  are  obtained.     The  bran  does  not  thicken  as 
much  as  that  of  other  cereals,  and  the  grain  is  of  better  quality. 

Wheat  and  oats  are  known  to  be  well  ripe  when  the  head 
and  a  few  inches  of  the  stem  beneath  are  of  a  yellowish  colour. 
None  of  the  grains  will  be  milky,  and  the  straw  will  contain  no 
juice.  Wheat,  as  it  gets  riper,  gradually. bends  its  ears  down; 
the  straw  stiffens  and  the  chaff  opens. 

Barley  changes  to  a  uniform  yellow  colour,  and  the  head 
becomes  stiff  and  does  not  move  about  so  readily.  It  should  be 
curved  over,  or  sickle-shaped. 

Wheat  may  be  cut  at  two  stages,  (i)  when  to  be  kept,  cut  it 
fairly  green;  (2)  if  to  be  put  straight  into  the  market,  cut  when 
ripe.  Dead-ripe  wheat,  after  storing  for  nine  or  ten  months, 
either  has  no  smell  or  not  a  good  one ;  that  cut  when  greenish 
will  have  both  a  fine  odour  and  flavour.  When  cut  too  early, 
the  full  produce  is  not  obtained,  and  the  grains  shrink  greatly  in 
the  stack. 

The  crops  are  usually  cut  by  machine.  Sometimes,  however, 
some  of  it  may  become  laid  and  twisted  through  storms,  and  it 
may  then  be  necessary  to  cut  it  with  the  scythe  or  fagging  hook. 
The  machines  may  either  be  manual  reapers,  self-deliveries,  or 
self-binders.    The  first  is  still  in  common  use. 

The  process  commences  by  cutting  round  the  borders  of  the 
fields  with  the  scythe — "  opening  out,"  as  it  is  called.  This  leaves 
a  passage  for  the  machine,  which  may  now  commence  cutting, 
provided  the  weather  be  fine  enough.  There  are  two  methods 
of  working:  one  is  to  cut  right  around  the  field,  the  other  to 
only  cut  one  side.  The  latter  way  is,  of  course,  slower,  as  time 
is  lost  on  the  return  journey.  It  is,  however,  often  the  only 
practicable  plan  when  the  crop  is  laid  in  one  particular  direction. 

The  action  of  the  machines  has  been  discussed  in  the  part  on 
"  Agricultural  Engineering." 

The  process  of  binding,  if  not  done  by  the  machine,  requires 
a  fairly  large  staff  of  workers.  Each  should  bind  from  three  to 
five  roods  per  day.  They  may  be  given  a  certain  number  of 
sheaves  to  bind  or  a  certain  distance  to  go  over.  Sometimes 
lads  are  provided  to  make  bands  for  the  binders,  but  each  worker 
usually  makes  his  or  her  own,  lifts  the  sheaf,  binds  it,  and  then 
pitches  it  on  one  side  out  of  the  path  of  the  machine.  The  bands 
are  made  by  pulling  out  a  handful  of  corn,  and  dividing  it  into 
two  equal  parts.  The  two  are  then  laid  across  each  other  near 
*he  heads ;  they  are  held  in  the  left  hand,  and  then  with  the  right 
the  heads  are  twisted  round  so  that  they  may  lie  above  the  twist. 
The  sheaf  is  then  laid  evenly  on  the  band  on  the  ground,  so  that 
the  twisted  part  of  the  band  comes  on  the  inside.     The  ends 


CULTIVATION   OF  CROPS.  339 

of  the  band  are  pulled  together  and  twisted  as  before ;  the  end 
is  then  thrust  under  the  rest  of  the  band.  As  quicker  work 
is  done  when  the  sheaves  are  small,  it  is  not,  as  a  rule,  advisable 
to  have  them  over  eight  inches  in  diameter  at  the  band.  With 
long  clean  straw  that  measurement  may  be  increased  to  ten  or 
twelve  inches.  Small  sheaves  dry  better  than  large  ones.  The 
weight  of  a  sheaf  of  wheat,  ten  inches  in  diameter,  as  it  is  cut, 
will  be  about  twenty-five  pounds. 

When  a  large  field  is  being  cut,  it  is  best  to  have  two  or  three 
men  stooking.  They  collect  the  sheaves,  and  place  them  in  what 
are  known  as  the  stooks,  or  shocks.  Two  sheaves  are  first  placed 
together  butt-downwards,  and  then  others  are  placed  on  each 
side,  so  that  the  stook  consists  of  a  double  row  of  sheaves,  five 
or  six  on  each  side,  with  two  on  the  top.  A  proper  stook  should 
form  a  ridge  which  will  shoot  off  all  rain.  The  two  sheaves  on 
the  top  are  not  often  put  on  for  wheat,  and  it  is  not  a  common 
practice  even  for  oats  or  barley. 

In  some  cases,  the  men  stay  at  night,  after  cutting  has  been 
stopped,  and  make  up  the  stooks.  The  usual  direction  in  which 
to  place  the  stooks  is  from  north-east  to  south-west,  to  get  the  sun 
and  wind. 

We  shall  now  consider  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  crops 
with  regard  to  harvesting. 

Wheat,  having  a  clean  straw,  is  the  best  crop  to  cut  with  the 
self-binder.  For  the  same  reason  it  is  usually  bound  (by  hand)  in 
larger  sheaves  than  barley  or  oats.  Wheat  should  not  be  tied 
when  wet,  though  some  green  weeds  in  the  bottom  are  of  no  con- 
sequence. The  stooks  usually  contain  twelve  sheaves,  and  seldom 
less  than  ten.  At  least  a  week  is  required  by  wheat  to  dry  after 
cutting,  and,  as  a  rule,  a  longer  time  will  be  taken.  If  stacked 
earlier  than  this,  it  is  apt  to  turn  mouldy. 

Barley,  when  ready  for  cutting,  has  a  sickle-shaped  ear,  and 
the  grain  is  hard,  without  colour,  and  the  skin  wrinkled  into  a  fine 
network.  If  the  weather  can  be  depended  upon,  the  best  samples 
are  obtained  by  allowing  it  to  lie  two  or  three  days  before  binding. 
It  is  turned  once  or  twice,  and  the  exposure  to  the  sunshine  and 
dews  produce  a  fine  colour  and  mellowness  of  the  grain.  A  heavy 
shower  of  rain  might  spoil  the  colour,  and  consequently  in  the 
north  of  England  the  barley  is  tied  as  soon  as  cut. 

The  stooks  are  usually  smaller  than  those  of  wheat.  As  it  is 
readily  spoiled  by  rain,  barley  should  be  stacked  as  soon  as  ready 
and  the  carting  of  other  grain  crops  should  be  stopped  to  allow 
the  barley  to  be  got  in.  If  carted  too  early  it  readily  heats  in  the 
stack,  and  may  easily  be  spoiled  this  way. 

Oats  are  more  like  wheat  in  their  treatment.     They  take  a 


340  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

longer  time  to  dry,  and  are  never  ready  under  ten  days.  If 
stacked  when  wet,  they  rapidly  ferment  and  deteriorate. 

The  carting  home  of  the  crop  follows  as  soon  as  possible. 
Waggons  are  the  usual  means  of  conveyance  in  the  south  of 
England.  They  will  carry  about  twenty  stooks  each  time,  and 
therefore  there  are  about  four  waggon-loads  of  wheat  per  acre.  One- 
horse  carts  are  used  instead  in  the  north,  and  take  a  little  more 
than  half  as  much  as  a  waggon.  Waggons  will  take,  on  an  average, 
twelve  loads  per  day,  at  an  ordinary  distance  of  half  a  mile. 

The  stacks  are  usually  made  on  some  bottom  raised  up  off 
the  ground.  This  will  allow  of  ventilation  beneath  them.  Some 
sheaves  are  piled  up  in  the  centre  first,  and  then  others  are  placed 
in  circular  rows  around  them.  The  stacks  are  usually  of  a  diameter 
of  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  feet.  They  should  be  evenly  built  up, 
and  the  sheaves  should  always  slope  downwards  from  the  centre 
to  the  outside.  In  the  north  the  stack  is  a  little  broader  at  the 
eaves  than  at  the  base.  For  a  stack  on  a  fifteen  feet  base,  the 
height  to  the  eaves  should  be  twelve  feet ;  after  the  eaves  each 
layer  of  sheaves  is  taken  in  a  little  more  than  the  preceding,  so  as 
to  produce  a  cone. 

After  all  the  corn  has  been  carried  in,  thatching  commences. 
The  process  should  be  well  done,  and  will  cost  about  one  shilling 
per  hundred  square  feet. 

Cost  of  Harvesting. 

I.  Cutting. — {a)  By  the  self-binder,  cutting  and  stooking 
lo  acres  per  day  : — 

£  s.   d. 
Six  horses  (working  alternately  in  the  machine)  ..     015     o  per  day 

Machine  and  oil ;  interest  and  depreciation  on  capital       1     i     o    ,,     ,, 

String  o  17     6    ,,     „ 

Three  men  stooking,  cutting,  and  binding  round  the 

field,  etc.  ^100 

One  man  on  machine        


£Z  13    6 
=  7J".  ^d.  per  acre. 

ip)  By  the  ordinary  reaper,  cutting  7  acres  per  day,  and  then 
stopping  to  allow  the  men  to  stook  : — 

£,  s.    d. 

Four  horses        o  10    o  per  day 

Machine,  oil,  etc.  ..         ..     o  10    6    ,,     ,, 

Man  and  boy,  on  machine       ..     o  7    6    ,,     ., 

Six  binders  ..  ..  ,.      i  10    o    ,,     ,, 

Sharpening  knives  (five  times)       o  2    o    ,,     ,, 

;^3    o    o    „     „ 
=  8j.  6d.  per  acre. 


CULTIVATION  OF  CROPS.  34I 

After  cutting  with  the  ordinary  reaper,  the  ground  needs  to  be 
raked,  unless  women  are  employed  to  gather  the  sheaves.  A  man 
will  rake  about  twenty  acres  per  day,  at  a  cost  of  fourpence  per 
acre,  and  sixpence  may  be  allowed  for  binding  the  rakings,  thus 
bringing  the  total  cost  per  acre  to  9^.  4^. 

2.  Leading  and  Stacking, — About  14  acres  of  oats  finished 
per  day : — 


Two  pitchers  in  the  field 
Four  waggoners    . . 
Four  waggons  and  horses 
Two  men  and  boy  on  stack 
One  forker  in  stack-yard 


£.  s.  d. 
o  10    o 

0  18    o 

1  4  o 
o  12  6 
050 


;^3    9    6 

=  5^.  per  acre. 
Total  cost  =  \2s.  6d.  to  14?.  6d.  per  acre. 

Thrashing  proceeds  all  through  the  winter,  and  may  be  done 
either  by  a  fixed  or  a  portable  machine.  The  number  of  workers 
required  varies  a  little,  but  the  following  list  may  be  considered 
sufficient.  One  man  to  look  after  the  engine  and  machine  ;  one 
boy  bringing  water  to  the  engine ;  two  men  pitching  from  the 
stack  to  the  machine ;  one  man  or  two  women  cutting  bands,  or 
two  men  for  wheat ;  one  man  feeding  the  machine  j  one  man 
looking  after  the  sacking  of  the  corn ;  one  man  carrying  the  com 
to  the  granary ;  one  man  attending  to  the  straw  binder ;  one 
woman  removing  chaff ;  one  man  pitching  straw  from  the  machine 
to  the  stack ;  one  man  building  the  straw  stack. 

In  a  full  day  they  will  thrash  by  steam-power  sixty  quarters 
of  wheat  or  a  hundred  quarters  of  oats.  With  the  flail  a  man  will 
thrash  five  quarters  per  day.  The  cost  of  thrashing  is  about 
IS,  8d.  per  quarter. 

As  it  is  necessary  that,  for  sale,  grain  should  be  as  clean  as 
possible,  it  is  often  dressed,  after  thrashing,  with  the  winnowing 
machine.  Barley,  in  particular,  requires  to  be  of  a  good  even 
sample,  and  with  this  crop  it  will  nearly  always  pay  to  pass  it  over 
a  screen  after  thrashing.  In  thrashing  barley,  use  is  made  of  the 
hummelers  to  knock  off  the  awns. 

The  tail  corn  is  used  for  stock-feeding,  as  indeed  nearly  all 
the  oats  are.  The  proportion  of  dressed  to  tail  wheat  is  as  ten 
to  one. 

The  produce  per  acre  of  wheat  is  30  bushels  grain  and  30  to 
33  cwts.  straw,  of  barley  35  to  45  bushels  grain  and  13  to  20  cwts. 
straw,  of  oats  40  to  60  bushels  grain  and  20  to  40  cwts.  straw. 

Rye. — The  harvesting,  when  for  grain,  is  similar  to  that  of 
any  other  corn  crop.     It  may  be  cut  in  July,  and  yields  25  to  40 


342  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

bushels  of  grain  and  35  to  40  cwts.  of  straw  per  acre.  The  straw 
is  very  tough,  and  is  excellent  for  thatching,  but  not  for  feeding 
purposes. 

Forage  rye  may  be  cut  or  fed  in  April.  It  may  be  given  to 
horses  and  cattle,  chaffed  with  hay  or  straw.  Sheep  are  the 
usual  means  of  feeding  it  off. 

Beans  are  cut  as  soon  as  the  leaf  has  fallen.  Another  point 
to  go  by  is  that  the  pod  should  be  yellowish  and  the  eye  of  the 
bean  black.  If  too  ripe,  the  pods  readily  split  and  the  beans 
drop  out. 

Reaping  is  commonly  done  with  the  sickle.  The  reaping 
machine  also  cuts  a  considerable  part,  but  the  knives  get  much 
injured  by  the  hard  stalks.  When  done  by  the  former  method, 
they  are  cut  with  a  heavy  sickle  known  as  the  fagging  or  bagging 
hook,  and  which  has  finely  serrated  edges.  The  operation  is 
performed  thus — The  workman,  holding  back  the  stalks  with  his 
left  arm,  strikes  at  the  stems  near  the  ground,  and  driving  the  cut 
stalks  up  against  the  standing  corn.  He  thus  advances  across 
the  ridge  until  he  has  collected  sufficient  for  a  bundle.  He  then 
gathers  it  together  with  his  hook  and  left  hand  over  his  left  foot 
as  he  walks  backwards,  and  finally  lifts  it  on  to  a  band  laid  before 
he  commenced  cutting.  The  bands  are  usually  of  straw,  and  are 
tied  by  a  woman  as  the  reaper  cuts  another  bundle. 

When  the  beans  are  short  and  growing  near  to  the  ground,  it 
may  be  necessaiy  to  pull  them  up.  Both  fagging  and  pulling  are 
very  slow  operations. 

Beans  are  sometimes  left  lying  unbound  for  a  few  days  after 
cutting.  After  tying,  they  are  set  in  stocks  of  four  to  six 
bundles  each.  They  require  to  stand  for  a  considerable  time, 
and  should  be  well  dried;  but  after  they  have  become  dry,  a 
shower  of  rain,  unless  very  heavy,  need  not  stop  carting.  They 
are  left  in  the  stack  for  a  long  time  before  thrashing. 

The  produce  per  acre  is  25  to  40  bushels,  with  25  to  30  cwts. 
straw. 

Peas  are  cut  as  soon  as  the  pods  and  straw  change  to  a  brown 
colour.  The  cutting  is  done  with  the  pea-hook,  scythe,  or 
machine.  The  last  two  are  unsuitable,  as  they  are  apt  to  cut 
open  the  pods.  The  trailing  stems  make  the  operation  in  any 
case  difficult.  Peas  are  not  bound  as  cut,  but  are  left  in  small 
heaps,  called  "wads,"  to  dry.  These  bundles  are  turned  over 
several  times,  and,  when  dry  enough,  they  are  rolled  up  into 
oblong  form  and  bound  with  pea-straw.  They  may  then  be  set 
up  together  in  the  form  of  stooks,  or  left  to  lie  separately.  When 
dry  they  are  carted  and  stacked.  This  operation  needs  care,  as 
the  pods  easily  crack  and  let  out  their  contents.     Pea-stacks  are 


CtJLTlVATiON  OF  CROPS.  ^43 

not  only  thatched  on  the  top,  but  the  sides  are  also  often  coated 
with  straw. 

When  thrashing  peas,  great  care  must  be  taken  that  they  are 
not  split,  and,  to  prevent  this,  it  is  often  necessary  to  take  the  steel 
bars  off  the  beaters  of  the  thrashing-machine. 

The  produce  per  acre  is  30  to  40  bushels  of  seed  and  25  cwts. 
straw.  The  straw  is  very  nutritious,  and  a  capital  food  for 
dairy  cows. 

When  peas  and  beans  are  grown  together,  the  crop  is  usually 
tied  up  by  means  of  the  pea-haulm. 

This  concludes  the  harvesting  proper,  but  we  must  also  notice 
how  the  root  and  fodder  crops  are  dealt  with. 

Turnips  and  Swedes  are  either  fed  off  on  the  land  by  sheep, 
or  are  carted  home  for  use  in  the  byres,  etc.  When  the  fields  are 
some  distance  from  the  steading  the  former  plan  is  preferable. 
It  saves  much  cost,  both  in  carting  home  the  turnips  and  carting 
back  the  farmyard  manure.  Some  information  upon  feeding  off 
roots,  and  the  necessary  precautions,  will  be  found  in  the  article  on 
sheep  management  in  "  Live  Stock."  The  method  of  carting 
home  entails  the  trouble  of  lifting  the  roots,  and  then  of  topping 
and  tailing  them.  This  operation  consists  of  cutting  off  the  roots 
and  leaves  (to  within  an  inch  of  the  crown)  by  means  of  a  knife. 
The  bulbs  are  now  thrown  into  rows,  four  ridges  commonly  going 
into  one  of  these  rows.  This  renders  the  carting  easier.  They 
are  usually  stored  in  long  prismoidal  heaps  of  triangular  section, 
and  covered  over  with  several  inches  of  refuse,  straw,  and  earth. 
A  shallow  trench  is  then  dug  around  the  heap  for  drainage. 

The  produce  of  bulbs  per  acre  is — Swedes,  12  to  30  or  even 
40  tons;  yellows,  18  to  25  tons;  whites,  20  to  25  tons.  The 
crops  of  swedes  in  the  north  are  often  twice  as  large  as  those  in 
the  south,  or  even  more  than  that.  Weight  of  bulbs  per  bushel, 
42  to  45  lbs. 

Sometimes,  though  rarely,  except  with  seedsmen,  part  of  the 
crop  is  saved  for  seed.  The  turnip  is  a  biennial  plant,  that  is, 
comes  to  flower  in  its  second  year.  Occasionally,  through  bad 
seed,  forcing  manure,  etc.,  they  may  do  so  during  the  first  season, 
but  are  not  then  to  be  relied  upon.  The  operation  is  as  follows — 
A  few  loads  of  the  turnips  are  removed  to  a  corner  of  the  field 
in  September  or  October,  and  covered  over  with  loose  strawy 
dung.  The  rest  of  the  field  is  well  tilled  and  heavily  manured, 
and  the  turnips  are  transplanted  again  in  February.  They  are 
kept  very  clean,  and  soon  send  up  long  flower-stalks,  which  in  the 
case  of  white  turnips  may  be  cut  in  July,  and  swedes  towards  the 
end  of  that  month.  They  are  cut  in  small  bundles,  which  are  not 
bound,  but  are  laid  on  the  ground  for  three  weeks  or  a  month  to 


344  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

ripen.  They  need  to  be  frequently  turned,  and  this  must  be  done 
early  in  the  morning  when  the  dew  is  on  the  ground,  to  avoid  all 
spilling  of  the  seed.  When  thoroughly  ripe,  the  bundles  are 
carefully  pitched  into  carts  with  side-boards,  and  carried  to  a  large 
sheet  placed  in  a  horse-shoe  shape.  The  bundles  are  arranged, 
butts  outward,  on  this,  and  then  a  roller  is  dragged  across  until 
the  seed  is  all  knocked  out.  It  is  scooped  up,  and  passed 
through  sieves  to  clean  it.  A  fine  dry  day  is  needed  for  the 
thrashing,  and  the  cultivation  all  through  is  risky,  as  stormy 
weather  knocks  out  most  of  the  seed.  The  produce  varies. 
Swedes  will  give  28  or  30  bushels;  yellows,  20  bushels;  whites, 
20  to  25  bushels.     In  bad  seasons  only  6  or  7  bushels  may  be  got. 

Mangels  differ  from  turnips  in  not  being  eaten  off  on  the 
ground.  If  fed  in  autumn,  they  cause  the  animals  to  suffer  from 
scour,  owing  to  the  acrid  substances  they  contain.  When  stored 
till  spring  much  of  these  change  into  sugar. 

The  crop  is  ready  for  harvesting  in  October.  The  mangels 
are  best  pulled  up  by  hand,  and  the  leaves  wrenched  off.  The 
rootlets  are  left,  and  it  is  not  advisable  to  use  a  knife  to  dress 
them  with  at  all.  If  they  are  cut  or  bruised,  the  juice  is  con- 
stantly exuding,  and  the  interior  soon  rots. 

Mangel  heaps  are  of  the  same  shape  as  those  for  turnips,  and 
may  be  made  with  a  base  of  six  feet  and  height  four  feet,  or  in 
those  proportions.  The  mangels  are  covered  over  with  a  layer  of 
refuse  straw  six  or  ten  inches  deep,  and  on  this  earth  is  piled, 
except  along  the  ridge,  which  is  kept  bare  for  ventilation.  A 
trench  is  dug  around.     Mangels  come  into  use  after  swedes. 

The  cost  of  pulling,  topping,  and  tailing  is  about  seven 
shillings  per  acre;  building  and  covering  clamp,  four  shillings; 
total,  with  carriage,  about  ;£i  per  acre. 

Produce  per  acre :  twenty  to  thirty  tons  of  bulbs  is  the 
common  rule,  but  crops  of  seventy  or  even  one  hundred  tons  are 
sometimes  obtained  in  the  south  of  England.    Seed,  sixty  bushels. 

Carrots  are  also  unsuited  for  feeding  off  on  the  land.  They 
are  ready  for  lifting  about  the  end  of  October.  The  lifting  is  a 
laborious  task,  and  is  performed  with  the  aid  of  a  fork,  having  two 
or  three  prongs,  each  about  a  foot  long  and  three  inches  apart 
This  is  thrust  deeply  into  the  soil  behind  the  root,  and,  by  using 
it  as  a  lever,  the  carrots  can  be  raised  without  injury.  The  tops 
are  then  cut  off.  Taking  up  the  crop  is  expensive  work,  and  will 
cost  from  about  ten  to  nearly  thirty  shillings  per  acre.  If  the 
weather  be  fine,  the  roots  are  all  the  better  for  lying  a  few  days  in 
the  field  to  dry.  They  are  then  packed  in  clamps,  similar  to 
those  of  mangels,  but  of  rather  less  size.  The  heaps  are  built 
with  the  crowns  of  the  carrots  outwards  and  the  tails  towards  the 


CULTIVATION   OF  CROPS.  345 

centre  of  the  heap.  They  are  covered  over  with  straw  and 
earth.  Good  ventilation  is  necessary,  and  this  may  be  provided 
by  using  drain-pipes  in  the  top  of  the  heap. 

The  carrot  leaves  may  be  kept  for  the  cattle,  which  relish 
them  very  much. 

Produce  of  roots,  ten  to  twenty  tons  per  acre.  Weight  per 
bushel,  forty  pounds. 

Parsnips  are  harvested  similarly  to  carrots.  They  are  not  so 
liable  to  injury  by  frost,  and  can  be  left  in  the  ground  a  longer  time 
before  pulling.    They  give  eight  to  fourteen  tons  of  roots  per  acre. 

Cabbages  arrive  at  maturity  about  the  end  of  October.  If  left 
out  longer  they  get  injured  by  the  rain  and  frost.  They  may  be 
either  cut  or  folded.  For  the  latter  purpose  sheep  may  be  put  on 
the  land  in  late  June  or  July.  As  a  rule,  however,  the  crop  is  cut 
or  pulled  out  by  the  roots.  If  the  land  is  wanted  immediately 
the  latter  plan  is  best,  but,  if  the  crops  are  left,  a  second  crop  is 
obtained.  To  produce  a  good  second  crop,  the  best  plan  is  to 
cut  out  the  heads,  leaving  three  or  four  bottom  leaves. 

Cabbages  are  not  a  very  suitable  crop  for  storing,  and  are  best 
fed  green,  being  especially  valuable  for  milch  cattle.  They  may 
be  made  into  silage.  The  best  plan  for  storing  cabbages  is  to 
throw  up  a  **  land  "  with  the  plough,  and  make  it  hard  on  the  top. 
Spread  a  layer  of  straw,  and  lay  the  cabbages  upside-down  on  the 
straw ;  cover  over  with  straw  and  a  little  earth.  Other  methods 
are  to  replant  them  in  a  sloping  manner  and  cover  with  straw ;  to 
bury  the  heads  in  the  soil  and  leave  the  roots  in  the  air ;  to  hang 
them  up  by  the  roots  in  houses,  etc.,  but  none  of  these  plans  are 
very  successful. 

The  crop  amounts  to  thirty  or  forty  tons  heads  per  acre.  If 
allowed  to  flower,  about  thirty  bushels  of  seed  may  be  obtained. 

Kohl-rabi,  owing  to  the  bulb  being  developed  above  ground, 
can  be  fed  off  on  the  land  with  minimum  waste.  As  they  are 
very  hardy,  they  may  be  left  till  spring,  and  then  eaten  off  by 
sheep.  They  may  be  stored  in  the  same  manner  as  turnips, 
first  stripping  off  the  leaves,  which  are  themselves  good  food. 

The  produce  per  acre  is  twenty  to  twenty-five  tons  of  bulbs. 

Rape  will  be  ready  for  forage  purposes  about  September, 
though  some  may  be  fit  for  folding  in  August.  Rape  is  usually 
fed  off  on  the  land  by  sheep.  A  second  crop  may  be  obtained  by 
preventing  the  flock  from  eating  the  stumps.  This  later  produce 
may  be  almost  as  bulky  as  the  first,  but  is  very  watery  and  of  low 
feeding  value.  Still,  in  very  dry  weather,  or  when  allowed  to  stand 
till  spring,  it  may  be  useful  food. 

The  produce  of  green  food  is  ten  to  twenty  tons  per  acre. 

Rape  is  sometimes  cultivated  for  its  seed.     It  is  then  sown  in 


346  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

July  and  August,  and  tilled  as  when  grown  for  fodder.  It  is 
thinned  more  carefully,  and  is  ready  to  cut  next  July.  It  is  bound 
into  sheaves,  allowed  to  dry,  and  then  thrashed  out  on  a  sheet  in 
the  field.  The  yield  of  seed  averages  about  thirty  bushels  per 
acre.     It  is  used  for  making  rape  cake  and  oil. 

Kale  is  ready  for  folding  in  July  and  August  of  the  following 
year.  When  sown  in  April,  however,  it  may  be  fed  off  in  the  same 
autumn.  There  are  two  methods  of  using  it.  One  is  to  feed  it 
off  on  the  land  with  sheep,  taking  care  that  they  do  not  eat  it  so 
close  as  to  injure  the  stems.  If  this  point  be  attended  to,  another 
crop  will  be  obtained  in  the  following  April.  The  other  plan  is 
to  cut  the  heads,  leaving  three  or  four  bottom  leaves.  The  heads 
are  then  carted  off  for  feeding  on  the  pastures  or  in  the  byres. 
The  second  method  gives  better  crops  but  is  more  expensive. 

Potatoes  are  ripe  when  the  leaf  begins  to  fall  and  decay. 
Early  potatoes  are  dug  as  soon  as  they  are  of  large  enough  size, 
but  they  will  not  keep  well  so  long,  as  the  skin  can  be  readily 
rubbed  off  with  the  fingers. 

In  order  that  early  potatoes  should  not  be  so  much  bruised,  they 
should  be  raised  with  the  graip.  The  potatoes  as  they  are  dug 
out  are  sorted  by  women,  and  collected  in  willow  baskets.  They 
should  be  marketed  as  early  as  possible. 

The  ordinary  varieties  may  be  lifted  with  the  fork,  the  plough, 
or  the  potato-digger.  The  second  is  a  very  common  method. 
There  are  now  ploughs  made  specially  for  this  purpose,,  but  the 
ordinary  form,  with  the  raiser  attached,  may  be  used.  The  latter 
consists  of  a  series  of  iron  or  steel  fingers  attached  to  either  one 
or  both  sides  of  the  body.  In  the  north,  at  least,  the  double- 
mouldboard  plough  is  very  often  used  for  raising  potatoes.  The 
mouldboards  are  set  wider  than  usual,  and  every  other  drill  is 
opened.  A  set  of  workers  clear  out  all  potatoes,  and  after  a 
while  the  ridges  which  have  been  left,  are  opened. 

The  potato-digger  is  a  very  useful  machine,  where  it  can  be 
used,  but  it  is  not  suited  for  stiff  land.  From  two  to  five  acres 
can  be  finished  per  day  with  it,  and  the  machine  usually  requires 
three  horses.  A  large  staff  of  workers  are  required  to  keep  the 
work  in  full  swing ;  from  twenty  to  thirty  will  be  needed,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  crop  and  amount  of  disease  present. 

After  the  plough  or  the  digger  has  been  over  one  section  of 
the  field,  a  light  harrow  with  long  tines  should  be  sent  over  it. 
This  exposes  any  potatoes  left,  and  also  levels  the  land  greatly. 

An  ordinary  crop  amounts  to  from  six  to  nine  tons  per  acre ; 
early  potatoes,  four  to  six  tons.  Weight  per  bushel,  fifty-three 
pounds. 

Large  quantities  of  potatoes  are  usually  stored  in  pits  in  the 


CULTIVATION  OF  CROPS.  347 

open  field.  Shallow  trenches,  one  yard  wide  and  nine  to  twelve 
inches  deep,  are  dug  in  dry  sandy  soil,  but  if  the  land  be  clayey  or 
at  all  wet  it  is  not  advisable  to  make  trenches.  The  potatoes  are 
heaped  up  in  the  form  of  long  triangular  prismoids,  as  with  turnips 
and  mangels.  The  heap  is  not,  as  a  rule,  wider  than  four  feet. 
When  the  heap  is  completed  it  is  thatched  with  straw,  ventilation 
being  provided  by  means  of  small  upright  bundles  inserted  in  the 
ridge.  After  standing  some  little  time  in  that  manner,  the  clamps 
are  covered  over  with  earth  to  a  depth  of  six  inches.  When 
small  quantities  of  potatoes  are  to  be  stored  they  may  be  placed 
in  conical  piles,  three  or  four  feet  high  and  six  to  eight  feet  wide 
at  the  base. 

Hay-maMng. — There  are  two  varieties  of  hay,  viz.  "lea" 
and  "meadow,"  the  former  coming  off  arable  land,  while  the 
latter  is  the  produce  of  old-laid  meadows. 

The  farmer  should  begin  to  cut  the  crop  when  the  greatest 
proportion  of  the  most  valuable  plants  are  beginning  to  bloom. 
If  left  longer,  much  nourishment  is  transferred  from  the  stem  and 
leaves  to  the  seeds,  which  are  readily  knocked  out  in  turning  the 
hay.  The  stems  also  turn  woody.  Lea  hay  is  cut  before  meadow, 
as  it  contains  a  larger  proportion  of  clover,  the  dried  matured 
leaves  of  which  are  liable  to  be  broken  off  and  lost.  Cutting  is 
usually  commenced  in  June,  and  finished  in  July  or  August. 
Supposing  the  crop  to  be  cut  in  the  morning,  it  would  perhaps  be 
turned  with  the  fork  or  rake  in  the  afternoon,  or  left  till  next  day. 
In  the  morning  of  the  second  day,  as  soon  as  the  dew  is  off  the 
ground,  the  rows  or  swathes  are  spread  out  with  the  fork,  allowed 
to  dry  for  some  tim.e,  and  may  be  tedded  in  the  afternoon.  In 
the  evening  it  is  raked  up  into  rows  and  then  into  cocks.  Next 
morning  these  cocks  are  shaken  out,  and,  after  lying  some  time, 
the  hay  is  tedded.  In  the  afternoon  it  is  raked  up  into  double 
windrows,  and  then  into  single  windrows,  by  uniting  couples.  In 
fine  weather  the  hay  is  then  cocked  and  carted  home. 

The  above  process  is  suitable  for  meadow  hay ;  for  lea  hay 
it  is  much  simpler.  The  grass  cut  one  day  is  turned  the  next ; 
on  the  third  day  it  is  collected  with  the  horse-rake  and  cocked. 
It  remains  in  cock  three  or  four  days,  the  length  of  time  depend- 
ing upon  the  weather. 

In  rainy  weather,  only  a  little  should  be  broken  out  at  once, 
so  that  it  may  be  easily  cocked  again.  Rain  falling  on  the  crop 
when  lying  out,  washes  off  the  waxy  bloom  protecting  the 
epidermis,  and  carries  away  some  soluble  materials.  Alcoholic 
fermentation  may  set  in,  and,  among  other  substances,  coumarin 
(an  organic  principle  giving  a  pleasant  smell  to  hay)  may  be  lost. 

When  hay  is  stored  while  damp,  it  tends  to  ferment     About 


348  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

1 5  lbs.  of  salt  sprinkled  over  every  ton  of  material  will  check  the 
fermentation,  and  a  little  fenugreek  improves  the  flavour. 

Hops. — Picking  commences  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  ripe,  which 
will  usually  be  about  the  end  of  August.  The  work  requires  a 
large  number  of  hands,  and  the  operations  are  performed  thus : 
The  bines  are  cut  a  couple  of  feet  from  the  ground,  and  then  the 
poles,  with  the  bines  attached,  are  pulled  out  with  "  dogs " 
(wooden  levers  having  iron  teeth).  The  poles  are  taken  to  the 
pickers,  who  pick  off  the  hops,  putting  them  into  bins  or  baskets. 
The  poles  are  cleared  and  then  stored  away.  Usually  one  man 
is  engaged  in  raising  the  poles  for  about  eight  pickers.  The  hops 
are  placed  in  large  bins  or  baskets,  holding  from  ten  to  twenty 
bushels.  The  price  for  picking  varies  from  i\d,  to  $d.  per  bushel. 
As  soon  as  possible  after  picking,  the  hops  are  dried  in  kilns. 
This  will  reduce  their  weight  to  a  quarter  of  what  it  formerly  was. 
They  are  then  packed  in  pockets,  or  sacks  7^  feet  long  by  3  feet 
wide,  which  hold  about  i  cwt.  2  qrs.  of  hops. 

The  produce  varies  greatly.  The  common  yield  is  about 
seven  hundredweights,  but  it  may  rise  to  twenty-five  hundred- 
weights per  acre.     Weight  per  bushel,  thirty-six  pounds. 

Flax,  when  grown  for  fibre,  should  be  pulled  by  hand  before 
the  bolls  (seed-vessels)  ripen  ;  but  commonly  it  is  left  later.  The 
crop  is  pulled  in  handfuls,  and  then  rippled.  Rippling  consists 
of  drawing  the  flax  through  the  teeth  of  an  iron  frame  ;  the  bolls 
are  pulled  off,  and  are  spread  out  in  lofts  to  dry.  Either  the  same 
day  or  the  day  after,  the  straw  is  steeped.  It  often  is  spread  out 
for  a  short  time  before  this  to  dry.  The  steeping  is  performed  in 
ponds  of  pure  water,  the  object  being  to  decompose  the  mucila- 
ginous matter  about  the  fibres.  When  this  has  been  accomplished, 
the  material  is  dried  by  spreading  it  evenly  over  a  grass  field, 
where  it  remains  about  four  days.  It  is  then  rolled  up,  to  break 
the  dried  stems,  and  then  "  scutched,"  which  removes  the  rotten, 
woody,  and  mucilaginous  matter  from  the  fibres.  The  fibre  is 
made  into  linen,  and  the  bolls,  after  drying  and  turning  several 
times,  are  crushed.  Linseed  oil  is  obtained,  and  the  remainder  is 
pressed  into  linseed  cake. 

Produce  of  straw  per  acre,  two  tons,  giving  about  six  hundred- 
weights of  fibre.     Produce  of  seed,  sixteen  to  twenty  bushels. 

Hemp  is  pulled  by  hand,  dried,  stacked  for  a  time,  and  then 
steeped  similarly  to  flax.  The  produce  of  straw  and  fibre  is  the 
same  as  that  of  flax ;  sixteen  bushels  of  seed  per  acre  are  obtained. 
The  seed  weighs  forty  pounds  per  bushel. 

Teazles  blossom  in  July,  and  harvesting  is  commenced  as 
soon  as  the  bloom  is  off  the  heads.  The  average  produce  is  five 
to  ten  "  packs  "  per  acre,  each  pack  containing  about  20,000  heads. 


(    349    ) 


CHAPTER   III. 

manures— application  and  management. 

Farmyard  Manure. 

Of  all  the  manures  that  the  farmer  applies  to  his  land  this  is 
the  one  on  which  he  places  most  rehance,  and  which  occupies  his 
attention  to  the  greatest  extent.  Artificial  manures  he  looks 
upon  as  only  subsidiary  means  for  keeping  up  the  fertility  of  the 
soil ;  and  though  they  are  often  largely  used,  yet  farmyard  dung 
is  employed  to  an  extent  which  completely  puts  them  into  the 
shade. 

Farmyard  manure  is  divisible  into  the  three  parts : — 

1.  The  liquid  portion.  This  consists  of  the  urine  of  the 
stock,  together  with  rain-water,  often  containing  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  soluble  matters  of  the  dung.  The  liquid  manure 
is  the  most  rapid  in  its  action,  and  the  immediate  effects  of  an 
application  of  dung  to  the  land  are  chiefly  due  to  this  constituent. 

2.  The  finely-divided  portion,  which  is  the  dung  proper,  and 
consists  principally  of  the  undigested  portions  of  the  food.  Some 
of  this  becomes  available  as  plant-food  a  little  after  the  previous 
matters. 

3.  The  litter,  or  coarser  part.  This  is  the  most  durable,  and 
only  becomes  slowly  available,  requiring  fermentation  and  decom- 
position before  it  is  in  a  fit  state  for  use  by  crops. 

The  quality  of  farmyard  manure  varies  very  much  indeed. 
Among  the  conditions  which  afiect  it,  the  following  may  be  taken 
as  the  chief. 

I.  The  Species  of  Animal  producing  it. — The  excreta  from 
each  species  of  live  stock  has  its  own  peculiar  properties. 

Excreta  of  the  Horse. — The  dung  of  the  horse  is  of  a  very  dry 
nature.  It  rapidly  ferments,  and  is  altogether  of  a  hot  character 
and  liable  to  a  kind  of  dry-rot,  or  "  fire-fang."     It  ranks  next  to 


3SO 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


that  of  the  pig  in  richness.  The  urine  also  takes  second  place, 
but  contains  only  very  small  traces  of  phosphoric  acid.  The 
manure  is  the  least  variable  in  composition  of  any. 

Excreta  of  the  Ox. — The  dung  is  of  a  cold,  watery  nature, 
quite  the  reverse  of  that  of  the  preceding  animal.  It  contains 
only  small  proportions  of  fertilizing  matters.  The  urine  takes 
the  third  place  as  regards  value.  It  has  a  large  percentage  of 
alkalies,  but  only  traces  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  a  rather  small 
amount  of  nitrogen. 

Excreta  of  the  Pig. — The  dung  is  of  a  cold  character,  but  is 
of  rich  composition.  It  contains  a  much  larger  proportion  of 
phosphoric  acid  and  alkalies  than  other  dung,  and  the  nitrogen 
is  also  in  excess.  The  urine  is  very  poor,  being  especially  low- 
in  alkalies,  though  phosphoric  acid  is  abundant. 

Excreta  of  the  Sheep. — This  rarely  finds  its  way  to  the  dung- 
heap,  being  left  on  the  land  on  which  the  flock  is  folded.  Hence 
it  is  returned  to  the  soil  with  the  minimum  amount  of  loss.  The 
dung  is  of  rather  low  percentage  composition,  when  only  the  dry 
matter  is  reckoned,  but  as  it  is  much  more  solid  than  that  of 
other  farm  stock,  it  is  about  the  most  valuable.  The  urine  is 
very  rich. 

Composition  of  Dung  and  Urine. 


Water    .. 
Solids* 

*  Containing — 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric 

pentoxide  . . 
Potash  and  soda 

Horse. 

Ox. 

Pig. 

Sheep. 

Dung. 

Urine. 

Dung. 

Urine. 

Dung. 

Urine. 

Dung. 

Urine. 

750 
250 

900 
100 

860 
140 

85 

760 
240 

976 
24 

640 
360 

50 

1000 

1000 

1000 

1000 

1000 

ICX)0 

1000 

1000 

6 

4 
35 

II 

4 

3-6 
3 

2*2 

9 
16 

7 

3 

1*2 

2 

6 

5 
3 

8 

7 

For  the  same  weight  of  food  it  has  been  calculated  that  the 
ox  produces  more  than  twice,  and  the  sheep  nearly  twice,  the 
amount  of  dung  given  by  the  pig. 

2.  Age  and  Condition  of  the  Animal  producing  it. — The 
quahty  is  greatly  influenced  by  this,  because,  should  the  beast  be 
requiring  large  suppHes  of  any  one  constituent,  that  constituent 
will  be  wanting  to  a  great  extent  in  the  excreta.  Young  animals 
require  an  abundance  of  salts,  especially  phosphates.     Cows  in 


APPLICATION   OF  MANURES.  35 1 

calf  or  milk  have  similar  wants.  Growing  store  stock  usually 
give  poor  manure,  and  the  reverse  may  be  said  with  regard  to 
mature  fattening  animals,  approaching  ripeness.  With  the  latter 
class  an  excess  of  food  is  needed  proportionately  to  the  increase, 
and  that  food  is  usually  of  the  best  quality.  Working  animals  give 
poorer  manure  than  those  at  rest,  owing  to  the  albuminoids  being 
more  required. 

3.  The  Pood. — This  is  one  of  the  most  important  factors.  The 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  of  the  food  have  no  manurial 
value,  but  the  nitrogenous  matters  and  mineral  salts  are  of  the 
greatest  use.  Such  carbonaceous  foods,  as  treacle,  sugar,  etc.,  have 
no  manurial  value,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  manure  from  oilcakes 
and  leguminous  seeds  is  of  very  superior  quality.  Warington 
says  that  if  the  food  be  nitrogenous  and  easily  digested,  the 
nitrogen  in  the  urine  will  greatly  preponderate ;  if,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  food  is  one  imperfectly  digested,  the  nitrogen  in  the 
solid  excrement  may  form  the  larger  quantity.  When  poor  hay 
is  the  diet,  the  nitrogen  in  the  solid  excrement  will  exceed  that 
in  the  urine ;  when  cake,  corn,  and  roots  are  largely  used,  there 
is  an  excess  in  the  liquid  portion.  We  thus  see  that  according 
to  the  food  so  the  manner  of  excretion  of  various  bodies  is 
affected.  Lime,  magnesia,  and  phosphoric  acid  are  in  greatest 
abundance  in  the^  solid  excreta,  but  the  urine  contains  most  of 
the  potash. 

One  of  the  best  means  the  farmer  has  of  keeping  up  the 
fertility  of  his  land  is  the  feeding  of  cakes  and  other  concentrated 
foods  to  his  stock.  Both  the  animals  and  the  dung-heap  benefit 
by  the  plan.  Such  foods  as  straw  and  roots  give  very  poor 
manure,  and  the  dung  from  young  growing  stock,  feeding  chiefly 
on  straw  in  open  yards,  is  decidedly  the  worst  that  can  be  got. 

Experiments  have  been  conducted  by  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes  and  Sir 
J.  H.  Gilbert,  at  Rothamsted,  to  find  what  are  the  relative  values 
of  the  manure  obtained  from  different  kinds  of  foods.  A  table 
showing  the  results  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  *'  Foods  "  in 
the  "  Elementary  Textbook,"  but  the  amounts  there  given  need  to 
be  discounted  rather  heavily  for  the  waste  which  always  goes  on. 

4.  The  Accommodation  of  the  Animal. — Stock  are  housed 
either  in  (i)  byres  or  stalls,  (2)  boxes,  (3)  yards.  In  the  first 
plan,  pursued  with  regard  to  working  horses  and  cows  usually, 
the  animals  are  tied  up,  and  the  dung  consequently  collects  at  the 
entrance  to  the  stall.  It  does  not  get  thoroughly  mixed  with  the 
litter,  and  therefore,  on  removal,  which  should  take  place  every 
day,  it  should  be  spread  out  in  a  yard  where  it  may  be  thoroughly 
trampled  down  by  means  of  young  stock. 

In  boxes  the  animals  have  more  freedom,  consequently  the 


352  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

dung  and  litter  are  more  thoroughly  mixed  together.  Boxes  are 
often  occupied  by  fattening  stock,  and  the  rich  food  they  receive 
causes  an  improved  quality  of  dung,  which  is  allowed  to  accumu- 
late in  the  box  for  a  considerable  time. 

The  yards  are  either  open  or  covered.  In  the  latter  case  they 
greatly  resemble  boxes,  and  the  manure  from  them  is  of  similar 
character.  Open  yards  allow  the  rain  to  wash  away  the  soluble 
parts  of  the  dung,  and,  as  more  straw  is  needed  to  keep  the 
animals  comfortable,  the  manure  is  of  low  quality. 

To  test  the  relative  value  of  dung  from  covered  and  uncovered 
yards,  Lord  Kinnaird  conducted  some  experiments.  The  cattle 
were  provided  for  in  a  similar  manner  in  every  way.  The 
following  were  the  results  : — 

Potatoes  grown  with  Uncovered  Manure. 

Tons.   cwts.     lbs. 

Plot  I  (i  acre)  produced 7        6        8 

Plot  2  (I  acre)  produced     ..  7       18      99 

Potatoes  grown  with  Covered  Manure. 

Plot  I  (i  acre)  produced 11       17      56 

Plot  2  (i  acre)  produced 11       12      26 

Next  year,  wheat  was  tried  on  one-acre  plots. 

Wheat  grown  with  Uncovered  Manure. 

Produce  in  Grain.  Weight  per  Bushel.  Produce  in  straw. 

Bushels,     lbs.                    Lbs.  Stones,     lbs. 

Plot  I 41         19                  6i|  152  of  22 

Plot  2 42         38                  6i|  160  of  22 

Wheat  grown  with  Covered  Manure. 

Plot  I 53         5  61  220  of  22 

Plot  2 53        47  61  210  of  22 

The  superiority  of  the  covered  manure  speaks  for  itself. 

5.  The  Litter. — Besides  adding  to  the  comfort  of  the  animals, 
litter  has  several  other  properties.  It  helps  to  absorb  and  retain 
the  urine,  increases  the  bulk  of  the  manure,  and  adds  to  it  various 
fertilizing  ingredients.  It  is  to  the  litter  that  the  mechanical 
effects  of  farmyard  manure  are  chiefly  due. 

Straw  is  the  litter  most  commonly  used ;  that  from  wheat  and 
barley  being  also  more  in  use  than  that  from  oats.  Wheat 
straw  contains  about  o'48  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  (equal  to  lof  lbs. 
per  ton)  ;  barley  straw  contains  0*57  per  cent,  nitrogen  (equal  to 
12J  lbs.  per  ton);  oat  straw  contains  0*72  per  cent,  nitrogen 
(equal  to  a  little  over  16  lbs.  per  ton).  The  ash  of  the  first 
amounts  to  about  119  lbs.  per  ton,  of  the  second  109 J  lbs.,  and 
of  the  third  114  lbs.  per  ton.    Barley  straw  makes  the  worst  litter. 


APPLICATION    OF   MANURES.  353 

Peat  is  very  useful  as  litter  when  it  can  be  easily  obtained. 
It  has  a  much  greater  absorptive  and  retentive  power  than  straw, 
and  the  composition  is  somewhat  higher.  It  contains  about  i^ 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen.     Peat  also  acts  as  a  disinfectant. 

Brackens  are  sometimes  used  for  litter,  though  not  to  any 
great  extent.  They  contain  a  considerable  proportion  of  fertiliz- 
ing matters,  but  are  not  very  absorptive. 

Leaves  are  employed  to  a  small  extent.  •  They  contain  about 
075  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  but  very  little  phosphoric  acid,  and 
about  o'3  per  cent  of  potash.  They  are  not  very  well  adapted 
for  this  purpose. 

The  amount  of  litter  supplied  will  depend  greatly  on  circum- 
stances. To  make  the  animals  thoroughly  comfortable,  would, 
no  doubt,  take  more  litter  than  could  be  spared.  In  open  yards 
the  maximum  amount  would  be  required,  and  about  48  lbs.  per 
head  will  be  needed  daily.  In  byres  the  least  quantities  of  litter 
can  be  used,  as  only  the  entrance  to  the  stall  is  liable  to  become 
dirty.  Hence,  in  a  season  in  which  there  is  a  scarcity  of  or  great 
demand  for  straw,  this  method  of  housing  finds  favour.  About 
24  lbs.  daily  will  be  needed  for  each  beast  in  covered  yards. 
Should  enough  litter  not  be  used,  then  there  is  a  liability  to 
loss  from  the  escape  of  matters  in  solution.  Too  much  litter 
causes  unnecessary  expense,  and,  though  increasing  the  amount 
of  manure,  lowers  the  percentage  composition.  With  yards,  the 
litter  is  usually  allowed  to  become  a  little  wet  and  dirty  before 
another  addition  is  made. 

6.  General  Management. — It  should  always  be  endeavoured 
to  mix  the  dung  of  the  various  animals  as  thoroughly  as  possible. 
If  this  be  done,  the  manure  will  be  more  uniform,  and  safer 
fermentation  will  result.  If  the  dung  and  litter  are  not  properly 
mixed,  they  may  be  spread  out  for  a  short  time  in  yards  in  which 
young  stock  or  pigs  are  allowed  to  run.  After  this  the  manure 
is  disposed  of  in  either  of  the  following  ways  : — (i)  by  carting 
it  direct  to  the  land  and  ploughing  it  in,  or  (2)  by  making  it  up 
into  a  proper  heap.  In  the  first  plan  the  manure  is  drawn  from 
the  boxes  in  autumn,  while  in  the  "  green "  (or  fresh)  state.  It 
is  distributed  over  the  land  in  small  heaps;  these  are  then 
spread  and  ploughed  in  with  a  shallow  furrow.  The  method  is 
only  applicable  to  heavy  retentive  soils.  Light  gravelly  land 
would  allow  the  soluble  matters  to  be  too  readily  washed  out. 
The  advantages  are  that,  when  properly  done,  there  is  less 
loss  of  plant-food,  and  the  texture  of  heavy  soils  is  considerably 
improved. 

The  second  plan  is  most  commonly  pursued,  and  may  be 
subdivided  into  two    methods,  according    as  the  heap  is  made 

2  A 


354  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

under  cover  or  not.  In  the  former  case  the  manure  is  formed 
up  into  a  rectangular  heap,  upon  a  bottom  which  has  been 
previously  covered  by  some  vegetable  refuse  (potato  haulms, 
peat,  etc.),  to  absorb  the  liquid  parts.  The  excess  of  urine  is 
collected  in  large  tanks,  and,  when  the  mass  becomes  too  dry, 
a  quantity  is  poured  over  it.  When  made  in  the  open  air,  a 
suitable  bottom  is  first  selected.  This  should  consist  of  good 
hard  clay,  covered  with  five  or  six  inches  of  vegetable  matters,  as 
before.  Under  a  cover,  a  concrete  bottom  is  perhaps  most 
suitable.  The  heap  is  first  made  with  long  sloping  ends,  so  that 
the  carts  can  drive  over  it.  The  ends  are  then  cut  off  with  a 
dung-knife  and  thrown  up  on  the  heap,  so  as  to  make  it  some- 
what ridge-backed.  Earth  to  a  depth  of  about  six  inches  is  then 
spread  over  the  mass,  to  protect  it  from  the  rain.  The  heap  is 
made  in  the  corner  of  some  field  or  other  vacant  place,  and  the 
carting  from  the  farmyard  goes  on  during  the  frosty  days  of 
winter,  when  no  injury  can  be  done  to  the  land  by  the  treading. 
The  heaps  are  sometimes  turned  in  spring,  about  a  month  before 
being  required  for  use.  The  labourers  begin  at  one  end  and  cast 
the  dung  behind  them,  thus  working  in  a  trench  between  the 
two  heaps.     After  this,  the  mass  rapidly  decomposes. 

Cost  of  Production. — According  to  some  agricultural  writers, 
farmyard  manure  is  an  expensive  substance.  This  view  has  been 
arrived  at  by  charging  hay,  roots,  and  other  food  at  their  full  market 
value,  subtracting  the  value  of  the  beef  or  mutton  produced, 
and  then  charging  the  dung  with  the  balance.  This,  however, 
is  not  the  proper  way  in  which  to  view  the  matter.  If  the  farmer 
has  to  turn  his  crops  into  beef  or  mutton,  then  dung  must  neces- 
sarily be  produced.  If  the  fattening  animal  makes  a  profit,  then 
the  dung  is  obtained  free  of  charge.  But,  besides  fatting  beasts, 
there  are  growing  and  working  stocks,  and  animals  in  calf  or 
milk.  With  these,  the  cost  of  production  would  often  be  difficult 
to  work  out.  In  the  farmer's  view,  however,  the  dung  is  a  waste 
product,  got  for  nothing,  and  therefore  the  cheapest  applicable 
manure.  The  litter  used  is  returned  to  the  land,  and  need  not 
affect  the  consideration. 

Now  as  to  the  amount  of  manure  which  would  be  produced 
yearly.  A  ton  of  uncovered  yard  manure  will  contain  half  its 
weight  of  water,  three-tenths  excreta,  and  two-tenths  litter.  Say 
we  have  twenty  head  of  cattle  in  open  yards  for  six  months 
(during  winter),  we  would  get — 

Tons. 
Animal  excrements  (liquid  and  solid)       ..  ..  ..120 

Litter  (48  lbs.  per  head  daily)  =  3*9  or  nearly  4  tons  each    80 
20  animals  produce     . .         . .   200 


APPLICATION   OF   MANURES.  355 

This  equals  ten  tons  per  head.  In  covered  yards,  only  half 
the  allowance  of  straw  will  be  made,  and  about  eight  tons  of 
manure  will  be  produced.  During  the  summer  months  the 
animals  will  be  out  on  the  pastures,  and  not  contributing  to  the 
dung-heap.  A  bullock,  in  a  box,  produces  from  fourteen  to 
twenty-one  tons  of  manure  yearly.  A  horse  makes  about  twelve 
tons  per  year.  From  experiments  by  Boussingault,  the  daily 
excrements  of  the  cow  amount  to  73*23  lbs.,  of  the  horse  28-11 
lbs.,  of  the  pig  8-32  lbs.,  and  of  the  sheep  378  lbs.  Taking  the 
amount  of  litter  needed  by  each  pig  per  day  as  6  lbs.,  the  amount 
of  manure  per  year  would  be  2*3  tons,  or  from  2  to  2^  tons. 

It  is  an  unfortunate  fact  that  dung  cannot  be  produced  in 
sufficient  quantities  to  satisfy  the  wants  of  all  the  crops.  It  is 
often  stated  that  a  farm  should  manure  itself  once  in  four  years 
at  the  rate  of  about  sixteen  tons  per  acre.  Professor  Wrightson 
says  there  is  scarcely  more  dung  produced  than  would  thoroughly 
manure  one-half  the  total  fallow  breadth,  but  this  is  going  to  an 
extreme.  One  acre  of  straw  is  reckoned  to  produce  about  four 
times  its  weight  ofifresh  manure,  or  two  and  three-quarters  times 
its  weight  of  well-rotted  dung. 

Application  of  Farmyard  Manure. — Seeing  the  limited  amount 
available,  it  is  a  point  of  interest  as  to  which  crop  it  can  be  most 
profitably  applied.  The  general  rule  is  to  give  it  as  a  dressing 
to  the  roots,  with  a  little  to  the  seeds,  provided  there  be  enough. 
Those  parts  of  the  root  crop  some  distance  away  from  the  farm 
steading  will  be  best  manured  by  folding  sheep  on  them.  The 
cost  of  carting  the  roots  home,  and  then  returning  the  dung  to 
the  land,  is  avoided.  The  crop  nearer  home  will  receive  a  full 
dressing,  and  by  this  plan  a  small  amount  will  be  left  over  for 
the  seeds.  This  latter  portion,  applied  in  winter  or  early  spring, 
nearly  always  produces  a  good  crop,  and  an  abundance  of  clover 
will  result  in  an  excellent  wheat  crop. 

Dung  is  applied  at  almost  any  time  during  the  year.  In 
January  and  February,  to  young  seeds;  in  March  to  potatoes 
and  meadows ;  in  April  to  mangels  and  kohl-rabi ;  in  May  and 
June  to  turnips  and  swedes ;  in  July  to  bare  fallows ;  in  July  and 
August  for  wheat ;  in  September  to  vetches,  rye,  and  cabbages, 
etc. ;  in  October,  November,  and  December  to  grass  and  seeds 
for  next  year's  crop.  Among  the  fallow  crops,  swedes,  mangels, 
and  cabbages  get  twenty  to  thirty  tons  per  acre;  white  and 
yellow  turnips  and  potatoes,  fifteen  to  twenty  tons.  Beans,  peas, 
vetches,  rye,  and  seeds  receive  twelve  to  fifteen  tons  per  acre ; 
and  wheat  fifteen  to  twenty  tons.  With  these  amounts  no 
artificials  are  given. 

From  what  has  been  said  before,  fresh   dung  produces  ita 


35<5  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

greatest  effects  on  heavy  land,  while  light  soils  require  it  to  be 
well  rotted.  Hilly  fields  are  more  suitable  for  the  application  of 
artificial  manures. 

The  cost  of  applying  farmyard  manure  to  land  is  usually  the 
only  expense  connected  with  its  use.  The  following  shows  the 
method  of  finding  this  amount  with  regard  to  turnips  : — 

£  s.    d. 
4  horses  and  carts  carrying  dung,  at  3 J.    ..  ..    o    12    o 

2  boys  driving,  zXis.dd.    ..  . .  . .  ..030 

3  men  filling  dung,  2X2.S.  ^d.         . .  ..  ..076 

6  women  spreading  manure  at  is.  ^d.       ..  . .  ^ 2__p 

Cost  per  day  (for  four  acres)         . .  . .  £1    10    o 

Cost  per  acre  ..  ..  ..  ..  ^o     7    6 

Guano  is  formed  of  the  excrement  of  fish-eating  birds,  together 
with  their  remains.  It  is  found  in  dry,  rainless  districts,  chiefly 
along  the  coast,  and  on  the  islands  near  the  coast  of  Peru,  and 
other  places  there,  between  the  thirteenth  and  twenty-first  latitudes. 
To  the  natives  of  those  districts  the  use  of  guano  has  long  been 
known.  Its  name  is  derived  from  the  Peruvian  word  "  huano," 
meaning  dung  or  manure.  It  was  first  imported  into  this  country 
in  1839,  and  the  amounts  brought  over  rapidly  increased  till  about 
1870,  since  which  they  have  gradually  declined.  Guano  is  now 
also  brought  from  many  places  on  the  African  coast. 

Application  of  Guano. — The  soils  to  which  this  valuable 
manure  can  be  best  given  are  those  of  a  clayey  character.  On 
light  lands  there  has  not  been  so  much  success,  chiefly  for  the 
reason  that  they  have  little  retentive  power  for  ammonia.  In 
such  cases  it  would  be  well  to  apply  it  in  a  compost.  Peruvian 
guano  is  also  not  a  suitable  manure  for  calcareous  soils.  It 
appears  that  there  is  some  loss  from  the  volatiHty  of  the  ammonia. 
These  remarks  apply  chiefly  to  the  nitrogenous  guanos.  The 
other  form  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  phosphatic  manure. 

Peruvian  guano  is  an  excellent  dressing  for  the  cereal  crops. 
It  should  be  given  in  spring,  at  the  rate  of  two  to  four  hundred- 
weights per  acre.  Both  kinds  give  good  results  with  turnips  and 
swedes  in  the  north  of  England  and  Scotland.  The  damp 
climate  allows  of  its  more  rapid  and  extensive  action,  and  it  has 
often  been  noticed  that  in  drier  districts  the  benefit  received  is  very 
little.     Four  or  five  hundredweights  per  acre  is  an  ample  dressing. 

On  no  account  should  guano  be  allowed  to  come  in  direct 
contact  with  the  seed,  as  its  caustic  nature  is  apt  to  destroy  the 
vitality.  For  this  reason  guano  should  not  be  drilled  in  with  the 
seed.  In  the  north  it  is  broadcasted  over  the  rows  a  short  time 
after  sowing  the  turnips,  and  with  the  wheat  it  may  be  given  as 
a  top-dressing.     Applied  to  roots,  it  has  usually  been  found  to 


APPLICATION   OF  MANURES.  357 

diminish  the  number  of  plants  per  acre,  but  to  increase  the 
individual  size,  and,  generally,  the  crop  as  well. 

Human  Egesta.— The  objections  to  the  extensive  use  of  this 
manure  are  the  offensive  smell,  and  difficulty  in  carriage.  To 
remedy  the  former,  it  is  mixed  with  earth  or  some  deodorant, 
and  is  then  known  as  night-soil. 

Night-soil. — Various  substances  have  been  used  for  mixing 
with  the  excreta,  among  the  most  common  of  which  is  dry  earth. 
The  proper  rate  of  supply  varies  from  five  to  ten  pounds  per 
individual,  to  be  applied  daily.  The  manurial  value  is  not  very 
high,  and  this,  coupled  with  the  bulk  and  consequent  expense 
of  carriage,  has  prevented  its  extensive  use.  In  China,  Japan, 
and  Belgium,  night-soil  is  still  much  employed.  Instead  of  earth 
(of  which  well-dried  loam  is  best),  powdered  peat  may  be  used. 
It  is  more  absorbent,  and,  on  the  whole,  the  better  preservative. 

Poudrette  is,  or  rather  was,  made  from  night-soil,  etc.  The 
process  seems  to  have  been  first  carried  out  near  Paris.  The 
excreta,  solid  and  liquid,  were  placed  in  large  tanks;  and,  after 
most  of  the  solid  matters  had  settled  to  the  bottom,  the  supe- 
natant  fluid  was  drawn  off  into  a  lower  series.  After  standing 
some  time  here,  the  liquid  was  passed  through  a  bed  of  sand,  and 
then  run  into  the  Seine.  The  solid  matters  obtained  were  fre- 
quently raked  out  of  the  tanks,  and  spread  in  fields  to  dry. 
Usually  a  deodorant,  as  gypsum  or  some  other  calcareous  substance, 
was  mixed  with  it.  The  use  of  the  resulting  compound  is  limited, 
but  it  is  still  made  at  several  places  on  the  Continent,  and  also  in 
America. 

Liquid  Manure. — The  mixed  urine  and  drainings  from  the 
dung-heap  should  be  allowed  to  stand  a  few  weeks  before  appli- 
cation. A  tank  of  rectangular  form  is  most  convenient  for  this 
work.  It  is  built  of  masonry  or  concrete ;  the  bottom  should  not 
be  more  than  four  feet  below  the  drain-pipes.  A  tank  twelve 
feet  square  and  of  this  depth  is  sufficient  for  a  steading  of  three 
hundred  acres.     The  place  is  covered  in  with  an  arched  roof. 

Before  application  to  the  land,  the  urine  will  generally  need 
dilution  with  sometimes  as  much  as  twice  its  bulk  of  water. 
Where  a  large  amount  of  rain  flows  into  the  tank,  this  may  be 
dispensed  with.  When  appUed  to  the  fields  fresh  and  undiluted 
it  is  apt  to  produce  burning  effects,  just  as  guano  does. 

The  soils  most  suitable  for  this  manure  are  light,  open  loams. 
The  application  is  performed  by  the  liquid-manure  cart,  or  by 
irrigation  (see  the  chapter  on  this  subject).  The  best  results  have 
been  obtained  with  grass  crops. 

Sheep  Manure. — As  stated  before,  owing  to  the  flocks  being 
nearly  always  feeding  upon  the  land,  they  contribute  very  little 


358  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

to  the  dung-heap.  Their  manure  receives  the  least  amount  of 
loss,  and  hence  one  of  the  chief  reasons  why  folding  sheep  on 
turnips  gives  such  excellent  results.  The  manure  is  evenly- 
distributed  over  the  fields,  and  well  trodden  in.  The  labour  of 
carting  is  saved,  and  on  light  land  the  folding  has  an  excellent 
consolidating  effect. 

Seaweed  is  applied  to  the  land,  either  in  a  fresh  or  well-rotted 
state.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  usually  made  into  a  compost  with 
other  refuse,  and  often  with  marl  and  shell-sand.  The  mass  is 
turned  once  or  twice,  and  rapidly  decomposes.  There  is  usually 
great  shrinkage  during  storage,  as  a  considerable  proportion  of 
the  water  is  got  rid  of,  and  the  ash  will  then  amount  to  from 
1 8  to  32  per  cent. 

Seaweed  may  be  ploughed  into  the  land  in  autumn,  at  the 
rate  of  twenty  to  thirty  tons  per  acre.  Owing  to  its  cellular  (and 
not  fibrous)  character  it  rapidly  decays.  Clay  lands  are  well 
adapted  for  this  process. 

In  Ireland  and  Scotland,  seaweed  is  chiefly  applied  to  potatoes. 
It  is  ploughed  in  fresh,  and  allowed  to  decompose  before  the 
sets  are  planted.  It  has  been  noticed  that  potatoes  grown  in 
direct  contact  with  the  seaweed  are  more  liable  to  disease  than 
others.  In  any  case  they  are  very  watery,  and  not  of  such  good 
quality  as  those  grown  without  the  dressing,  though  a  larger  crop 
is  obtained. 

As  this  manure  contains  a  fair  percentage  of  potash,  it  answers 
well  for  clover,  when  applied  as  compost. 

Composts  consist  of  collections  of  organic  rubbish  mixed  with 
lime  in  the  proportion  of  about  five  to  one.  Weeds,  potato  haulms, 
leaves  of  root  crops,  peat,  hedge  trimmings,  ditch  and  pond 
dredgings,  road  scrapings,  fallen  animals,  etc.,  are  made  use  of. 
The  composition  is  extremely  variable,  according  to  its  source. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  such  collections  of  waste  materials 
are  good  means  of  preserving  the  fertility  of  the  land.  They  can 
be  made  in  any  spare  place  and  at  any  convenient  time.  They 
should  be  allowed  to  decompose  in  the  heap  for  a  few  months, 
after  which  much  of  the  organic  matter  will  readily  give  up  its 
plant-food.  It  will  be  noticed  that  composts  are  very  similar 
to  farmyard  manure,  and  the  notes  about  the  management  and 
application  of  that  material  are  here  equally  applicable. 

The  disadvantages  of  composts  are  :  (i)  the  expense  of  cart- 
ing, owing  to  the  bulk;  (2)  the  low  composition;  (3)  they  may 
contain  a  great  number  of  weed  seeds,  and  also  serve  as  the  home 
for  insect  and  fungoid  pests.  If  enough  lime  were  used,  a  large 
proportion  of  these  foes  might  be  killed,  and  more  especially  so 
with  gas-lime ;  but  those  still  remaining  may  prove  a  nuisance. 


APPLICATION   OF   MANURES.  359 

Refuse  Cakes.— Owing  to  their  high  price  and  value  as  food, 
most  cakes  cannot  be  used  for  manure,  unless  in  a  mouldy  or 
damaged  condition.  Rape,  mustard,  and  castor  cakes  are  most 
frequently  used  for  this  purpose.  The  two  last  are  of  no  value  as 
foods ;  indeed,  they  may  even  be  dangerous  to  stock.  Powdered 
rape  cake  is  often  used  as  manure — in  experiments  chiefly,  and  not 
so  often  in  the  ordinary  way.  It  has  been  found  to  answer  well 
for  spring  wheat  and  potatoes;  when  given  to  autumn  wheat, 
rape-nuts  give  the  best  results.  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes  speaks  highly  of 
it  as  a  manure  for  grain  crops,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  will 
always  pay  for  application.  The  best  effects  are  obtained  on 
heavy  soils,  rather  than  on  light  lands.  From  5  to  6  cwts.  per 
acre  have  been  recommended  as  a  top-dressing  for  wheat  on 
heavy  soils.  There  is  another  use  to  which  rape  cake  may  be  put. 
Miss  Ormerod  says  that  it  should  be  broadcasted  over  a  gramineous 
crop  when  attacked  by  wire-worm.  It  stimulates  the  plants,  and 
is  also  distasteful  to  the  pest 

The  other  cakes  are  seldom  applied  to  the  land.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  they  contain  large  percentages  of  oil,  and  do  not 
decompose  readily. 

Artificial  Manures. 

Nitrate  of  Soda. — This  has  a  quicker  action  than  other  ordi- 
nary nitrogenous  manures.  This  is  owing  to  it  being  in  a  form  at 
once  available  for  plants,  and,  as  it  is  very  soluble,  it  is  of  great 
use  in  dry  seasons.  It  is  said  that  nitrate  of  soda  has  a  tendency 
to  sink  in  the  soil,  thereby  drawing  after  it  the  roots  of  plants, 
which  may  thus  obtain  moisture  from  the  deeper  layers  of  the  soil. 

Nitrate  of  soda  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  a  mere  stimulant,  or 
"  whip."  The  term  is  one  which  should  never  be  used,  as  it  does 
not  express  the  proper  action  of  the  manure.  It  was  formerly 
thought  that  the  use  of  nitrate  of  soda  soon  exhausted  the  land ; 
but  this  is  generally  incorrect  The  idea  arose  from  there  being 
only  one  important  plant-food  constituent  (nitrogen)  in  the 
manure,  and,  as  crops  would  require  others  proportionately,  these 
remaining  materials  would  be  unduly  called  upon.  There  seems, 
however,  to  be  little  to  fear  on  this  account,  though  it  certainly 
would  not  be  wise  to  annually  apply  nitrate  of  soda  to  the  land 
without  other  manures.  The  extra  yield  in  straw  or  roots  from 
its  use  produces  a  larger  dung-heap.  This  means  a  greater  return 
of  fertilizing  matters  to  the  soil,  not  only  from  the  crop,  but 
also  from  purchased  concentrated  foods  which  have  been  profit- 
ably used  with  the  straw.  It  is  thus  that  the  one-year  effect  of 
this  artificial  is  seen  to  be  of  permanent  benefit 


360  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

When  used  moderately  and  with  other  manures,  nitrate  of 
soda  has  a  very  good  effect.  It  has  a  tendency  to  cause  a 
luxuriance  of  stem  and  leafage ;  hence  it  is  of  much  use  to  forage 
crops.  With  corn  and  roots  this  abundance  of  foliage  is  checked 
by  the  application  of  salt.  It  should  also  be  noted  in  connection 
with  the  effect  upon  cereals,  that  an  increase  of  grain  is  also 
obtained.  The  ear  is  fed  by  the  straw,  therefore  the  better 
developed  the  latter  part  is,  the  greater  will  be  the  produce  of 
seed.  Nitrate  of  soda  causes  an  increased  percentage  of  albumi- 
noids and  soluble  carbohydrates  in  the  crop.  It  also  causes  the 
plants  to  grow  quicker  and  mature  earlier.  Sodium  nitrate  should 
never  be  used  in  quantities  above  4  cwts.  per  acre. 

The  usual  dressing  of  nitrate  of  soda  is  J  to  i-|  cwts.  per 
acre,  generally  broadcasted  over  the  growing  crop.  It  is  given 
to  nearly  all  crops,  but  should  never  be  applied  to  the  land 
before  the  seed  is  sown.     It  suits  clay  soils  best. 

If  the  farmer  supplies  plenty  of  other  manure  with  his  nitrate, 
he  need  be  in  no  fear  of  exhausting  his  land.  On  account  of 
its  quick  action  it  is  the  best  manure  to  apply  late  in  the  season. 
It  is  of  great  use  in  hurrying  turnips  past  an  attack  of  the  "  fly." 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia. — i^  cwts.  per  acre  are  often  used  as  a 
top-dressing  for  corn,  grass,  or  root  crops.  This  manure  is  said 
to  improve  the  malting  qualities  of  barley,  and  to  increase  the 
yield  of  grain  of  all  cereals  without  detriment  to  the  straw. 

Gas-liquor. — By  itself,  gas-liquor  would  destroy  much  vegeta- 
tion, especially  in  dry  weather.  When  diluted  with  four  to  six 
times  its  bulk  of  water,  it  may  be  applied  with  advantage  to  pastures, 
especially  on  clay  soils.  Peat  and  sawdust  may  be  used  to  absorb 
gas-liquor,  and  then  applied  to  the  land  with  bone  meal,  or  made 
into  a  compost.  Gas-liquor  is  said  to  destroy  moss  on  pasture, 
and  to  kill  slugs. 

Dried  Blood  is  a  fairly  good  manure,  and  is  often  applied  with 
great  advantage  to  wheat,  grass,  and  turnips.  The  amount 
applied  per  acre  is  20  to  30  bushels  for  wheat  and  grass  land, 
and  40  to  50  bushels  for  turnips.  Before  application,  the  dried 
blood  is  broken  up  to  a  powder.  It  is  most  beneficial  on  light 
lands. 

Soot  may  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  30  to  60  bushels  per  acre, 
mixed  with  a  few  bushels  of  common  salt  or  lime.  It  is  useful  in 
destroying  slugs. 

Superphosphate  of  Lime  is  given  to  nearly  all  crops,  in 
quantities  of  i  or  2  to  8  cwts.  per  acre.  Root  crops,  especially 
turnips  and  swedes,  are  greatly  benefited  by  the  application. 

Dissolved  Bones. — From  4  to  6  cwts.  are  applied  per  acre 
to  roots  and  grass  land  chiefly. 


APPLICATION   OF  MANURES.  361 

Bone-ash  Superphosphate  should  always  be  in  a  fine  powdery 
condition.  Three  or  four  hundredweights  per  acre  may  be  given 
to  root  crops,  especially  those  on  cold  clays  or  damp  marly  soils. 
This  manure  is  supposed  to  promote  the  early  maturity  of  the  crop. 

Bones  are  said  to  be,  as  a  rule,  better  adapted  for  light  lands 
than  for  heavy  soils,  owing  to  their  partial  solubility.  They  are 
top-dressed  on  pastures,  at  the  rate  of  9  to  14  cwts.  per  acre, 
and  by  some  authorities  are  said  to  have  an  effect  on  the  land 
for  twenty  years  afterwards.  Bones  have  good  effects  on  peaty 
soils,  but  should  not  be  used  on  land  containing  an  excess  of 
lime. 

Basic  Slag  is  derived  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of 
steel  by  the  Bessemer  process.  The  molten  iron  is  mixed  with 
about  one-fifth  of  its  weight  of  lime.  The  Bessemer  converter 
also  has  a  lining  of  lime.  The  various  impurities  combine  with 
the  lime,  and  the  product  forms  the  basic  slag.  Before  being  used, 
the  slag  should  be  ground  up  to  an  impalpable  powder,  as  its 
degree  of  solubiHty  depends  largely  upon  the  fineness  of  its 
particles.  Eighty-five  per  cent,  of  it  should  be  able  to  pass 
through  a  screen  with  10,000  holes  per  square  inch. 

Basic  cinder  succeeds  well  on  peaty  soils  and  on  heavy  lands. 
On  light  soils  it  is  said  to  have  not  such  a  good  effect  as  super- 
phosphates. Five  or  ten  hundredweights  per  acre  may  be  given 
to  pastures,  on  which  it  succeeds  better  than  on  arable  land.  When 
applied  to  roots,  it  should  be  broadcasted  over  the  land  a  few 
weeks  before  sowing  the  seed,  in  order  that  it  may  get  dissolved. 

Kainit  acts  best  on  dry  light  soils,  and  should  be  given  in 
conjunction  with  nitrogenous  and  phosphatic  materials,  never 
alone.  Three  hundredweights  per  acre  is  a  sufficient  application ; 
too  much  of  a  potassic  dressing  is  said  to  have  an  injurious  effect 
on  vegetation.  It  should  be  sown  early.  Many  authorities  recom- 
mend that  it  be  given  in  autumn,  especially  on  limestone  soils. 
It  appears  that  sulphuric  acid  is  liberated,  and  this  combines  with 
the  lime.  If  apphed  with  the  seed,  according  to  these  ideas,  the 
crop  might  be  injured  by  the  reaction. 

Sulphate  of  potash  is  an  excellent  manure  for  leguminous 
crops,  though  rather  expensive.     i-|  cwts.  maybe  given  per  acre. 

Polyhallite,  though  not  often  used,  is  said  to  give  better 
results  with  potatoes  than  kainit 

Muriate  of  Potash,  being  very  concentrated,  needs  only  to  be 
apphed  at  the  rate  of  ^  to  i  cwt.  per  acre.  Jamieson  and 
Munro  have  shown  in  some  cases,  as  when  a  large  excess  is 
added,  that  potassium  chloride  may  act  as  a  plant-poison. 

Wood  ashes  are,  in  Canada,  applied  at  the  rate  of  40  bushels 
per  acre  to  potatoes.     On  pastures  they  tend  to  destroy  moss. 


362  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Wood-ashes  have  a  good  effect  on  young  corn,  and,  when  mixed 
with  guano  or  bone-meal,  they  are  of  great  use  for  turnips. 

Carbonate  of  Lime  is  of  use  to  nearly  all  plants,  but  especially 
to  peas,  beans,  sainfoin,  lucerne,  and  pasture  grasses  and  clovers. 
Barley  is  also  much  benefited  by  it.  The  carbonate  is  of  greater 
use  on  light  soils  than  on  heavy.  Lime  is  not  usually  applied  to 
land  every  year,  but  once  every  rotation  or  alternate  rotation,  or 
even  once  in  nineteen  years.  The  amount  given  to  the  land 
equals  about  8  or  lo  bushels  per  acre  per  year,  put  on  the  lea  or 
fallow.  It  is  best  to  apply  a  fair  amount  of  quicklime  to  the 
land  first,  and  then  to  give  small  dressings  ot  carbonate  of  lime  as 
occasion  requires.  Lime  has  a  tendency  to  sink  in  the  soil,  hence 
large  dressings  are  not  of  much  value. 

Gas-lime  must  be  applied  in  autumn.  It  is  not  a  very  useful 
manure,  and  can  be  bought  at  about  2S.  per  ton. 

Common  Salt  may  be  given  to  mangels  at  the  rate  of  4  or  5 
cwts.  per  acre.  It  may  be  given  either  as  a  top-dressing,  or  mixed 
with  farmyard  manure  or  compost.  Near  the  sea-coast  the  land 
generally  contains  enough  salt,  brought  by  the  sea-winds.  When 
in  too  large  amounts,  sodium  chloride  causes  barrenness ;  but 
some  plants  may  have  a  decidedly  saline  taste  and  yet  flourish. 
One  per  cent,  of  salt  in  the  soil  will  prevent  many  seeds  from 
germinating  healthily. 

Sodium  Carbonate  has  proved  beneficial  to  clover  and  grass- 
lands in  the  form  of  a  top-dressing.  It  may  be  mixed  with  an 
equal  amount  of  guano  or  bone-dust ;  the  compound,  at  the  rate 
of  3  cwts.  per  acre,  is  useful  for  potatoes  and  turnips. 

Sodium  Sulphate  is  said  to  be  good  for  cereals  and  leguminous 
crops  when  given  in  conjunction  with  other  fertilizers.  It  suc- 
ceeds best  on  light  land,  and  is  used  at  the  rate  of  i-|  to  2  cwts. 
per  acre.  It  is  employed  only  in  experiments,  like  most  of  the 
sodium,  iron,  and  magnesium  salts. 

General  Application  of  Manures. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  rule  "  Little  and  often  "  pays  best 
with  manures.  With  heavy  dressings,  much  more  of  the  ingre- 
dients will  be  washed  out  of  the  soil.  The  same,  applied  fre- 
quently in  less  amounts,  just  provides  for  the  wants  of  the  plants 
for  the  time  being,  and  hence  the  crop  gets  the  maximum  benefit 
from  fractional  dressings.  At  Rothamsted,  it  was  found  that  with 
heavy  and  light  dressings  of  nitrate  of  soda  to  a  cereal  crop,  47 
and  60  per  cent,  respectively  of  the  nitrogen  was  recovered  in 
the  yield. 

Manures  are  applied  before,  with,  or  after  the  seed.     Insoluble 


APPLICATION  OF  MANURES.  363 

compounds,  as  farmyard  manure  and  most  general  manures, 
bones,  etc.,  may  be  applied  in  autumn.  Others,  as  basic  slag, 
which  are  not  so  insoluble,  may  be  given  a  few  weeks  before  seed- 
ing. Superphosphate  and  the  majority  of  artificials  are  put  in 
with  the  seed,  being  either  drilled  with  it  or  broadcasted  over  the 
land  about  the  same  day.  Only  very  soluble  manures  must  be 
used  for  the  top-dressing.  Nitrate  of  soda  is  especially  adapted 
for  this  purpose.  They  can  be  well  applied  by  the  Strawsonizer 
(see  the  chapter  on  "  Agricultural  Engineering  ").  The  water-drill 
is  also  useful. 

Manuring  depends  somewhat  on  the  season.  When  wet, 
ammonium  sulphate  is  to  be  used  in  preference  to  nitrate  of  soda, 
being  less  easily  washed  out  by  the  rain. 

The  manures  for  the  various  crops  will  be  found  among  the 
other  details  of  their  cultivation. 


3^4  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

DRAINAGE. 

Drainage  is  one  of  the  first  operations  usually  carried  out  in 
improving  land.  Unless  a  soil  be  well  drained  it  is  of  little  use 
applying  manures,  folding  stock  upon  it,  or  trying  to  do  anything 
which  would  otherwise  be  of  great  benefit.  The  good  effect  is 
completely  neutralized  by  the  water-logged  soil  Should  the  land, 
however,  be  well  drained  naturally,  as,  for  instance,  on  some  light 
porous  soils  with  considerable  slope,  artificial  drainage  need  not 
be  carried  out. 

Drainage  allows  the  soil  to  be  employed  to  the  greatest  advan- 
tage ,  and  in  these  days  of  keen  agricultural  competition,  when 
farmers  have  to  be  content  with  small  profits,  it  helps  them  greatly 
to  have  a  soil  on  which  it  will  pay  to  go  in  for  ''high-farming." 

The  Theory  of  Drainage  is  not  so  much  to  get  water  out  of 
the  land,  as  to  get  it  in, — to  get  rid  of  stagnant  water  so  that  a 
fresh  supply  can  take  its  place.  The  object  is  to  keep  a  soil  moist 
rather  than  to  get  it  very  dry  or  very  wet.  On  a  drained  soil  the 
rain  which  falls  soon  passes  down  into  the  drains  and  thence 
escapes.  On  an  undrained  field  the  water  gradually  accumulates, 
not  being  able  to  escape,  and  thus  prevents  any  falling  rain  getting 
away.  The  soil  consequently  becomes  water-logged,  and  vegeta- 
tion, to,  a  certain  extent,  is  injured. 

Causes  of  excessive  wetness. — Rain  is  the  primary  cause  of 
wetness  in  land,  and  when  it  proceeds  entirely  and  directly  from 
it,  the  land  is  said  to  be  "  surface- wet."  Many  clay  soils  are  more 
or  less  injured  in  this  way.  The  texture  of  the  land  is  so  fine  that 
the  water  is  scarcely  able  to  percolate  through  it,  and  consequently 
collects  in  a  pool  on  the  surface.  The  taking  off  of  such  water  is 
called  "  surface  drainage ; "  when  it  works  its  way  into  the  soil, 
and  is  then  carried  away  by  artificial  means,  the  process  is 
termed  "  under  drainage." 


DRAINAGE. 


365 


On  light  free  soils  the  rain  can  easily  find  its  way  into  the 
deeper  strata,  and  in  this  manner  wetness  may  be  produced 
under  the  following  conditions.  The  water  on  passing  down  may 
meet  with  some  impervious  strata,  as  a  bed  of  limestone  or  clay, 
and,  as  a  consequence,  would  begin  to  rise  and  swamp  the  land. 


Fig.  39. 

The  figure  illustrates  the  above  statement:  D  is  a  free  soil 
resting  upon  an  impervious  bed,  B.  The  water  rises  in  it  until  it 
reaches  AA,  at  which  layer  it  will  spread  over  the  surface  of  the 
land,  forming  a  pond,  C. 

Another  case  in  which  a  soil  may  be  wet  owing  to  impervious 
beds,  is  seen  in  the  next  figure.  The  light  soil,  BB,  rests  between 
two  strata  of  clay,  A  and  CC,  but  is  exposed  toward  S,  where  it 


Fig.  40. 

forms  the  summit  of  a  hill.  Rain  falling  there  will  quickly  pass 
down  between  the  two  impervious  strata,  and  will  then  rise  again 
until  it  reaches  the  level  E,  at  the  end  of  the  stratum  A.  It  will 
then  issue  forth  as  a  spring  from  S,  and,  by  flowing  over  the  land 
A,  will  produce  a  swampy  piece  of  ground.  Should  a  drain  be 
dug  at  D,  on  Elkington's  principles,  the  level  of  the  water  will  be 
reduced  to  F.  When  water  rises  from  below,  as  in  the  above  case, 
it  is  called  "  diffluent." 


366 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


In  the  next  case,  the  water-bearing  strata  B  comes  to  the 
surface  at  D,  and  thus  the  land  is  wet  as  before.  In  draining  this 
land,  a  drain  at  E  would  be  too  high,  while  one  at  G  is  too  low. 


Fig.  41. 


The  one  at  F,  however,  would  penetrate  the  stratum  B,  and  carry 
off  the  water. 

It  will  be  seen  that  soils  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  as 
regards  drainage — 

(i)  Free  soils,  as  loams,  sands,  peats,  and  vegetable  loams. 

(2)  Impervious  soils,  as  clays  and  beds  of  rock. 

If  the  first  class  require  drainage,  it  is  because  they  are  wet 
from  position  (through  water  passing  into  them  from  other  levels), 
or  there  may  be  some  retentive  substratum  below  them  at  a  greater 
or  lesser  depth.  They  do  not  offer  much  opposition  to  the  passage 
of  water  through  them,  and  hence  they  often  convey  water 
for  considerable  distances  along  their  course  if  there  be  no 
impervious  bed  in  the  way.  Free  soils  are  said  to  be  wet  from 
bottom  to  top ;  that  is,  the  water  descends  until  it  meets  some 
hard  stratum,  which  stops  its  course.  With  more  rain,  it  rises 
and  begins  to  wet  the  soil. 

The  second  class  of  soils  offer  considerable  resistance  to  the 
passage  of  water.  The  water  collects  on  the  surface  and  passes 
gradually  downwards ;  hence  such  soils  are  said  to  be  wet  from 
top  to  bottom. 

We  have  now  seen  how  water  gets  into  the  soil,  and  also  that 
its  primary  source  is  the  rain.  The  rainfall  of  different  parts  of 
England  varies  very  much,  but,  as  a  rule,  it  is  greater  in  the  west 
than  in  the  east.  The  reason  for  this  is  easily  seen.  The  eastern 
winds  blow  across  the  dry  plains  of  Central  Europe,  and  conse- 
quently are  not  able  to  take  up  much  moisture.  The  winds  from 
the  west,  however,  pass  over  the  large  expanse  of  water,  and 
hence  are  very  moist,  and,  through  blowing  over  the  Gulf  Stream, 


DRAINAGE. 


367 


are  also  of  a  warm  nature.  The  eastern  rainfall  averages  about 
twenty-five  inches,  the  western  thirty-six  inches. 

Height  of  Water  in  the  Soil.— Water,  even  in  undrained 
soils,  does  not  always  stand  at  the  surface.  The  limit  at  which 
water  stands  in  the  soil  is  called  the  water-table.  Above  this  the 
soil  is  wet  only  from  capillarity,  below  this  the  soil  is  constantly 
water-logged,  and  is  called  the  "reservoir,"  or  "area  of  super- 
saturation." 

In  A  the  soil  is  completely  water-logged.  In  the  section  B, 
the  land  is  wet  at  the  surface  by  capillarity.     In  C,  the  water-table, 


Fig.  4a. 


T,  has  been  much  lowered  by  drains,  and  there  is  a  dry  "  blanket," 
S,  at  the  surface  which  allows  the  roots  of  plants  to  spread  through 
it  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  roots  will  not  live  in  the 
water-logged  part,  and  hence  decay  when  they  reach  the  water- 
table. 

Advantages  of  Moving  over  Stagnant  Water  in  the  Soil.-- 
In  order  that  a  field  may  be  kept  up  to  a  proper  state  of  fertility 
during  cropping,  fresh  plant-food  must  be  made  available 
in  the  soil.  Although  water  is  more  or  less  a  solvent,  yet  by 
simply  standing  in  the  soil,  it  does  not  exert  its  influence  to  any 
extent.  It  does  not  move  about,  and  it  is  greatly  to  the  rapidity 
of  its  motion  when  in  the  form  of  streams  that  its  dissolving 
powers  are  chiefly  due.  Again,  air  finds  great  difficulty  in 
getting  into  a  water-logged  soil,  owing  to  the  spaces  between  the 
particles  being  already  filled.  When  the  water  passes  out  of  a  soil 
after  drainage,  air  must  follow  or  else  a  vacuum  would  be  formed. 
The  action  of  air  on  the  soil  is  well  known.  It  oxidizes  various 
substances,  rendering  them  more  or  less  soluble,  and  thus  of  use 
as  plant-food.  The  soil  is  also  more  friable,  and  thus  more  easily 
tilled. 

One  very  important  advantage  of  drained  lands  is,  that  rain 


368  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

can  easily  pass  in,  and  the  value  of  this  will  be  seen  when  it  is 
remembered  that  certain  amounts  of  plant-food  are  thus  obtained. 
At  Rothamsted  it  has  been  found  that  4*4  lbs.  of  nitrogen  per 
acre  are  thus  obtained  on  an  average  yearly.  The  amount  is 
made  up  of  2-4  lbs.  nitrogen  as  ammonia,  i  lb.  as  nitrates  and 
nitrites,  and  i  lb.  as  organic  nitrogen.  Near  the  sea,  chlorine  is 
found  in  fairly  large  quantities,  and  even  at  Rothamsted,  in  Herts, 
chlorine  equal  to  24!-  lbs.  of  common  salt  per  acre  per  year  is 
obtained,  while  at  Cirencester  45  lbs.  are  estimated.  This 
amount  would  be  found  sufficient,  except  for  a  few  crops,  such  as 
mangels,  which  originally  were  maritime  plants.  Sulphur,  equal 
to  i8-|  lbs.  sulphuric  anhydride  (SO3),  is  also  obtained  per  acre, 
besides  small  quantities  of  other  gases.  During  a  thunderstorm, 
the  electricity  is  said  to  cause  the  union  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen 
to  form  small  amounts  of  nitric  anhydride  (NgOg).  The  rain, 
which  usually  falls  then,  brings  this  valuable  substance  down  to 
the  earth,  where  it  would  combine  with  a  base  to  form  a  nitrate. 
The  various  gases,  thus  contained  by  the  rain,  will  pass  into  the 
drained  soil,  and  there  form  useful  plant-food.  On  undrained 
land,  the  soil  is  already  full  of  water,  and  hence  little  or  no  rain, 
with  these  valuable  matters  in  solution,  passes  in  ;  the  larger  part 
flows  off  the  surface,  and  is  lost. 

General  Advantages  of  Drainage. — (i)  The  temperature  of 
the  soil  is  raised.  In  a  small  way  this  is  effected  by  the  rain  passing 
through  the  soil,  especially  during  thunderstorms,  when  it  is  often 
several  degrees  higher  in  temperature  than  the  land.  On  un- 
drained land  much  of  the  heat  of  summer  is  employed  in  evapo- 
rating the  surplus  water,  and  does  not  warm  the  soil  to  any  extent 
until  this  is  done.  But  the  sun  is  at  a  great  disadvantage  in  evapo- 
rating the  water,  for  it  can  only  pour  its  rays  down  on  the  surface. 
Hence  convection  alone  takes  place,  and  this  is  a  very  slow 
process.  Should,  however,  a  cold  wind  blow  across  the  field  the 
land  is  quickly  chilled  (by  conduction).  The  top  layers  of  water 
are  reduced  in  temperature,  and  sink,  while  others  take  their 
place.  By  this  it  will  be  seen  that  water-logged  soils  are  easily 
chilled  by  cold  winds,  but  not  warmed  readily  by  the  sun. 

(2)  Improvement  of  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil; 
especially  with  clays.  The  air,  after  oxidation,  causes  the  soil  to 
be  much  more  friable,  and  thus  easily  tilled. 

(3)  The  air  promotes  the  more  rapid  decomposition  of  organic 
matter  in  the  soil ;  the  products  of  this  oxidation  and  decay  are 
better  suited  as  food  for  plants.  During  decomposition,  various 
gases,  especially  carbonic  acid  gas,  are  often  given  off,  and  these 
again  are  of  use  in  forming  more  or  less  available  plant-food  with 
mineral  substances.     With  imperfect  oxidation,  as  in  undrained 


DRAINAGE.  369 

land,  sour  organic  acids  and  other  bodies,  injurious  to  vegetation, 
are  formed. 

(4)  The  land  is  much  drier,  and  hence  all  plants,  except 
those  of  an  aquatic  nature,  are  able  to  grow  in  a  more  natural 
state. 

(5)  Fogs  and  mists,  caused  by  the  accumulation  of  moisture 
in  the  air,  are  less  frequent,  and  consequently  the  crops  get  more 
light,  which  is  essential  to  their  growth. 

(6)  The  land  can  be  better  cultivated,  nothing  injuring  heavy 
soils  so  much  as  to  work  them  when  wet.  On  this  account  the 
plants  can  be  sown  earUer,  and  on  a  better  seed-bed. 

(7.)  Drainage  prevents  efflorescences  on  the  surface.  The 
efflorescences  are  caused  by  the  evaporation  of  aqueous  solutions 
of  salts  at  the  surface  of  the  soil.  On  drained  land  the  descend- 
ing rain  washes  them  down  into  the  soil  again. 

Practical  Advantages  of  Drainage. — The  advantages  pre- 
viously described  have  been  partly  theoretical,  but  drainage  is 
of  great  practical  use,  as  every  farmer  knows.  The  following  are 
the  chief  advantages  which  an  agriculturalist  would  receive  after 
draining  his  land. 

1.  An  earlier  harvest.  We  have  already  seen  how  land  is 
raised  in  temperature  by  drainage.  It  is  well  known  that  with  a 
lower  mean  temperature  through  summer,  the  grain  takes  much 
longer  time  to  come  to  maturity.  One  of  the  causes  of  this  delay 
on  undrained  land  is  that  the  plant  has  to  take  up  its  mineral  food 
in  very  dilute  solution,  and  a  considerable  amount  of  heat  is  used 
up  in  evaporating  this  surplus  water.  A  difference  of  ten  days 
has  often  been  noticed  between  the  ripening  of  wheat  on  drained 
and  undrained  land,  and  this  is  of  great  importance  in  some  parts, 
such  as  the  North  of  England,  where  stormy  wintry  weather  begins 
early. 

2.  Larger  crops.  This  is  accomplished  in  various  ways,  (a) 
Plant-food  is  carried  into  the  soil  by  the  rain,  as  already  seen. 
(d)  On  account  of  the  air  being  able  to  penetrate  drained  soils, 
insoluble  substances  are  acted  upon  by  the  gases  it  contains,  and 
to  a  certain  extent  rendered  soluble,  (c)  The  roots  of  the  crops 
are  better  developed  and  are  more  able  to  search  for  their  food, 
owing  to  their  greater  strength  and  numbers ;  the  soil  is  also  more 
friable  and  easy  to  penetrate,  (d)  Injurious  substances  often 
exist  in  undrained  soils,  and  these  prevent  growth  ;  when  the  land 
is  drained  they  are  oxidized  and  rendered  harmless,  (e)  Autumn- 
sown  crops  are  often  much  injured  on  undrained  land  by  frosts, 
owing  to  the  more  sodden  state  of  the  ground.  It  has  been 
calculated  that  25  per  cent,  more  corn  and  70  per  cent,  more 
grass  have  been  obtained  on  draining  a  poor  soil. 

9  B 


370  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

3.  Better  quality  of  produce.  A  healthy  crop  can  scarcely 
be  expected  to  grow  upon  an  unwholesome  soil,  and  it  is  on 
undrained  land  that  such  diseases  as  blights,  mildews,  rusts,  and 
other  fungoid  pests  are  most  common.  The  plants  are  also 
weakened  by  the  water-logged  state  of  the  soil,  and  hence  they 
easily  fall  a  prey  to  the  attack.  Pt.  I.  chap,  iv.,  E,  describes  the 
most  common  fungoid  diseases. 

4.  A  greater  variety  of  crops  can  be  grown.  On  undrained 
land,  no  wmter  cultivation  can  be  attempted  to  any  extent,  and 
hence  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  get  in  a  catch  crop.  The  land 
has  often  to  lie  idle,  and  renew  itself  by  a  bare  fallow.  After 
drainage  this  may  be  greatly  done  away  with,  and  some  fallow 
crop,  as  turnips,  swedes,  cabbages,  and  mangels  are  grown  instead. 
Barley,  clover,  and  many  other  crops  can  be  cultivated  with 
greater  certainty;  and  forage  crops,  as  vetches,  will  now  be 
grown. 

5.  A  large  number  of  the  seeds  sown  will  germinate,  and  thus 
a  thicker  braid  is  obtained.  The  three  essential  conditions  of 
successful  germination  are  heat,  air,  and  moisture.  The  last  an 
undrained  soil  may  give,  but  heat  and  air  are  scarcely  obtained 
in  proper  amounts. 

6.  Good  natural  grasses  spring  up  in  the  pastures.  Before 
drainage,  only  the  coarser  kinds  of  grass  grow,  and  these  over- 
power any  finer  varieties  that  may  be  springing  up.  Drainage 
deprives  them  of  the  large  amount  of  water  which  is  essential 
to  their  growth,  and  favours  the  finer  kind.  Rushes,  sedges, 
and  other  aquatic  herbage  are  got  rid  of. 

7.  Drained  land  suffers  less  from  drought,  as  the  plants  will 
have  their  roots  better  developed  and  much  deeper  than  on 
undrained  soils.  They  can  thus  obtain  water  from  the  lower 
layers  of  the  soil. 

8.  There  are  fewer  injurious  insects,  as  these  love  places  with 
coarse  rank  herbage.  The  crane  fly  ("  Daddy  Longlegs  ")  is  one 
of  the  many  that  will  disappear. 

9.  Tillage  is  rendered  easier  and  less  expensive.  Dry  land 
is  always  easier  to  work  than  wet ;  the  moisture  causes  the  par- 
ticles of  soil  to  hold  together  more,  and  thus  prevents  the  onward 
progress  of  the  plough  or  other  tillage  implement.  Again,  clays 
must  never  be  worked  when  wet,  or  they  will  form  into  hard 
clods  on  drying.  Drainage  (i)  lessens  the  time  required  to  till 
the  land,  and  (2)  increases  the  number  of  working  days.  In 
consequence  of  this,  fewer  horses  and  men  will  be  needed; 
and  there  will  be  no  great  strain  upon  the  working  staff  in  fine 
weather. 

10.  Manures  are  more    effective.      Upon  undrained  lands 


DRAINAGE.  37 1 

manures  have  little  or  no  effect.  They  do  not  allow  the  manure 
to  get  well  into  the  land ;  it  remains  about  the  surface,  and  the 
next  shower  washes  more  or  less  of  it  away.  It  does  not  matter 
much  how  the  manure  is  applied,  whether  as  artificial  dressings, 
farmyard  dung,  Hme,  or  as  foods  fed  off  to  the  cattle  or  sheep  on 
the  land. 

1 1.  Nitrification  is  promoted.  Before  this  important  opera- 
tion can  take  place,  heat  is  needed  by  the  bacteria,  and  also 
moisture,  but  not  an  excess  of  water.  The  temperature  of  wet 
lands  is,  however,  generally  too  low  for  the  operation ;  and  the 
excess  of  water,  with  the  absence  of  oxygen,  causes  free  ammonia 
instead  of  nitric  acid  to  form,  if  the  operation  does  go  on.  The 
ammonia  in  its  uncombined  state  is  useless  to  the  plant,  and  is 
generally  lost. 

12.  Health  of  live  stock  grazing  on  the  land  is  improved. 
Foot-rot,  attacking  sheep,  is  chiefly  caused  by  damp  land  growing 
rank  herbage  and  having  a  soft  turf  The  Distoma  hepaiictim, 
or  "liver  fluke,"  can  only  pass  through  one  necessary  part  of 
its  existence  in  a  certain  snail  {LvnncBus  truncatuhis)^  Hving  either 
in  fresh  water  or  in  swampy  parts  caused  by  fresh  water.  Among 
calves,  the  nematoid  worm  (Strongylus  filaria),  causing  "husk" 
or  "hoose,"  frequents  low,  marshy,  and  undrained  land.  Red- 
water  and  black-quarter,  affecting  cattle,  are  chiefly  found  on  cold 
wet  land. 

Again,  stock  thrive  much  better  and  lay  on  flesh  much  faster 
on  a  warm  dry  soil  than  on  cold  wet  land.  Cattle,  after  filling 
themselves,  would,  in  the  former  case,  lay  down  and  chew  their 
cud  contentedly ;  the  result  would  be  more  milk  and  flesh.  On 
the  second  class  of  soils  the  cattle  may  often  be  seen  standing 
shivering,  and  losing,  rather  than  gaining,  flesh. 

13.  Should  the  drainage  be  on  an  extensive  scale,  the  health 
of  the  rural  population  is  improved.  Agues  and  rheumatisms 
especially  begin  to  disappear,  and  the  benefit  of  this  will  be  felt 
by  the  farmer  in  his  improved  health.  The  temperature  of  the 
district  would  be  raised  a  few  degrees  with  plenty  of  drainage. 

Signs  of  Wetness  in  Soils. — A  soil  will  show  unmistakable 
signs  when  suffering  from  wetness,  of  which  the  following  are  the 
chief : — 

(i)  Snow  lies  longer  on  cold  wet  soils  than  on  the  warmer 
and  drier  drained  fields. 

(2)  The  newly-turned  furrow  has  a  glazed  appearance. 

(3)  Pools  of  water  often  collect  on  the  surface. 

(4)  Cracks  appear  in  the  soil  during  dry  weather,  owing  to  the 
great  contraction  from  a  water-logged  state  to  a  dry,  baked  con- 
dition. 


372  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

(5)  A  curling  of  corn  in  the  leaf. 

(6)  A  wiry  appearance  of  the  grass,  which  also  has  a  bleached 
look,  and  does  not  attain  the  bright  green  colour  of  healthy- 
grass. 

(7)  The  formation  of  a  mossy  substance  on  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

(8)  A  spindling  growth  in  grain  crops,  with  a  lightness  of 
colour. 

(9)  Stunted  and  blighted  straw  at  harvest. 

(10)  The  appearance  of  rushes  {/uncus),  sedges  (Carex\  and 
a  certain  aquatic  flora. 

The  following  grasses  indicate  wetness,  and  are  often  removed 
by  drainage,  to  the  great  benefit  of  the  pasture : — 

Black  bent  {Alopecurus  agrestis),  floating  foxtail  {A.  genicu- 
latus),  marsh  bent  {Agrostis  vulgaris  alba),  tussac  grass  {Aira 
c(Bspitosd),  quaking  grass  (Briza  media),  water  whorl  grass  {Catal- 
rosa  aquaticd),  purple  melic  grass  (Molinia  ccerulea),  reed  canary 
grass  {Fhalaris  arundinacea),^03.\mg  meadow  grass  {Poa  fluitans). 
Sweet  floating  grass  {Glyceria  fluitans)  also  often  grows  on  wet 
land.  Among  other  plants  there  are  sedge  or  "  carnation  grass  " 
(Carex),  rushes  (/uncus),  spotted-leaved  orchis  {Orchis  maculata)^ 
marsh  orchis  {Orchis  lattfolia),  docks  {Rumex),  marsh  thistle 
{Carduus  palustris),  horse  knot  {Centaur ea  nigra),  silver-weed 
{Potentilla  anserina),  self-heal  {Prunella  vulgaris),  meadow  crow- 
foot {Ranunculus  acris),  marsh  cud- weed  {Gnaphalium  uliginosum). 

Should  these  signs  be  observed,  it  will  be  the  duty  of  the 
farmer  to  drain  the  land. 


Systems  of  Drainage. 

These  are  primarily  divided  into  Surface  Drainage  and  Under 
Drainage. 

Surface,  or  Arterial,  Drainage.— Surface  drainage  undertakes 
the  removal  of  water  from  the  surface  of  the  land  by  means  of 
open  channels  of  greater  or  less  depth.  It  consists  chiefly  in  the 
improvement  of  natural  watercourses.  The  channels  ordinarily 
consist  of  the  open  furrow  left  by  the  plough  between  the  ridges, 
with  another  furrow  crossing  these  at  the  bottom  of  the  field,  and 
thus  taking  all  the  surface  water  away.  Small  "sheep"  drains, 
fifteen  inches  deep  and  eighteen  inches  wide,  are  often  made  on 
upland  pastures  for  carrying  ofl"  water. 

Arterial  drainage  is  never  of  great  importance  on  any 
soils,  but  is  of  greatest  use  on  clays  and  such-like  impervious 
beds  as   are  surface-wet.     Where   under-drainage  is  performed, 


DRAINAGE.  373 

it  is  not   needed,  but  on  wet   clays  open  ditches  are  almost  a 
necessity. 

One  great  objection  to  surface  ditches  is  that  they  allow 
valuable  ingredients  to  be  washed  away  and  lost.  Thus,  on  an 
undrained  field,  should  any  manure  be  applied,  it  is  readily  washed 
off  the  surface  by  the  next  shower  of  rain,  without  even  enter- 
ing the  soil. 

Ditches  require  to  be  cleaned  out  yearly,  and  their  edges  to 
be  sloped  again,  as  earth  often  falls  into  them.  With  small 
streams  constantly  running  through  arable  fields,  it  is  well  to  have 
a  narrow  ridge  of  grass  on  the  edge,  lest  earth  should  be  drawn 
in  during  cultivation. 

Under-drainage. — This  is  the  chief  kind,  and  the  only  one 
advisable  to  use.  In  it  the  means  of  conveying  away  the  water 
are  covered  in,  and  thus  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  not  in  any  way 
interfered  with.  There  are  several  methods  of  under-drainage,  of 
which  the  following  are  the  most  important : — 

Essex  System. — In  this  system  a  trench,  two  feet  deep,  is  dug, 
and  then  some  open  material,  such  as  thorns,  faggots,  straw,  or 
brushwood,  is  placed  at  the  bottom,  and  the  earth  is  pressed  in 
upon  it.  The  passages  between  the  materials  at  the  bottom  of 
the  drain  allows  the  water  plenty  of  room  to  run  away,  and  as 
they  soon  decay,  a  fair-sized  hollow  will  be  formed.  The  lines  of 
drains  are  run  parallel  to  each  other  in  every  furrow  or  alternate 
furrow. 

The  object  of  this  system  is  to  take  off  surface  water;  it 
consequently  is  best  on  clays.  It  is  not  commonly  practised  now, 
owing  to  its  not  freeing  the  soil  entirely  from  water. 

ElkingtorCs  System,  —  This  system  is  chiefly  applicable  to  clay 
soils  below  which  lies  a  water-bearing  strata.  In  such  cases  as 
these,  a  simple  trench  would  scarcely  be  of  any  use,  as,  unless  the 
free  soil  is  near  the  surface,  it  will  not  be  penetrated.  Hence 
Elkington  dug  sinkholes  into  the  water-bearing  strata  :  the  water 
thus  found  an  outlet,  and  was  conveyed  away  by  trenches.  In 
Fig.  40  the  land  is  drained  on  Elkington's  principles.  The 
trench  at  D  by  itself  does  not  enter  the  stratum  BB,  which  is 
the  source  of  the  water.  The  sinkhole  from  the  bottom  of  this 
trench,  however,  taps  this,  and  speedily  reduces  the  water-table  from 
E  to  F.  In  this  system  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  drains  should 
be  parallel,  or  that  they  be  distributed  over  the  land.  It  should  be 
endeavoured  to  cut  the  drain  across  the  lowest  part  of  the  water- 
bearing strata,  and  thus  get  the  water  away  at  the  point  of  least 
resistance.  The  trenches  carrying  away  the  water  need  not  be 
deeper  than  3^  feet. 

The  next  figure  represents  the  drainage  on  Elkington's  system 


374 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


of  a  pocket  of  clay.  H  represents  the  bed  of  clay  surrounded 
by  the  gravelly  water-bearing  strata  F.  It  can  be  drained  in  two 
ways  :  (i)  by  having  a  drain  in  the  position  C,  the  pipe  from 
which  reaches  to  the  bottom  of  the  "  pocket ;  "  (2)  by  cutting  the 
drains  A  and  B  at  the  sides.     The  second  plan  would  reduce  the 

^€-'^ 


Fig.  43. 

water-table  quite  as  much  as  C  would  do,  and,  not  having 
such  a  thickness  of  clay  to  cut  through,  would  scarcely  cost  as 
much. 

Elkington's  system  only  attempts  the  removal  of  spring  water, 
and  does  not  deal  with  the  direct  rainfall.  It  also  requires  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  skill  and  practice,  in  order  that  the  drains 
may  be  laid  with  the  greatest  advantage. 

Smith  of  Deanstonis  System. — This  is  the  commonest  system 
of  drainage,  and  is  applicable  to  nearly  all  soils.  It  consists  of  a 
parallel  series  of  drains,  leading  into  a  main  drain,  which  opens 
into  a  river  or  some  other  convenient  place.  The  main  drain 
runs  along  the  lower  part  of  the  field,  and  receives  the  water  from 
the  submains  and  laterals.  The  submains  ascend  the  smaller 
hollows.     Where  these  are  wide  enough,  there  may  be  two  sub- 


3-t- 


FiG.  44. 


Fig.  45' 


mains,  one  along  the  base  of  each  of  the  bordering  slopes.  The 
laterals  are  the  smaller  drains.  Both  submain  and  the  lateral 
should  enter  into  the  larger  drain  at  an  acute  angle  of  less  than 
60°,  and  alternately.  By  this  means  there  is  no  stagnation^  of 
water  at  the  entrance  of  a  drain,  for  the  incoming  water  is  moving 
partly  in  the  direction  of  the  main  drain,  and  not  going  against  it. 


DRAINAGE.  375 

Consequently  there  is  no  deposition  of  silt,  or  fine  mud.  Some- 
times, when  the  laterals  are  coming  down  a  slope,  they  approach 
the  submain  almost  at  a  right  angle.  The  joining  must,  however, 
be  effected  at  an  acute  angle,  and  hence  use  is  made  of  a  joining- 
tile,  as  shown  in  Fig.  45. 

The  Practice  of  Drainage. 

We  shall  now  consider  the  construction  of  drains.  Enough 
has  been  said  about  Elkington's  system,  consequently  Smith's 
system  only  shall  occupy  our  attention. 

Direction  of  Drains. — In  order  that  the  water  may  be  rapidly 
taken  away,  the  main  drain  should  occupy  the  lower  part  of  the 
field,  and  have  its  outlet  at  the  lowest  point.  Submains  may  in 
many  cases  be  dispensed  with,  but  where  the  land  is  very  uneven 
they  are  necessary.  The  little  valleys  through  which  they  run 
often  have  collected  the  water  from  the  ridges  for  long  periods  of 
time,  and  hence  they  to  a  great  extent  get  rid  of  water  from  the 
small  hills.  The  lateral  drains  should  run  down  the  greatest  slope 
and  not  diagonally  across  it,  unless  the  inclination  be  very  steep. 
Oblique  drains,  however,  only  drain  the  land  on  their  upper 
side,  while  the  straight  drains  not  only  take  in  water  from  both 
sides,  but  also  drain  the  land  deeper.  This  is  owing  to  water 
lying  at  a  greater  depth  than  the  drain  coming  into  them  from 
a  higher  point,  while  percolating  through  the  soil.  Again,  when 
water  is  flowing  slowly  along  the  oblique  drains,  it  is  apt  to 


'r 


Fig.  46. 


pass  out  at  the  joints  on  the  lower  side,  and  thus  be  a  cause 
of  wetness  to  the  land  farther  down  the  slope. 

There  may  often  be  seen  in  some  fields  dark  wet  lines,  show- 
ing that  water  must  be  oozing  out  there  from  some  thin  water- 
bearing strata,  AAA,  lying  between  impervious  beds  B  C  D  E. 
A  trench  dug  in  an  oblique  manner  at  F  would  do  no  good, 
while  the  one  at  G  would  only  cut  through  the  water-bearing 


376  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

strata  at  one  place.  Should,  however,  a  drain  be  dug  along  the 
surface  from  F  to  H,  it  will  cut  through  the  three  porous  strata 
AAA,  and  would  convey  away  all  the  water. 

Should  there  be  any  old  ridges  in  the  land,  which  may  have 
determined  the  course  of  the  water  for  many  years,  it  is  not 
advisable  to  cut  through  them. 

Inclination  of  the  Drains. — We  have  already  said  that  it  is 
necessary  to  run  a  small  drain  into  a  larger  one  at  an  acute  angle. 
An  angle  of  45°  is  said  to  give  about  the  best  results. 

Drains  always  require  a  slight  slope  from  beginning  to  outlet. 
Theoretically,  the  least  possible  deviation  from  a  horizontal  line 
would  cause  a  flow  of  water,  but  in  practice  the  friction  between 
it  and  its  passage  retards  the  progress  considerably.  A  fall  of  at 
least  one  in  220  is  needed,  but  clays,  owing  to  their  resistance  to 
the  passage  of  water  and  air  through  them,  will  require  three  or 
four  times  that  inclination.  Drains  filled  in  with  stones  or  brush- 
wood will  require  a  greater  slope  than  those  with  tiles. 

Should  the  slope  of  the  drains  be  too  great,  as  it  might  easily 
be  in  coming  down  a  hill,  there  is  some  danger  of  the  water  dis- 
placing the  tiles,  and,  by  flowing  out  at  the  joints,  tearing  up  the 
soil.  Collared  tiles  would  to  a  great  extent  prevent  this,  but 
where  it  is  likely  to  occur  the  drains  should  be  laid  in  an  oblique 
manner  across  the  slope. 

Width  apart  and  Depth  of  Drains. — This  subject  will  be  dis- 
cussed later  on.  The  side  drains  are  from  twelve  to  twenty-four 
feet  apart  and  three  feet  deep  in  clay  soils ;  on  light  land  they 
may  be  twenty  to  forty  feet  apart  and  four  or  five  feet  deep. 

Tools  used  in  Drainage.— (i)  An  ordinary  spade.  Used  in 
marking  out  the  drains  and  taking  off  the  top  sod. 

(2)  Mattock.     Used  to  loosen  the  soil. 

(3)  Draining  spade.  Blade  is  about  twenty  inches  long, 
five  inches  wide  at  top,  and  three  inches  at  bottom.  Used 
for  taking  out  the  lower  part  of  the  trench,  and  owing  to  the 
shape  of  the  blade  is  well  suited  for  cutting  out  just  enough  for 
the  tile. 

(4)  Shovel.     To  clear  away  earth. 

(5)  Footpick.     To  cut  and  loosen  the  soil. 

(6)  Drawing  scoop.     To  draw  mud  out  of  the  drain. 

(7)  Pushing  scoop.     To  push  mud  out  of  the  drain. 

(8)  Tile  hook.     To  string  tiles  on. 

The  above  are  nearly  always  used,  but  besides  them  there 
may  be  a  levelling  instrument  to  ascertain  the  best  lines  along 
which  to  take  drains,  and  a  boring-rod,  used  chiefly  in  Elkington's 
system,  to  ascertain  the  depth  of  the  water-table. 

Materials    used    for   conveying   away   the  Water. — Many 


DRAINAGE. 


377 


substances  have  been  used  for  this  purpose,  but  pipes  are  the  most 
common,  and  much  the  best.  In  the  Essex  system,  brushwood, 
straw,  faggots,  etc.,  are  used,  but  they  are  liable  to  decay,  and 
although  they  may  do  for  a  time,  yet  the  earth  soon  falls  in  and 
fills  up  the  hole  left  Stones,  broken  to  such  a  size  as  to  pass 
through  a  2^  or  3-inch  ring,  are  sometimes  used.  Even  Smith 
of  Deanstone  recommended  them  in  preference  to  pipes  and 
tiles.  Larger  stones  are  sometimes  used,  set  up  in  triangular  or 
square  form,  and  thus  leaving  a  passage  for  the  water.  The 
following  diagrams  show  various  methods  of  using  them  : — 


Fig.  47- 

In  making  a  stone  drain  a  much  larger  excavation  is  needed 
than  with  pipes.  Again,  if  the  stones  have  to  be  carted  any  dis- 
tance, their  bulk  and  weight  make  the  carriage  expensive.  They 
do  not  allow  the  water  to  flow  freely,  favour  the  deposition  of  silt, 
and  are  liable  to  get  out  of  place. 

In  draining  peaty  soils,  the  peat  has  been  used  at  first,  cut  into 
proper  form  by  a  special  tool.  This  is  only  temporary,  but  as 
peat,  on  being  freed  from  water,  has  a  tendency  to  sink,  it  is  very 
useful.     Pipes  should  be  put  in  some  time  afterwards. 

Many  kinds  of  pipes  are  used ;  the  forms  of  some  are  shown 
in  the  figures.  Brick  clay  is  about  the  best  substance  to  make 
them  of.  It  is  worked  and  otherwise  prepared  in  a  "pug- 
mill,"  and  then  forced  through  a  specially  shaped  orifice,  the 
centre  of  which  is  occupied  by  a  core  equal  in  size  to  the  hollow 
part  of  the  pipe.  The  pipes  are  then  cut  into  proper  lengths 
by  the  machine,  and  taken  to  the  kilns,  there  dried,  and  after- 
wards burned.  The  pipes  are  cut  into  lengths  of  about  fifteen 
inches,  but  shrink  an  inch  or  two  on  heating.  All  pipes  must  be 
made  of  well-tempered,  well-ground  clay ;  not  too  much  sand  in 
composition;  free  from  gravel  and  nodules  of  lime;  well-burnt; 
straight,  smooth,  and  free  from  ragged  edges.  They  should  give 
out  a  clear  musical  note  when  gently  struck  together. 


378 


ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 


In  Fig.  48,  I  represents  an  oval  pipe  with  feet ;  a  section  is 
also  shown.  These  are  a  very  good  kind,  requiring  little  water 
to  flush,  and  thus  deposits  of  mud  in  them  are  not  very  common. 
They  are,  however,  not  easy  to  lay,  and  readily  fall  over ;  hence 
they  are  not  so  much  used. 

Number  2  represents  a  cylindrical  pipe ;  A  is  a  section  of  an 
ordinary  round  kind,  B  of  one  with  feet.     This  kind  of  pipe  is 


Fig.  48. 

strong,  fairly  light,  easily  flushed,  and  quickly  carries  away  water ; 
hence  large  pipes  are  scarcely  needed  in  the  lateral  drains.  The 
feet  add  much  to  its  stability  in  the  drain.  Sometimes  the 
pipes  have  collars,  by  which  means  they  fit  one  into  another. 
Except  where  they  are  very  liable  to  displacement,  as  in  peat- 
mosses, the  extra  expense  is  not  met  by  any  corresponding 
advantage. 

Horse-shoe  tiles  were  about  the  first  used  in  drainage,  but  are 
rarely  employed  now.  They  consisted  primarily  of  a  horse-shoe- 
shaped  tile  without  a  bottom.  This  form  was  soon  found  to  be 
nearly  useless,  as  it  gradually  sank  into  the  soft  soil.  Then 
bottoms  were  made  to  them.  B  represents  a  section  of  a  horse- 
shoe tile,  placed  upon  a  separate  flat  tile ;  C  has  a  bottom  to  the 


•A  »£i  cQ 


FlG.  49. 

tile,  and  forms  a  rude  pipe.  The  horse-shoe  tiles  favoured 
the  slow  progress  of  water,  and  hence  were  often  filled  up 
with  silt. 

Size  of  Pipes  required.— Mr.  Parkes,  once  the  engineer  of 
the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  calculated  that  drains  24  feet 
apart  and  4  feet  deep,  and  with  pipes  of  one-inch  bore,  carried  off 
in  a  reasonable^  time  a  greater  rainfall  than  commonly  falls  in 
England.  One-inch  bore  pipes  are,  however,  seldom  used  now,  as 
they  are  thought  in  practice  to  be  insuflicient  for  clearing  a  field 


DRAINAGE.  379 

rapidly  of  the  rain.  Two-inch  bore  pipes  are  commonly  employed 
for  the  lateral  drains,  and  three-  to  six-inch  bore  pipes  for  the 
main  drains.  The  following  formula  has  been  given  for  calculating 
the  size  of  main  drain-pipes  from  the  laterals — 

M  =  Dx  ^N  .  M  =  main  drain.     D  =  diameter  of  a  lateral. 
N  =  number  of  laterals. 

The  capacity  of  pipes  varies  as  the  square  of  their  radii. 

Commencing  Drainage. — It  is  best  to  start  with  the  draining  of 
a  field  soon  after  harvest,  as  then  agricultural  labourers  are  often 
out  of  work,  and  the  ground  is  in  a  soft  mellow  condition. 

A  good  outlet  should  be  first  fixed  upon.  Should  the  stream 
into  which  the  main  drain  opens  be  of  a  winding  nature,  it  is 
generally  the  best  plan  to  straighten  its  course  first,  thus  saving 
land  by  the  operation.  The  lines  which  the  drains  are  to  take 
should  then  be  laid  out,  and  marked  by  removing  the  turf  along 
the  course. 

Cutting  Drains. — The  upper  six  inches  or  so  of  the  soil  may 
be  taken  out  with  a  draining-spade.  By  means  of  an  ordinary 
plough  the  first  six  inches  can  be  taken  out  with  little  trouble, 
and  thus  much  work  is  saved.  It  is  usual  to  commence  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  main  drain,  and  open  that  out  before  anything 
else  is  attempted.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  narrower  the 
trenches  are  in  width  the  better,  so  long  as  there  is  room  to  get  in 
the  tile.  From  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  is  about  the  proper  width 
at  the  top,  lessening  down  to  about  nine  or  ten  inches  at  a  depth 
of  three  feet.  It  is  often  common  to  then  take  a  piece  out  of 
about  nine  inches  deep  with  the  draining-spade  and  scoops.  This 
leaves  a  width  at  the  bottom  into  which  the  pipe  will  just  fit.  On 
stony  land  the  pick  has  often  to  be  used,  and,  as  a  consequence, 
slightly  wider  drains  are  needed,  as  the  operator  will  have  to 
stand  in  them.  All  small  boulders  should  be  removed  in  order 
to  get  a  straight  line,  but  when  large  ones  are  met  they  will 
cost  too  much  to  take  out,  and  consequently  the  drains  should  be 
laid  in  a  gentle  curve  around  them.  Sometimes,  when  very 
deep  mains  have  to  be  cut,  their  sides  have  a  tendency  to  fall 
in.  This  should  be  prevented  by  means  of  wooden  planks  and 
props. 

When  finished,  the  trenches  should  be  examined  to  see  that 
they  have  a  regular  slope  at  the  bottom.  In  badly  cut  trenches 
the  bottoms  correspond  to  the  surface,  and  where  there  is  a 
depression  in  the  land  the  line  of  the  drain  is  lowered.  When  this 
is  the  case  the  water  in  the  pipes  will  have  to  flow  over  hills  and 
hollows,  but,  as  it  cannot  do  this  unless  under  great  pressure,  it 


38o 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


collects  in  the  hollows,  and  causes  a  swampy  condition  of  the 
ground. 

Laying  the  Pipes. — The  pipes  should  be  deposited  at  con- 
venient places  about  the  field  before  commencing.  They  should 
all  be  examined  to  see  that  none  are  faulty ;  bad  ones  should 
at  once  be  rejected.  The  laying  should  commence  at  the  lowest 
part  of  the  drain  and  work  upwards,  taking  care  to  cover  in  the 
pipes  laid  every  day,  and  not  to  finish  laying  the  whole  field 
before  commencing  fiUing  in  the  trenches.  The  pipes  should 
have  a  perfectly  smooth  bed,  and  ought  to  fit  closely  against  each 
other.  The  last  pipe  of  each  drain  ought  to  be  plugged  up  with 
hay  or  straw  to  keep  out  all  silt.  Fine,  sandy  soil  should  never 
be  packed  next  to  the  pipes,  as  it  readily  passes  into  and  chokes 
them  up.  When  pressing  in  the  soil  it  is  often  of  great  use 
to  run  a  pole  through  the  last-laid  pipes,  so  as  to  keep  them 
steady. 

Main  Drains  require  to  be  dug  about  three  inches  lower  than 
the  rest,  in  order  to  get  the  water  to  run  freely  into  them.  When 
a  large  submain  runs  into  the  main  drain,  it  is  advisable  to  have  a 
silt-basin  to  collect  all  mud.    A  diagram  of  one  is  shown  here.    It 


Fig.  50. 


should  be  in  the  form  of  a  small  rectangular  chamber,  built  of 
stone,  and  so  marked  that  it  may  be  easily  found  and  cleaned 
out.  It  is  best  to  have  them  provided  with  a  "  man-hole,"  closed 
by  a  flag  and  ring. 

Outlets. — As  few  outlets  as  possible  should  be  made,  as  each 
is  a  source  of  weakness.  There  should,  however,  be  enough 
to  secure  the  rapid  discharge  of  all  water.  An  outfall  should 
always  be  faced  with  stone,  so  as  to  protect  it.  The  last  pipe 
ought  to  be  of  considerable  length,  say  three  feet,  and  made  of 
glazed  earthenware  or  cast  iron.  By  this  it  is  protected  from  the 
frost.     At  the  outer  end  there  may  be  a  hanging  iron  flap  to 


DRAINAGE.  38 1 

prevent  the  influx  of  tidal  or  flood  water,  while  eighteen  inches 
or  two  feet  further  up  is  a  hinged  grating  to  prevent  the 
entrance  of  vermin  into  the  drain.  The  outer  covering  is  not 
always  needed,  but  the  second  is  generally  required.  The  water 
from  the  drain  should  fall  on  a  large  slab  of  stone,  extending  both 
in  front  and  behind  for  some  distance.  By  this  means,  under- 
mining is  prevented.  A  fall  of  at  least  one  foot  on  to  the  slab 
is  necessary,  and  from  there  to  the  river,  if  any  distance  away, 
a  uniform  slope  of  about  i  in  150,  if  possible,  should  be  obtained. 
When  the  main  drain  is  about  the  same  height  as  the  river, 
it  is  often  advisable  to  carry  it  some  distance  along  the  river- 
side before  coming  to  a  final  outlet.  By  this  means  the  water 
readily  falls  into  the  stream. 

Draining  Springs. — Should  there  be  any  springs  in  the  land, 
it  is  advisable  to  take  them  off  by  a  separate  system  of  drains,  and 
at  a  few  inches  greater  depth.  Elkington's  system  is  brought  into 
practice  in  these  cases.  In  draining  springy  soils  that  are  always 
wet,  it  is  best  to  dig  only  a  portion  of  the  depth  at  one  time,  to 
repeat  the  process  at  intervals,  and  to  complete  the  work  in  the 
dry  weather  of  the  autumn. 

Draining  Marshes  and  Bogs.— In  drainipg  these  low-lying 
lands  there  is  often  great  difficulty  in  getting  away  the  water  into 
the  main  drain.  It  is  consequently  frequently  necessary  to 
cut  large  open  ditches,  and  drain  into  these.  As  peat  is  often 
shrinking,  the  lines  of  drains  may  get  displaced,  and  hence  it  is 
best  to  dig  down  to  some  bed  of  clay  or  sand  at  the  bottom,  and 
lay  the  pipes  in  these — that  is,  if  the  bed  is  not  above  six  feet  from 
the  surface.  Pipes  with  collars  would  be  least  liable  to  be  dis- 
placed, and  hence  they  should  be  used.  It  should  be  endeavoured, 
when  this  cannot  be  done,  to  carry  off  the  stationary  water  by 
some  temporary  drainage  before  laying  pipes.  It  is  often  advisable 
to  make  a  bed  of  clay  on  which  to  lay  the  pipes  at  the  bottom  of 
the  trench,  and  to  cover  in  with  clay.  This  to  a  great  extent 
keeps  the  fine  silt  out  of  the  drains.  Should  a  river  be  within 
a  reasonable  distance,  it  has  sometimes  been  found  to  pay  to 
drive  a  subterranean  passage  through  the  ground  to  it — that  is,  if 
enough  inclination  can  thus  be  got  to  run  away  the  water. 

Air-drains. — Upright  shafts  are  sometimes  made  to  reach  the 
surface  from  the  drains,  so  that  air  can  easily  pass  along  the 
drains.  By  the  pressure  of  the  air  the  water  is  forced  along 
the  drain  more  readily,  and  the  soil  also  receives  benefit  from  the 
thorough  oxidation.  The  soil  thus  becomes  completely  pulverized, 
and  a  gradual  crumbling  of  both  soil  and  subsoil  occurs.  From 
its  friable  nature,  the  land  would  now  be  much  more  easily  tilled. 
Theoretically  the  air-drains  would  be  a  great  benefit,  but  there  are 


382 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


several  practical  disadvantages.  There  would  be  the  cost  of  con- 
struction, for  an  ordinary  hole  cut  through  the  soil  would  allow 
much  dirt  to  drop  into  the  pipe,  and  its  sides  would  soon  fall  in ; 
hence  it  would  be  unsuitable.  If  on  arable  land,  it  would  slightly 
interfere  with  the  cultivation,  and,  unless  well  protected  by  a  close 
grating  on  pastures,  injuries  to  stock  might  occur. 

Plans. — After  draining  every  field  it  should  be  surveyed,  and  a 
plan  made,  on  which  are  marked  especially  the  lines  of  drains, 
the  silt-basins,  and  outlets.  By  means  of  this,  any  of  these  places 
can  be  found  when  required,  and  hence  needless  waste  of  time  in 
searching  for  them  is  avoided.  Silt-basins  and  open  ditches  will 
require  to  be  cleaned  out  thoroughly  at  least  once  every  year,  and, 
being  marked  on  the  plan,  their  position  will  always  be  known. 


Cost  of  Drainage  per  Acre. 

Labour  of  cutting  and  filling  drains  at  6c/.  per  rod,  depth  3  feet    3  13 
Pipe-laying  and  finishing  at  i^.  per  rod  ..  ..  ..         ..012 

Cost  of  3-inch  pipes  for  side  drains,  2420  at  35^.  per  1000  . .         ..44 

Extra  price  for  main  drain         . .         . .  . .  06 

Carriage  of  pipes,  say  two  miles,  at  3^.  6d.  per  1000  . .         . .     o  10 

Superintendence  of  foreman       ..  02 

Outlet  pipes  and  fixings 01 

Plan  . .         • .         00 

£9    9 


Cost  of  Drainage  per  Acre  at  Different  Widths, 
Depth  Three  Feet  (Scott). 


18  ft. 
apart. 

21  ft. 
apart. 

24  ft. 
apart. 

27  ft. 
apart. 

30  ft. 
apart. 

33  ft. 
apart. 

Cutting  and  filling  at  7^,  per 
rod       

Pipes,  14  in.  long  and  2  in. 
diameter,  at  25^.  per  1000  . . 

Allowance  for  mains  and  out- 
lets        

Pipe-laying  at  id.  per  rod     . . 

Cartage 

Superintendence 

£   s.  d. 

4     5     2 

2    II    io| 

036 
0     9     li 
043 
049 

£   s.  d. 

3  12  II 

2     4     5i 

039 
0     7  10 
040 
046 

£   s.   d 
342 

I   18  loi 

040 
0    6  loi 
036 
043 

£s.  d. 
2  16    7 
I  14    61 

0    6    o| 

033 

040 

£  s.  d. 
2  II    4 
I  II    I 

046 

056 
030 
039 

£  s.   d. 

2    6    6 

1    8    3* 

049 
050 
029 
036 

Total 

7  18     8i 

6  17     5* 

6    I    8 

5    8     8i^   4  19    2 

4  10    9h 

DRAINAGE. 


383 


Estimate  of  Land  Drainage  per  Acre  (from  the  "North 
British  Agricultural  Almanack"). 


Description  of  Soil. 

Is 
il 

II 

hi 

1% 

III 

Cost  of  Cutting 

and  Filling 

Trenches 

per  Rod. 

Total  Cost. 

Heavy  Soils — 

Compact,  tenacious  clay 
Stiff,  adhesive  clay 
Friable  clay 
Free,  soft  clay     . . 

Feet. 

15 
16 
18 
21 

Feet. 

2-6 
2-6 
2-9 
2-9 

176 
160 

147 
126 

Per  Acre. 

2905 
2640 
2420 
2076 

£,     s.    d. 

005 
0    0    4f 
0    0    4i 
004 

£,    s.    d. 

806 
7    2    6 
678 
5    4    3 

Medium  Soils — 
Clayey  loam 
Marly      „ 
Gravelly  loam     . . 
Friable      ,, 

22 
24 
27 
30 

3-0 
3'o 
3-3 
3'3 

120 

no 

1980 
1814 
1613 

1452 

005 
0    0    4J 
007 
006 

5    9    5 

4  15    8 

5  5    6 
4    7    61 

Light  Soils— 

Light  gravelly  loam 

Light  marly  loam 

Sandy  loam 

Soft  light  loam    . . 

Sandy  soil 

Light  gravelly  sand 

Deep  gravelly  sand 

P 

39 
42 

45 
49 
55 

3-6 
3-9 
4-0 
4-0 
4-0 
4-3 
4*4 

80 
76 

68 
63 
59 

^8^ 

1320 
1209 
III7 

1037 

792 

0    0    8»- 

008 

007^ 

007 

007 

0     0  lO 

009 

4  16    3 

4    S    7 
332 
3    7  loj 
3    3    7^ 
3  12  10 
2  19    9 

Fowler's  Draining-plough.— This  consists  of  a  low  platform 
running  on  wheels  or  rollers  very  near  the  ground.  It  carries  a 
strong  coulter,  to  the  lower  part  of  which  is  fixed  a  small  pointed 
iron  bar.  Attached  to  this,  by  a  hook,  is  a  long  wire  rope,  upon 
which  the  pipes  are  strung.  The  implement  works  at  any  depth 
up  to  three  and  a  half  feet,  and  is  moved  by  steam  power.  In 
commencing  work,  a  short  trench  is  dug  three  and  a  half  feet  deep, 
and  then  the  coulter,  with  tiles  behind,  is  placed  in  position  in 
this.  The  rope  is  drawn  along  the  line  of  the  drain  and  then 
pulled  out,  when  the  pipes  are  left  in  position.  Another  similar 
start  is  then  made. 

The  objection  is,  that  the  friction  on  pulling  the  pipes  through 
the  land  is  very  liable  to  break  them. 

The  Mole  Plough. — It  consists  of  a  wrought-iron  framework 
working  on  or  near  the  ground,  and  provided  with  a  strong  sharp 
coulter,  about  two  feet  long  and  six  inches  broad.  At  the  lower 
extremity  of  the  coulter  is  a  sharp  wedge-shaped  sock,  to  which 


384 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


is  connected,  by  a  couple  of  links,  the  oval-shaped  iron  "  mole." 
This  is  about  twelve  or  fifteen  inches  long,  three  or  three  and  a 
half  inches  wide  at  the  base.  The  work  of  mole-drainage  should 
be  carried  out  in  the  wet  winter  weather,  as  then  the  land  is  softer. 
A  hole  is  dug  for  the  plough  to  start  from,  and  it  is  then  pulled 
up  and  down  the  field  by  an  engine.  The  depth  of  the  drain  is 
about  two  and  a  half  feet ;  it  consists  of  a  slit,  at  the  bottom  of 
which  is  a  cylindrical  hole,  three  or  three  and  a  half  inches  in 
diameter.  In  order  to  prevent  earth  falling  into  the  drain  the  slit 
should  be  covered  over  at  the  surface  with  a  furrow  slice.  The 
drains  are  about  a  rod  apart.  At  the  lowest  part  of  the  field  is  a 
main  drain,  at  the  bottom  of  which  is  a  line  of  pipes  or  some 
brushwood.  Small  pipes  lead  off  alternately  for  a  short  distance 
into  the  mole-drain,  and  thus  the  two  are  connected. 

Mole  drainage  is  not  permanent,  lasting  only  from  ten  to 
twenty  years ;  hence  it  may  be  a  tenant's  work,  but  rarely  that  of 
the  landlord.  It  is  cheap,  the  cost  being  from  JP^\  to  £,^  per  acre. 
Mole  drainage  is  efficient  for  the  time  mentioned,  and  keeps  the 
land  as  dry  as  required.  It  can  be  performed  on  permanent 
pastures  with  little  injury,  and  hence  is  a  useful  operation  there. 
The  openings  are,  however,  liable  to  collapse  in  time,  and  the 
various  small  animals  frequenting  pastures,  etc.,  such  as  the  mole, 
often  destroy  the  track.  Stiff  clays  are  best  suited  for  mole- 
ploughing,  as  the  opening  will  remain  in  them  for  the  longest  time. 

Wedge-and-shoulder  Drains. — While  treating  the  subject  of 
drainage  without  the  introduction  of  any  foreign  material  into  the 


Fig.  si. 

soil,  we  might  as  well  notice  this  system,  which  is  not  commonly 
met  with  now.  A  trench  is  cut,  and  then  a  surface  sod,  A,  is  cut 
and  pressed  in,  grass  downwards.  The  sod  is  of  such  size  that 
it  cannot  reach  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  and  consequently  a 
hollow  space  is  left,  which  allows  the  water  to  run  away  for  some 


DRAINAGE.  385 

time.  The  operation  is  very  temporary ;  as  a  rule  the  hollow  is 
filled  up.  Wedge-and-shoulder  draining  would  not  be  of  much 
service  on  arable  land,  as  the  plough  would  gradually  destroy 
the  drain. 

Plug  Drains. — These  resemble  the  wedge-and-shoulder  drains 
greatly.  A  trench  is  cut  with  good  smooth  sides,  and  then 
a  string  of  wooden  blocks,  fastened  well  together,  is  laid  along 
the  bottom.  The  blocks  are  of  any  desired  shape,  so  as  to  get 
a  certain  form  of  drain.  The  earth  is  next  returned  to  the  drain 
and  beaten  in  well,  the  block  being  gradually  moved  forward  by 
means  of  a  chain  and  lever.  When  finished,  there  is  a  hollow  at 
the  bottom  of  the  trench  corresponding  to  the  form  of  the  blocks. 
Plug  drains  last  longer  than  ordinary  wedge-and-shoulder  drains, 
but  the  objection  to  them  is,  that  the  earth  being  tightly  pressed 
in,  prevents  the  water  entering  the  drain. 

After  Management  of  Drains. — If  the  drainage  has  been  on 
pasture  land  it  should  be  endeavoured  to  return  the  sods  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  their  original  position,  and,  a  short  time  after, 
a  heavy  rolling  should  be  given. 

Silt-basins  will  often  require  to  be  cleaned  out ;  and  the  out- 
lets should  be  attended  to  so  as  to  prevent  their  being  blocked  up 
in  any  way.  Sometimes  a  pipe  may  be  choked  with  dirt  falling  in 
through  some  improperly  connected  joint.  This  would  prevent 
the  flow  of  water,  and  would  cause  a  dark  damp  appearance  of 
the  vegetation.  When  this  is  seen,  the  cause  should  be  searched 
for  and  removed.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  open  into  the 
drain  and  take  the  material  away.  Flushing  the  drains  with  water 
will  often  remove  bodies  blocking  up  the  pipes. 

In  order  to  assist  drainage  on  stiff  clays,  deep  cultivation  is 
needed,  and,  for  this  purpose,  subsoil  ploughing,  performed  a  year 
or  two  after  drainage,  answers  very  well.  The  soil  is  opened  up, 
and  water  more  easily  percolates  through  it. 

Old  Drains. — After  a  long  time,  drains  sometimes  get  out  of 
place  through  some  subsidence  of  the  ground.  If  not  attended 
to,  the  injury  slowly  increases,  and  at  last  an  extremely  damp 
state  of  ground  is  produced.  The  higher  part  of  the  drain  will 
still  convey  water,  but  only  to  the  place  where  the  dislocation  has 
occurred.  Sometimes,  in  very  old- drained  land,  the  drains  have 
got  thoroughly  out  of  place,  and  a  fresh  drainage  is  needed.  In 
this  case  the  old  pipes  must  be  all  dug  up  before  starting. 

Reciprocal  Action  of  Drains. — By  this  is  meant  the  assistance 
which  neighbouring  parallel  drains  give  to  each  other. 

The  diagram  on  next  page  represents  a  section  of  a  stiff  clay  soil 
in  which  drains  are  first  placed  at  the  distance  EE'.  Owing  to  the 
texture  of  the  clay  they  will  have  but  a  limited  influence,  and  this 

2  c 


386  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

is  represented  by  the  dotted  lines  EA,  E'B.  These  lines,  it  will 
be  observed,  do  not  meet,  and  hence  the  space  between  A  and  B 
is  left  almost  as  wet  as  before.  Now  let  drain  F  be  introduced 
about  midway  between  other  two.  The  influence  of  this  drain 
will  be  felt  from  H  to  G,  and  AB  is  properly  drained.  But  the 
distances  HA  and  BG  on  either  side  are  now  drained  by  E  and 
F,  and  E'  and  F  respectively,  and  hence  the  united  effects  exert 
great  influence  on  it.  The  soil  will  be  dried  quickly,  and,  by  the 
alternate  rapid  wetting  and  drying,  it  becomes  completely  pul- 
verized. In  this  new  condition  it  much  more  readily  allows 
water  to  percolate  through  it  and  run  off  by  the  drains,  and  also 

c     H 

\ 


Fig.  52. 

the  influence  of  each  drain  becomes  felt  over  a  greater  surface. 
The  soil,  otherwise  untouched  by  the  drains,  becomes  affected  by 
the  pulverization  of  the  rest,  and  to  a  certain  extent  becomes 
freed  from  water.  The  points  M  and  N,  at  which  water  formerly 
stood  in  the  soil,  are  lowered,  and  thus  the  depth  of  soil  available 
for  plants  is  considerably  increased. 

The  character  of  the  soil  to  a  great  extent  limits  the  benefit 
derived  from  *' reciprocal  action."  A  gravelly  soil,  even  when 
drained,  is  not  very  much  altered  in  texture.  It  was  always  a 
light  open  soil,  almost  drained  as  well  naturally  as  it  would  be 
artificially,  unless  there  was  some  impervious  sublayer,  retarding 
the  progress  of  the  water.  In  such  a  soil  as  this,  a  single  drain 
assists  very  greatly  in  carrying  off  the  surplus  water  of  a  field,  and 
a  well-arranged  system  has  been  known  to  completely  drain  land 
quarter  of  a  mile  away.  In  a  stiff  clay,  a  single  drain  would  be 
of  no  use  whatever.  It  might  take  away  a  little  water,  but  enough 
would  soak  through  to  prevent  it  doing  any  good.  But  in  a 
proper  series  of  parallel  drains  one  assists  another,  and  thus, 
through  the  reciprocal  action,  the  friction,  which  before  prevented 
the  water  from  passmg  freely  through  the  close-set  particles,  is 
overcome. 

The  Depth  of  Drains. — This  is  a  most  important  subject  in 
drainage,  for  upon  it  much  of  the  success  of  drainage  depends. 


DRAINAGE.  387 

The  chief  point  affecting  the  depth  of  drains  is  the  character 
of  the  soil.  A  clay  soil  has  its  particles  closely  set  together,  and 
retards  the  downward  passage  of  water  greatly.  It  is  wet  from 
top  to  bottom,  and  in  such  soils  the  drains  will  need  to  be  near 
the  surface,  and  close  together.  By  this  means  the  reciprocal 
action  is  fully  secured.  On  light  soils  it  is  best  to  have  deep 
drains.  Such  soils  are  wet  from  bottom  to  top,  and  hence  a 
deeper  drain  would  not  onLy  run  off  more  water,  but  would 
sooner  begin  to  flow.  To  explain  this,  take  a  hollow  cylinder 
with  one  end  closed,  and  bore  a  couple  of  holes  in  the  side,  one 
a  few  inches  below  the  other.  Now  pour  water  into  the  cylinder ; 
of  course  the  lower  hole  allows  the  water  to  escape,  while  the  top 
one  has  little  or  no  effect.  The  action  in  the  light  soil  of  deep 
and  shallow  drains  is  similar.  In  a  stiff  clay,  water  comes  into 
the  drain  chiefly  from  above,  but  in  the  ordinary  class,  from  below ; 
hence  deep  drains  are,  as  a  rule,  the  best.  Above  the  water-table 
it  will  have  been  noticed  that  there  is  a  certain  depth  of  land  wet 
from  capillarity,  and,  on  account  of  this,  it  has  been  recommended 
to  dig  deep  drains  in  clays  as  well  as  in  light  land.  The  tenacity 
of  the  clay  would,  however,  prevent  the  water  from  running  freely 
into  drains  laid  at  too  great  depth. 

The  cost  of  cutting  the  trenches  is  an  important  consideration. 
Sandy  soil  is  easily  cut  and  thrown  out  of  the  trenches,  and  the 
pick  has  rarely  to  be  used.  In  many  places  the  digger  need 
not  get  into  the  trench,  being  able  to  work  it  from  the  surface. 
In  such  soils  the  expense  of  cutting  is  small,  and  this  is  another 
reason  why  deep  drains  should  be  the  rule.  In  stony  soils  there 
is  often  great  expense  in  removing  boulders,  and  the  depth  is 
somewhat  regulated  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  these.  On 
clay  land,  the  process  of  cutting  drains  is  very  expensive.  The 
soil  is  generally  so  tenacious  that  the  pick  is  frequently  required 
to  break  it  up  into  suitable  pieces.  Also  the  labourer  has  often 
to  stand  in  the  trench,  and  in  order  to  do  this  a  wider  trench  is 
required.  An  extra  foot  in  depth  of  a  drain  means  a  considerable 
extra  expense,  amounting  to  about  half  the  former  cost. 

All  drains  must  be  out  of  the  way  of  tillage  implements.  It 
is  not,  however,  often  the  case  that  they  are  injured  in  this  way. 
It  is  necessary  that  the  roots  of  plants  should  have  sufficient 
room  in  which  to  grow.  Sometimes  drains  have  been  laid  of 
such  a  depth  as  to  prevent  shallow-rooted  plants  from  reaching 
the  stratum  wet  by  capillary  attraction,  and  in  consequence  they 
have  suffered  greatly  in  droughts.  Many  plants  have  roots  four 
or  five  feet  long,  and  for  such  as  these  there  is  nothing  to  be 
feared,  as  they  have  often  been  found  to  reach  and  fill  up  the 
drains  at  that  depth. 


388  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

On  clay  soils  two  and  a  half  to  three  and  a  half  feet  is  quite 
sufficient  depth,  and  the  drains  should  be  proportionately  close. 
Loamy  soils  may  be  drained  at  a  depth  of  about  three  and  a  half 
or  four  feet,  and  light  soils  four  to  five  feet.  On  peaty  soils  it  is 
advisable  to  cut  down  upon  some  solid  foundation,  such  as  a  bed 
of  clay, — that  is,  if  not  above  five  to  seven  feet  deep.  When  a 
water-bearing  strata  is  discovered,  it  should  always  be  cut  down 
to,  if  at  a  reasonable  depth. 

Sometmies  cracks  may  be  observed  in  the  land.  It  should  be 
endeavoured  to  get  the  drains  at  a  greater  depth  than  these,  as 
a  shower  washes  a  quantity  of  fine  soil  through  them  into  the 
drains,  soon  blocking  them  up.  Again,  the  pipes  should  be  deep 
enough  to  prevent  the  rain  from  washing  through  the  soil,  and 
removing  valuable  constituents. 

Draining  at  Wide  and  Narrow  Intervals. — A  tenacious  soil, 
by  preventing  the  free  percolation  of  water,  requires  the  lines  oi 
drains  to  be  frequent.  A  light  soil,  however,  allows  water  to 
rapidly  pass  through  it,  owing  to  the  coarse  texture.  A  drain  in 
such  land  exerts  a  considerable  influence  on  both  sides,  but, 
as  stated  before,  the  influence  of  one  drain  in  a  clay  land  is 
scarcely  felt.  It  should  always  be  endeavoured  to  secure  recipro- 
cal action  to  the  greatest  extent  possible.  It  is  a  great  mistake 
to  make  drains  too  wide  apart;  even  on  light  land,  sixty  feet  is 
about  the  maximum  distance  to  be  allowed.  Greater  distances 
allow  wet  patches  between  the  drains.  On  clay  lands,  owing  to 
the  cost  of  cutting,  many  farmers  make  their  drains  deep  and  wide 
apart.  To  a  certain  extent  this  is  all  right,  but  it  is  much  better 
to  have  the  drains  fairly  shallow  and  near  together. 

On  a  stiff"  clay,  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  between  the  drains  is 
sufficient ;  on  loam  they  may  be  twenty  to  thirty  feet  apart,  while 
on  sandy  soils  forty  or  fifty  feet  apart  may  be  allowed. 

According  to  Stephens,  a  light-land  drain  will  dry  on  each 
side  of  it  a  distance  of  from  five  to  six  times  its  depth  :  in  medium 
soils,  four  or  five  times ;  and  in  clay  soils  two  or  three  times. 

Length  of  Drains. — Scarcely  any  rule  can  be  put  down  as  to 
the  length  of  drains.  It  may  be  taken,  however,  that  for  side 
drains  long  ones  are  preferable,  while  mains  should  be  short. 
The  reason  for  this  will  be  easily  seen.  The  water  in  the  drains 
has  no  force  to  move  it  along  except  its  own  weight.  Hence,  on 
nearly  level  lands,  the  water  collects  in  the  drains  until  such  an 
amount  is  gathered  as  to  cause  a  constant  run.  With  a  long 
drain  this  result  is  sooner  accomplished  than  with  a  short  one, 
unless  the  latter  drains  off"  some  spring.  The  constant  flow  of 
water  also  prevents  any  deposition  of  sediment  which  might 
otherwise  take  place. 


DRAINAGE.  389 

A  long  main  drain  collects  water  from  a  considerable  number  of 
laterals  and  submains,  and  to  lead  into  one  main  the  drainage  of 
a  large  tract  of  wet  land  often  gives  it  too  much  to  carry  away. 
The  result  is  a  block  in  the  system,  sometimes  causing  displace- 
ment of  the  pipes. 

Geological  Considerations  involved  in  Drainage. 

The  drainage  of  the  land  must  to  a  great  extent  depend  on 
the  geology  of  the  district.  On  such  land  as  the  London  clay, 
the  drains  must  be  close  together  and  not  very  deep,  but  on  the 
Bagshot  Sands,  which  cover  part  of  it,  the  reverse  must  be  the 
rule.  When  several  strata  alternate,  the  land  frequently  requires 
the  drainage  to  be  on  Elkington's  system.  Many  flat  alluvial 
soils  are  very  difficult  to  drain  owing  to  their  level  character,  and 
long  open  trenches  have  often  to  be  cut  to  empty  the  water  in. 
In  some  cases  a  porous  water-bearing  stratum  may  nearly  come 
to  the  surface  at  a  particular  point  and  then  go  down  deeper.  If 
a  drain  could  be  dug  into  the  stratum  at  this  point  the  drainage 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  field  would  be  rendered  much  easier. 

Fertilizing  Matters  abstracted  from  the  Soil  by 
Drainage  Water. 

Water,  in  passing  through  the  soil  to  the  drains,  dissolves  out 
small  amounts  of  mineral  salts  and  plant-food,  which  it  carries  away. 
The  greater  the  absorptive  power  of  the  soil,  the  less  will  be 
the  amount  thus  lost.  Nitrates  and  chlorides,  being  very  soluble, 
are  among  the  salts  lost  in  greatest  amounts,  and,  owing  to  the 
value  of  the  former,  the  loss  is  often  serious.  Ammonia,  potash, 
and  phosphoric  acid  are  not  often  found  in  drainage  water.  They 
are  retained  chiefly  by  chemical  affinity,  in  a  loose  sort  of  com- 
bination with  other  substances.  Ammonium  salts,  such  as  the 
sulphate,  are  not  so  soluble  as  nitrate  of  soda  and  other  nitro- 
genous manures,  hence  they  are  not  so  readily  washed  away. 

Sandy  soils,  from  their  small  chemical  retentive  power  and 
their  free  nature,  are  very  apt  to  lose  large  quantities  of  valuable 
salts  by  drainage  water.  Clays,  however,  are  much  the  reverse 
of  the  last. 

When  drains  are  near  the  surface,  the  rain  quickly  washes 
through  the  soil,  and  thus  there  is  a  greater  chance  of  loss  of 
plant-food.  There  would  be  more  chance  of  this  happening  in 
light  land,  consequently  this  is  another  reason  why  drains  should 
be  deeper  in  light  soils  than  in  clays. 

The    amount    of   nitrogen    lost    in    drainage   waters    from 


390  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE.     . 

Rothamsted  experiments  varies  from  36  to  46  lbs.  per  acre 
per  year.  This  is  much  more  than  that  removed  by  30  bushels 
of  wheat  or  40  bushels  of  oats.  On  pastures  and  meadows  the 
amount  will  be  considerably  less.  About  3-I  parts  of  nitrogen 
and  6  parts  of  chlorine  per  1,000,000  of  drainage  water  were 
lost  from  unmanured  plots  growing  wheat,  but  these  amounts 
are  greatly  increased  when  plenty  of  manure  is  applied. 


(    391     ) 


CHAPTER  V. 

IRRIGATION. 

Irrigation  consists  in  allowing  water,  with  fertilizing  matters  in 
it,  to  flow  through  a  soil,  and  then  in  draining  it  off  as  quickly  as 
possible,  allowing  no  sediment  to  be  deposited.  In  warping  the 
water  is  allowed  to  deposit  any  matter  it  contains  upon  the  land, 
thus  causing  an  increased  depth  of  soil. 

Reasons  for  Irrigation. — All  plants  require  a  considerable 
amount  of  water  to  carry  on  their  healthy  functions.  In  droughts, 
irrigation  is  found  on  this  account  to  be  very  beneficial.  Various 
constituents  of  plant-food  are  taken  up  by  the  soil  from  the  water 
passing  through.  Nearly  all  the  ammonia  contained  by  sewage 
is  thus  absorbed  when  filtering  through  the  land.  Again,  water 
is  often  warmer  than  the  soil,  and  thus  the  temperature  of  the 
land  is  raised  somewhat,  and  as  a  consequence  the  crops  mature 
earlier.  The  increase  in  temperature  has  been  reckoned  at  io° 
Fahr.  in  spring.  Air  follows  the  passage  of  the  water,  and  the 
good  effects  of  oxidation  in  the  soil  are  well  known.  Bad  grasses 
are  said  to  be  lessened,  and  the  finer  qualities  grow  much  better. 
Irrigation  causes  a  considerable  amount  of  matters  to  be  dis- 
solved out  in  the  soil,  and  these  act  as  active  plant-food.  On 
the  other  hand,  however,  too  much  water  may  wash  away  valuable 
soluble  constituents. 

Various  Qualities  of  Water  employed. — It  might  be  supposed 
that  muddy  water  would  be  the  best  for  irrigation  purposes,  but 
this  is  not  the  case  as  a  rule.  The  mud  and  sand  would  settle 
down  on  the  vegetation,  and  prevent  its  proper  growth.  On 
arable  land,  not  growing  a  crop,  such  water  would  be  very  suit- 
able, as  it  forms  fresh  layers  of  soil.  This,  however,  more 
resembles  warping  than  ordinary  irrigation.  Clear  spring  water 
is  the  best,  especially  that  which  has  to  percolate  through  thick 
beds  of  rock,  as  then   it  more  readily  dissolves  out  plant-food. 


392  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

That  coming  from  limestone  districts,  and  consequently  contain- 
ing a  fair  amount  of  carbonate  of  lime  dissolved  in  it,  is  very 
useful  for  irrigation.  Sewage  water,  when  obtainable,  is  of  the 
greatest  value,  as  it  often  contains  large  amounts  of  organic  and 
inorganic  matter,  useful  as  plant-food.  By  the  aid  of  sewage, 
four  to  six  crops  of  grass,  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  tons  each,  can  be 
obtained  from  meadows.  Hard  water  is  better  than  soft,  as  it 
contains  more  dissolved  mineral  matter.  Water  from  peaty  and 
boggy  soils  often  contains  sulphate  of  iron  in  solution,  and  has 
then  injurious  effects.  If  passed  over  some  calcareous  soil  be- 
fore flowing  over  the  meadows,  nearly  all  the  iron  is  deposited. 
Sea-water  should  never  be  used,  as  the  large  amount  of  salt  it 
contains  has  a  tendency  to  destroy  vegetation. 

Soils  Suitable  for  Irrigation. — A  stiff  soil,  owing  to  its  great 
retentive  power,  is  not  w^ell  suited  for  irrigation.  It  would  be 
apt  to  become  waterlogged,  and  injurious  effects  would  result. 
Sandy  or  gravelly  soils  allow  water  to  readily  pass  through  them, 
and,  as  they  are  naturally  dry  and  of  poor  quality,  they  would 
be  greatly  benefited.  Before  irrigating  any  land  it  must  be 
thoroughly  drained,  otherwise  the  water  does  not  readily  flow 
away,  and  a  swampy  condition  is  the  result.  Of  course,  in  dry 
seasons  irrigation  will  be  of  more  value  than  in  those  in  which 
there  is  an  abundance  of  rain. 

One  acre  of  land  is  sufficient  for  about  a  hundred  people,  each 
producing  twenty-five  gallons  of  sewage  daily. 

One  acre  is  needed  for  from  five  to  ten  head  of  cattle ;  the 
urine  being  diluted  with  twice  its  bulk  of  water. 

Suitable  Crops. — Nearly  all  grasses  may  be  used,  but  rye 
grass,  especially  Italian,  gives  the  best  results.  A  few  of  the 
fodder  crops  are  irrigated,  but  the  meadows  are  generally  the 
only  parts  treated. 

Mode  of  Action. — A  steady  flow  of  water  should  be  produced, 
and  the  intervals  between  the  periods  of  flooding  should  always 
be  long  enough  for  the  land  to  get  rid  of  all  superfluous  water. 
A  shallow  current  moving  at  a  fairly  rapid  rate  over  the  ground 
does  most  good.  Irrigation  is  said  to  cause  an  increased  amount 
of  roots  to  the  plants,  hence  we  see  one  reason  for  the  larger 
crops.  The  plant  can  search  for  its  food  through  the  soil  more 
thoroughly,  and  thus  makes  better  use  of  the  materials  contained 
by  the  sewage.  The  various  changes  produced  by  irrigation  in 
the  soil  have  already  been  noticed. 

General  Management. — It  should  always  be  remembered  never 
to  leave  the  water  on  the  land  for  more  than  a  fortnight,  or  else 
nothing  but  aquatic  grasses  and  plants  will  be  able  to  grow  on  it. 
Sometimes  a  white  scum  appears  on  the  surtace  of  the  water  on 


IRRIGATION.  393 

the  land.  Whenever  this  is  the  case,  the  field  should  be  cleared 
as  soon  as  possible.  This  scum,  if  allowed  to  settle  on  the  grass, 
clogs  it  up  and  kills  it.  At  least  two  days  should  elapse  before 
another  flooding  is  permitted  after  drawing  off  the  last.  In  frosty- 
weather,  when  it  is  required  to  run  off  the  water,  the  operation 
ought  to  be  performed  in  the  morning,  so  that  the  land  may  be 
dry  before  night ;  otherwise  the  vegetation  would  be  very  wet  in 
the  evening,  and  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  the  frost. 

After  drawing  off  the  water,  stock  should  not  be  placed  on 
the  land  at  once.  Sheep  will  be  able  to  go  on  before  cattle,  as 
they  will  not  hurt  the  land  so  much.  In  autumn  it  will  not 
always  be  safe  to  put  sheep'  on  the  land,  as  they  are  liable  to 
attacks  of  foot- rot  and  liver  fluke. 

When  intended  for  hay,  the  grass  on  the  pastures  is  cut  in  May 
or  June.  As  irrigated  grasses  usually  contain  a  large  percentage 
of  water,  there  is  considerable  difficulty  in  drying  them,  and 
hence  it  is  best  to  sell  or  use  it  as  green  fodder,  or  make  it  into 
silage.  The  land  is  flooded  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  taken  off,  and 
a  second  cutting  soon  follows,  in  about  four  weeks,  weighing 
sixteen  to  twenty  tons  per  acre.  Another  flooding  takes  place 
after  clearing  away  the  crop,  and  then  cutting  and  flooding 
succeed  each  other  till  about  October,  by  which  time  from  four 
to  eight  cuttings  have  been  obtained. 

Times  of  Flooding. — In  January  and  February  the  land  may 
be  flooded  in  frosty  weather  for  protection,  but  avoid  running 
more  water  on  to  the  sheet  of  ice  which  may  have  formed  on  the 
surface  of  the  previous  flooding.  To  prevent  a  scum  forming,  the 
water  may  be  drawn  off  in  the  morning  and  put  on  again  in 
the  evening.  The  land  may  be  grazed  when  dry  from  February 
up  to  April,  and  then  flooded  well  for  the  hay  crop.  After  getting 
the  hay  or  fodder  in  May,  the  farmer  may  graze  off  the  aftermath 
with  cattle,  and  flood  occasionally  in  dry  weather.  If  the  land  is 
to  be  used  for  the  production  of  forage,  the  water  should  be  turned 
on  soon  after  cutting  each  crop.  In  November  and  December  the 
meadows  will  need  to  be  often  watered.  It  should  be  always 
remembered  that  the  water  ought  to  be  kept  running  over  the 
land,  and  that  it  should  never  be  allowed  to  become  stagnant. 

Relative  Advantages  of  the  Various  Systems  of 
Irrigation. 

The  two  principal  modes  of  irrigation  are  by  Catchwater 
meadows  and  Flow  meadows. 

Catchwater  Meadows. — This  plan  is  practised  chiefly  where 
the  land  has  a  slight  slope,  or  where  the  ground  is  irregular.     An 


394  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

open  ditch  is  dug  across  the  top  of  the  field,  and  banked  up  with 
turf  until  the  water  in  it  will  be  able  to  rise  at  least  a  foot  above 
the  rest  of  the  field.  Water  is  run  into  this  ditch  from  the  river 
either  by  making  a  trench  to  it  from  some  higher  place  in  the 
river's  course,  or  by  making  a  dam,  and  thus  raising  its  height. 
The  contour  lines,  or  lines  of  equal  level  in  the  field,  are  next 
found.  Small  gutters,  about  three  inches  deep,  are  then  dug  along 
these  lines  at  distances  of  thirty  or  forty  feet  apart.  These  are 
called  feeders.  The  water  is  admitted  into  the  feeders  from  the 
main  carrier,  and  flows  along  them  until  they  are  full.  It  then 
passes  over  the  sides  and  spreads  over  the  inclined  table,  passing 
into  the  next  gutter,  from  which  it  again  overflows,  and  so  on  to 
the  bottom  of  the  field.  The  water  is  caught  by  catchdrains  at 
the  sides  to  some  extent,  but  finally  flows  into  the  main  drain, 
running  along  the  lowest  part  of  the  field.  The  main  drain  is 
nearly  similar  to  the  main  carrier,  and  runs  into  the  river  at  some 
lower  point. 

Flow  Meadows. — This  system  is  practised  on  fields  nearly 
level.  The  land  is  first  ploughed  into  ridges  ten  or  twelve  yards 
broad,  in  the  direction  of  the  greatest  slope.  The  ridges  are 
from  six  inches  to  a  foot  higher  at  the  crown  than  at  the  sides. 
The  main  carrying-trench  runs  along  the  top  of  the  field,  and 
from  it  there  run  off"  numerous  leaders,  one  going  down  the  centre 
of  each  ridge.  These  leaders  are  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four 
inches  wide  at  the  commencement,  and  diminish  gradually  to  about 
six  inches.  Between  the  ridges  are  carrying  drains,  narrow  to 
commence  with,  then  gradually  widening  out,  until,  when  they 
run  into  the  main  drain,  they  are  as  wide  as  the  feeders  are  to 
begin  with.  The  water  runs  into  the  leaders  through  sluices,  and, 
owing  to  their  beds  gradually  contracting,  it  flows  over  the  sides 
in  a  thin  sheet.  The  water  which  runs  off"  is  carried  away  by  the 
carrying  drains  into  the  main  drain,  as  in  the  previous  system. 
When  the  ridges  have  a  considerable  slope  the  water  is  apt  to  run 
to  the  bottom  of  the  feeder  too  quickly,  and  thus  the  top  part  of 
the  field  does  not  get  irrigated.  In  order  to  prevent  this,  "  stops  " 
are  put  in,  which  check  the  flow.  The  "  stops"  consist  of  pieces 
of  turf  left  uncut  at  the  bottom,  or  of  stones  or  small  boards  put 
into  the  trench,  and  thus  raising  the  water  a  few  inches  above  its 
height  previous  to  the  operation. 

Advantages  of  the  Two  Systems. — The  catch-water  system, 
when  applicable,  seems  to  be  the  better  of  the  two.  It  costs  less  to 
construct  the  trenches,  etc.,  allows  the  water  to  be  run  off"  the  land 
quickly,  and  the  land  to  dry  rapidly.  With  the  flow  system  a 
considerable  cost  is  incurred  at  the  beginning,  through  having  to 
form  the  land  up  into  ridges.     The  catch-water  system  is  much 


IRRIGATION.  395 

the  best  on  sloping  ground  ;  on  such  land  the  flow  system  would 
allow  the  water  to  run  off  by  the  trenches  without  benefiting  the 
land.  On  the  other  hand,  on  nearly  level  ground  the  catch-water 
system  would  not  act,  as  there  would  not  be  sufficient  slope  for 
the  water. 

Quality  of  Herbage. — As  might  be  expected,  irrigated  grasses 
generally  contain  more  water  than  others.  They  have  a  greater 
chance  of  getting  moisture,  and  also  have  to  take  up  their  food 
in  a  very  dilute  solution.  If  used  young,  the  grass  contains  most 
of  its  solid  matter  in  a  soluble  form  ;  but  if  allowed  to  ripen,  it 
will  contain  more  solid  matter,  though  not  so  soluble  as  before. 
The  luxuriance  of  the  growth  causes  the  later  crops  to  be  rather 
coarse.  The  nitrogenous  part  of  the  solid  constituents  is  said  to 
be  increased  in  sewaged  grass.  A  greater  amount  of  milk  is  got 
from  its  use,  but  the  percentages  of  the  different  constituents  are 
lower  than  usual,  except  in  the  amount  of  mineral  matter.  In 
pastures  the  application  of  sewage  seems  to  cause  the  develop- 
ment of  grasses  at  the  expense  of  the  clovers.  Many  innutritions 
grasses  and  moss  are  said  to  disappear  from  irrigated  meadows. 
Of  course,  if  the  land  is  not  properly  drained  and  is  in  a  swampy 
condition,  various  aquatic  plants  will  grow,  and  take  up  the  places 
of  more  valuable  ones. 

Sewage. 

This  has  been  treated  on  to  some  extent  in  the  preceding  pages 
on  Irrigation.  It  is  of  more  use  than  ordinary  river-water,  but 
as  it  can  only  be  obtained  near  towns,  its  application  is  limited 
in  extent.  It  is  generally  applied  by  the  flow  system,  the  amount 
given  varying  greatly.  At  the  sewage  meadows  near  Edinburgh, 
as  many  as  six  or  eight  crops  of  grass  are  obtained  yearly,  and 
thus  town  dairying  can  be  carried  on. 

Sewage  is  used  in  two  forms.  Raw  and  Clarified.  The  former 
is  the  kind  most  generally  used,  and  is  sewage  just  as  it  comes 
from  the  towns.  Clarified  sewage  has  had  some  chemical 
substance  added  to  it  to  cause  the  precipitation  of  the  solid 
matters  it  contains.  Alum,  blood,  and  clay  are  most  often  used. 
The  resulting  compound  is,  of  course,  of  much  greater  value  than 
ordinary  sewage,  but  is  still  not  worth  much.  (See  "  Native 
Guano  "  in  the  chapter  on  "  Manures.") 

Sewage  contains  six  to  eight  grains  of  ammonia  per  gallon, 
and  also  small  amounts  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  The 
total  solid  matter  varies  from  about  seventy  to  a  hundred  grains 
per  gallon,  as  a  rule.  Of  course  the  more  water  the  sewage 
contains  the  less  is  its  agricultural  value.     If  the  sewage  has  to 


396  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

be  conveyed  any  distance,  the  cost  of  application  amounts  to 
more  than  the  value  of  the  manure.  The  small  amounts  of 
fertilizing  matters  it  contains  gives  it  an  exceedingly  low  value. 
Thus  it  has  been  reckoned  by  some  authorities  at  from  ^d.  to  4^. 
per  ton,  and  the  highest  value  given  to  it  seems  to  be  only  10^^. 
per  ton.  But  besides  its  chemical  value,  sewage  has  an  indirect 
use,  although  this  cannot  be  reckoned  at  a  money  value.  From 
an  analysis,  sewage  will  be  seen  to  be  of  little  use  as  a  direct 
manure.  It  contains  too  little  of  plant-food  constituents,  and 
the  abundant  crops  obtained  by  it  can  only  be  explained  by  its 
power  of  rendering  soluble  some  of  the  mineral  constituents  of 
the  soil. 

Sewage  is  said  to  have  the  effect  of  driving  away  many 
injurious  insects  and  grubs,  such  as  the  wireworm,  various  beetles, 
slugs,  etc.  Should,  however,  the  grass  become  rank,  probably 
more  insects  would  be  sheltered  than  got  rid  of.  The  crane  fly 
would  very  likely  become  numerous,  and  act  injuriously. 

The  quality  of  herbage  obtained  by  sewage  is  very  similar  to 
that  obtained  by  ordinary  irrigation.  It  is,  however,  rather 
coarser  and  more  bulky,  owing  to  its  growth  being  more  forced. 


Ten  tons  of  sewage  have  been  found  to  contain  :- 


In  solution 

In  suspension  < 

1 

Nitrogen  ..  ..  17 
Phosphoric  acid  ..  0*4 
Potash  salts  . .  . .  0-5 
Soda  salts          ..          ..      i-6 

1  Organic  compounds  . .  1-4 
Nitrogen            ..          ..     03 

[  Calcic  phosphate          ..     0*2 

Total  =  6*1  lbs.  per  ten  tons. 

Warping. 

4*2  lbs. 
I  '9  lbs. 


This  operation  is  still  more  limited  in  the  extent  of  its  use 
than  irrigation.  In  England  it  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  Holder- 
ness  in  Yorkshire,  parts  of  Lincolnshire,  and  around  the  Wash. 
There  the  rivers  Ouse,  Trent,  Witham,  Welland,  Nen,  and  Gt. 
Ouse  flow,  in  an  extremely  sluggish  manner,  into  the  sea.  They 
generally  contain  various  matters  in  suspension  in  considerable 
quantities.  These  matters  they,  in  the  ordinary  course,  deposit 
in  their  beds  and  at  their  mouths ;  but  if  turned  on  to  the  fields 
they  leave  much  of  their  mud  there  instead. 

Before  commencing  warping,  the  land  requires  to  be  em- 
banked, so  as  to  confine  the  water  upon  the  proper  part.  The 
banks  are  from  three  to  seven  feet  high,  and  enclose  up  to 
150  or  200  acres.  With  large  fields,  or  those  some  distance 
from  the  river,  a  canal  is  dug  from  the  river  through  the  land. 


WARPING.  397 

From  the  canal,  if  a  long  one,  there  runs  a  drain  into  each  com- 
partment. Its  exit  from  the  canal  is  closed  by  a  sluice,  and  thus 
water  is  let  into  it  at  pleasure.  The  water  is  run  from  the  canal 
over  the  land  by  small  channels  or  "  inlets."  These  soon  over- 
flow, and  the  water  gradually  spreads  over  the  land,  depositing 
its  mud.  The  land  is  only  flooded  at  high  tide,  and  is  drawn  off 
at  low.  The  return  of  the  water  tends  to  clean  out  the  channels 
of  any  mud  deposited  in  them.  About  one-eighth  of  an  inch  of 
warp  is  deposited  at  each  tide.  The  operation  begins  in  June 
and  ends  about  October,  never  being  performed  during  winter. 
In  this  it  differs  from  irrigation,  which  gives  good  results  in  the 
winter  months. 

Contrary  to  what  might  be  expected,  warping  during  floods  is 
of  little  value,  and  in  the  driest  time  of  summer  the  best 
results  are  obtained.  It  is  said  that  during  the  greatest  droughts 
warp  is  best  and  most  plentiful.  During  the  season,  from  six 
inches  to  three  feet  of  new  soil  may  be  thus  obtained.  The 
warp,  when  deposited,  is  in  a  state  of  very  fine  division,  and  is 
found  on  the  land  in  layers ;  that  mud  derived  from  each  warping 
being  distinct.     The  stiffer  the  warp  is,  the  better  it  is  said  to  be. 

The  chief  difference  between  irrigation  and  warping  is  that, 
with  the  former,  it  is  chiefly  the  water  which  produces  a  good 
effect,  in  the  latter  it  is  the  mud.  The  former  operation  manures 
the  land,  the  latter  forms  fresh  soil ;  consequently  a  barren  sand 
derives  as  much  benefit  from  warping  as  a  rich  clay.  The  good 
effects  of  warp  are  well  known.  The  Holderness,  consisting 
chiefly  of  this  alluvial  mud  deposited  in  a  natural  manner,  is 
nearly  the  richest  land  in  England,  and  the  soil  got  by  warping  is 
similar  to  it.  In  Egypt,  where  we  see  the  operation  carried  out 
on  a  large  scale,  enormous  crops  of  grain  can  be  raised  on  the 
same  land  year  after  year  with  little  or  no  manure.  In  England 
eighty  bushels  of  oats  per  acre  are  often  got  on  warped  land. 

Warping  is  said  to  carry  the  seeds  of  weeds  to  the  land, 
which  previously  were  unknown  there.  Amongst  the  chief  ones 
brought  in  this  way  there  are  mentioned  mustard,  cresses,  and 
wild  celery,  with  plenty  of  docks  and  thistles.  They  are  brought 
from  higher  levels. 

Warping  is,  of  course,  only  applicable  to  arable  land,  and  no 
crop  must  be  upon  it  at  the  time.  If  attempted  on  pastures,  the 
deposit  would  choke  the  herbage.  On  some  parts  of  the  alluvial 
soils  of  Lincolnshire  enough  mud  has  been  deposited  in  a  natural 
manner  to  remove  all  necessity  of  warping.  The  operation, 
however,  is  of  great  use  on  any  poor  soil  at  a  convenient  distance 
from  a  river,  and  at  such  places  ought  to  be  carried  out. 


398  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

PERMANENT    PASTURES. 

At  the  present  time,  when  wheat  sometimes  hardly  pays  for  the 
expense  of  growing,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  a  large  extent 
of  land,  on  which  wheat  was  formerly  grown  at  a  profit,  has  been 
put  down  to  permanent  pasture.  This  is  especially  the  case  with 
heavy  clay  land,  for  the  following  reasons  :  first,  on  account  of 
the  expense  and  difficulties  in  working  clay  land ;  secondly,  the 
low  price  of  corn  ;  thirdly,  the  special  adaptability  of  this  class  of 
land  for  permanent  pasture.  There  is  no  dpubt  that  the  amount 
of  permanent  pasture  has  increased  in  the  country  to  a  very  great 
extent.     The  following  may  be  regarded  as  arguments  in  its  favour. 

(a)  Less  expense  in  working. 

(l^)  Production  of  beef,  mutton,  and  dairy  produce  pays  better 
than  corn. 

(c)  Near  a  town  hay  pays  better  than  corn. 

The  drawbacks  to  permanent  pasture  are — 

First  the  outlay  to  begin  with,  and  loss  from  unproductive- 
ness during  several  years,  until  the  permanent  pasture  gets  well 
established. 

It  is  well  known  that  in  laying  down  land  to  pasture  a  full 
crop  is  often  got  the  first  or  second  year,  and  then  the  pasture 
generally  falls  away  for  several  years  in  succession.  It  begins 
to  improve  gradually  for  fifteen  to  twenty  years  before  it  arrives  at 
the  condition  of  good  permanent  pasture.  The  causes  of  this  we 
will  inquire  into  presently. 

Another  objection  is,  that  there  is  not  sufficient  encouragement 
to  tenant  farmers  with  short  leases  to  go  to  the  expense  of  forming 
permanent  pasture. 

Another   objection   to  the   increased   amount   of  permanent 

'  This  chapter  is  from  a  lecture  delivered  by  the  late  Dr.  Webb. 


PERMANENT   PASTURES.  399 

pasture  has  been  raised  by  arguing  that  it  is  a  retrograde 
movement;  that  in  this  age  of  science  and  free  education  it 
is  humlHating  to  have  to  give  up  tillage  and  return  to  primitive 
pasture.  Cannot  the  resources  of  improved  machinery  and 
science  help  us  ?  Of  course  they  can ;  but  our  competitors  have 
as  good  machinery  and  scientific  knowledge  as  we  have,  with  the 
further  advantage  of  a  merely  nominal  rent,  a  better  climate,  and 
the  co-operation  of  the  great  steamship  and  railway  companies, 
which  will  actually  bring  agricultural  produce  a  thousand  miles 
from  the  interior  of  America  to  the  coast,  across  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  to  Liverpool,  and  from  Liverpool  to  London— all  this  at  a 
cheaper  rate  than  the  same  amount  of  agricultural  produce  can  be 
brought  from  Scotland  to  London. 

Others  have  opposed  the  laying  down  of  permanent  pasture 
from  politico-economical  reasons.  They  say  that  laying  down  to 
grass  to  any  extent  will  tend  to  depopulate  the  rural  districts. 
The  farm  labourers  will  either  overstock  the  towns  with  unskilled 
labour,  or  go  abroad  to  swell  the  ranks  of  our  competitors  in 
wheat-growing. 

Many  other  secondary  evils  have  also  been  predicted,  but 
there  is  no  cause  for  alarm.  The  amount  of  permanent  pasture 
may  increase  in  those  districts  where  most  suitable,  and  the 
amount  of  wheat  grown  may  become  less,  but  arable  land  will 
always  be  necessary.  Also,  if  the  amount  of  land  under  per- 
manent pasture  continues  to  increase,  a  point  will  soon  be  reached 
when  arable  land  will  pay  better  than  pasture,  so  that  the  disease 
is  its  own  remedy. 

At  the  present  time,  no  doubt,  a  great  deal  of  land  might  be 
laid  down  to  permanent  pasture  with  advantage,  especially  under 
the  following  conditions  : — 

1.  Where  labour  is  dear. 

2.  Where  land  is  expensive  to  work, 

3.  And  suitable  for  permanent  pasture, 

4.  With  a  long  lease  and  a  good  landlord  to  assist.  Some 
landlords  pay  the  cost  of  the  seeds. 

Selections  of  Land  for  Permanent  Pasture. — Some  soils  and 
climates  are  more  suited  for  permanent  pasture  than  others. 
Thus  the  west  of  England  has  generally  a  moist  climate,  which 
causes  an  abundant  growth  of  grasses.  A  sharp  sand  or  gravel 
gives  a  bad  soil,  as  it  affords  little  plant  food,  and  is  too  apt  to 
get  dried  up.  A  strong  loam  or  clay  is  most  suitable.  The 
aspect  has  something  to  do  with  the  adaptation.  Thus,  fields 
facing  the  north  do  not  dry  up  as  soon  as  those  with  a 
southern  aspect.  A  good  supply  of  water,  if  possible,  should 
be  obtained. 


400  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Drainage.— The  first  thing  to  be  attended  to  must  be  the 
drainage. 

Some  lands  which  are  naturally  drained,  like  many  sandy 
and  gravelly  soils,  require  no  draining,  unless  they  are  upon  a 
retentive  or  clay  subsoil,  from  which  water  rises  by  capillarity. 
The  distances  and  depths  of  the  drains  will  vary  according  to  the 
land  ;  but  the  land  should  be  drained  at  such  a  depth  that  the 
bottoms  of  the  hollow  in  the  fields  may  still  be  moist,  and  yield  a 
slightly  different  variety  of  grasses  from  that  on  the  ordinary 
level.     (See  the  chapter  on  *'  Drainage,"  p.  364.) 

Preparation  and  Cultivation  of  the  Land. — If  cleaned  by 
means  of  a  root  crop,  the  land  should  be  thoroughly  hoed  and 
stitch  grubbed  ;  and,  in  previously  preparing  the  land  for  the  root 
crop,  the  cultivation  should  have  been  deep,  to  provide  plenty  of 
feeding  ground  for  the  coming  crop. 

Methods  of  seeding  down.— Seeds  may  be  sown  in  the  usual 
way  with  barley  or  oats  (according  to  the  district),  on  a  very  fine 
and  well-prepared  seed-bed,  lightly  harrowed,  and  then  rolled, 
either  before  the  corn  germinates,  or  soon  after  it  comes  above 
ground.  Seeds  are  generally  sown  about  April.  Experience  in 
the  district  will  determine  the  best  method,  but  the  idea  should 
be  to  give  the  seeds  rather  a  better  chance  than  usual. 

The  barley  or  oats,  or  in  some  cases  wheat,  with  which  the  seeds 
are  sown  should  grow  straw  of  a  stiff  character,  so  that  they  may 
resist  the  wind  and  rain,  and  not  become  laid.  In  order  that  the 
seeds  may  have  a  better  chance  of  growing,  the  corn  should  not 
be  sown  too  thickly. 

Sometimes  the  seeds  are  sown  with  rape,  but,  in  the  opinion 
of  many  good  judges,  this  practice  is  more  suitable  for  alternate 
pastures,  where  only  the  stronger  varieties  are  grown. 

For  laying  down  clay  lands,  it  has  been  found  advisable  to 
summer  fallow,  deep  plough,  and  continually  grub,  harrow,  and 
roll.  Then  sow  the  seeds  without  a  crop  in  the  following  spring. 
This  plan  is  often  recommended  by  seedsmen,  although  it  is 
seldom  adopted  by  tenant  farmers,  for  obvious  reasons.  Still  it  is 
the  safest  way  of  getting  seeds  to  grow  well.  They  do  not  stand 
the  chance  of  being  smothered  by  the  growing  corn  crop,  and  the 
finer  grasses  stand  a  better  chance  of  flourishing. 

Mr.  C.  Ran  dell,  of  Chadbury,  Evesham,  in  a  paper  on  the 
"  Laying  down  of  Clay  Land  to  Pasture,"  published  in  the  Royal 
Agricultwal  Society s  Journal,  says — 

"It  is  absolutely  necessary,  in  laying  down  land  to  permanent 
pasture,  that  the  land  be  thoroughly  drained. 

*•'  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  get  the  land  free  from  couch  grass  ; 
and  if,  as  was  the  case  in  1881,  this  can  be  effected  by  the  aid  of 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  4OI 

Steam  in  June,  and  there  be  a  sufficiency  of  rain  afterwards  to  get 
a  fine  natural  tilth  in  July,  the  grass  seeds  may  then  be  sown ; 
and,  if  aided  by  five  hundredweights  per  acre  of  fish  guano,  con- 
taining 8  to  10  per  cent,  of  ammonia  and  35  per  cent,  of 
phosphates,  or  the  equivalent  thereto,  the  grass  seeds  will  be 
established  before  winter.  It  may  be  that  they  will  be  required 
to  be  eaten  off  carefully  in  September.  If  the  land  cannot  be  got 
ready  for  the  seeds  by  the  end  of  July,  the  sowing  will  be  done 
in  the  following  spring  without  a  corn  crop,  upon  a  stale  furrow, 
merely  scarifying  the  land  to  get  rid  of  surface  weeds. 
"  The  mixture  which  I  have  used  is— 

*'  I  bushel  cocksfoot  (to  i^  bushels,  according  to  percentage  of  growth), 
i  bushel  perennial  rye-grass. 
6  lbs.  cow-grass. 
2  lbs.  Dutch  clover. 

"  This  mixture  costs  from  about  15^".  per  acre. 

**  Having  secured  the  grass  plants,  the  next  consideration  is  how 
to  treat  them ;  and  here  my  view  will  be  opposed  to  those  generally 
entertained.  The  prevailing  idea  is,  that  no  sheep  should  be 
allowed  to  go  upon  newly  laid  land. 

"  I  would  have  no  other  stock  for  the  first  three  years,  but  in 
this  way : — Assuming  that  the  seeds  are  sown  in  July,  the  tilth 
and  the  weather  favourable,  they  should  be  so  strong  in  Sep- 
tember as  to  require  to  be  eaten  down,  otherwise  they  would  be 
liable  to  injury  from  frost  before  spring.  This  should  be  done  by 
lambs  folded  upon  them,  and  giving  as  much  space  twice  a  day 
as  they  will  eat  level,  with  an  allowance  of  oilcake,  malt-dust,  and 
clover-chaff.  The  back  hurdles  should  be  moved  every  second 
day,  to  prevent  the  lambs  biting  off  again  the  young  seeds  as  they 
spring,  and  they  must  not  be  upon  them  in  wet  weather.  To 
avoid  this,  there  must  be  a  field  of  turf  or  old  seed  to  take  them 
to  when  their  treading  would  injure  the  young  seeds. 

*'  In  the  following  spring  these  young  seeds  should  be  folded 
off  by  ewes  and  lambs,  the  latter  going  forward  by  the  aid  of 
lamb-gates,  and  both  getting  pulped  mangolds  mixed  with  chaff 
and  oilcake  (linseed  and  cotton-seed,  mixed) ;  the  back  hurdles 
should  be  frequently  moved,  for  two  reasons — (i)  that  the  land 
should  be  equally  manured;  (2)  that  the  young  shoots  of  the 
grasses  be  not  eaten  down  again  immediately.  A  second  folding 
may  be  made  with  yearling  ewes ;  a  third  with  the  general  flock, 
each  lot  receiving  half  a  pound  of  cotton  cake  daily,  but  none 
kept  on  the  land  after  October.  If  this  treatment  be  repeated 
the  third  year,  the  turf  will  be  well  established  ;  but  the  less  it  is 
stocked  during  winter  for  several  years  the  better. 

"  If  a  crop  of  corn  is  taken  the  first  year,  which  would  usually 

2  D 


402  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

be  the  case  in  the  hands  of  a  tenant,  the  same  method  should  be 
adopted  in  eating  off  the  young  seeds :  but  it  will  not  often 
happen  that  they  require  to  be  fed  off  after  harvesting  the  corn 
crop ;  if  they  do,  it  should  be  done  by  folding,  not  by  turning 
sheep  into  the  whole  field." 

Selection  of  Seed.— (i)  Note  the  grasses  that  are  natural  to 
your  neighbourhood,  found  by  the  roadside,  or  in  fields  that  have 
laid  themselves  down,  or  in  old  pastures. 

Then  use  only  the  best  of  these  naturally  growing  grasses.  This 
is  the  only  safe  way;  for  there  are  so  many  circumstances  de- 
termining the  character  of  the  soil  and  climate,  that  no  seedsman 
can  tell  with  accuracy  the  kind  of  seeds  best  suited  to  a  par- 
ticular district. 

See  that  you  get  grasses  which  will  produce  food  at  different 
times  of  the  year.  For  instance,  cocksfoot  and  foxtail  come  first 
in  spring ;  then  rye-grass,  timothy ;  and,  lastly,  crested  dog's-tail, 
the  fescues,  and  yellow  oat-grass. 

In  pastures  that  have  been  carelessly  laid  down,  food  may  be 
rich  at  some  parts  of  the  year  and  dried  up  at  others.  This  shows 
the  necessity  of  having  a  large  variety  of  good  grasses. 

The  Purchase  of  Grass  Seeds.— Buy  your  seeds  with  a 
guarantee  of  purity  and  germinating  power  some  time  before  you 
intend  to  sow.  Have  your  seeds  delivered  in  separate  lots  (un- 
mixed), get  them  tested,  and  then  mix  for  yourself.  Never  buy 
seeds  ready  mixed.  Mix  grass  seeds  first  by  themselves,  and  then 
add  the  clovers  and  timothy,  because  these,  being  heavy  seeds, 
would  have  a  tendency  to  sink  to  the  bottom  if  mixed  too  much. 

Grasses  for  Permanent  Pastures. 

Tall  Grasses  (Perennial)  : — 

1.  Meadow  Foxtail  {Alopeacrus  pratensis)  produces  an  abun- 
dance of  keep,  and  has  a  very  succulent  and  leafy  growth, 
extremely  palatable  to  all  kinds  of  stock,  and  also  very  nutritious. 
Even  the  heads  that  have  run  to  seed  are  eaten  off.  It  flowers  in 
April;  germinating  power,  40  to  50  percent,  sometimes,  should  never 
be  lower  than  20  per  cent. ;  weight  of  seed  per  bushel,  5  to  14  lbs. 

2.  Cocksfoot  (Dactylis  glofnerata)  is  one  of  our  most  useful 
meadow  grasses,  growing  best  on  deep  rich  loams ;  it  will  bear 
the  shade  of  overhanging  trees.  It,  however,  suits  most  soils, 
and  will  bear  drought  well,  owing  to  its  deep  roots.  It  gives 
early  spring  and  late  winter  feed,  much  relished  by  stock,  and 
also  very  nutritious.  Although  it  looks  coarse  it  is  perhaps  the 
most  valuable  of  all  cultivated  grasses.  It  has  a  tendency  to  get 
too  coarse  and  tufty  on  some  light  pastures.  It  flowers  mostly  in 
June  ;  germinating  power,  90  per  cent. ;  weight  per  bushel,  20  lbs. 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  403 

3.  Timothy,  or  Cat's-tail  {Phleum  pratense)  is  another  first- 
class  grass,  yielding  a  most  palatable,  nutritious,  and  plentiful 
food  for  stock.  It  affects  clay  soils,  and  yields  abundant  leafy 
growth,  sending  up  its  seed-stems  rather  later  in  autumn  than 
most  grasses.  It  is  a  good  grass  for  hay.  The  seeds  are  nearly 
free  from  adulteration,  as  they  are  easily  discriminated.  They 
are  very  heavy  and  very  small,  often  sown  with  the  clover, 
as  they  do  not  mix  readily  with  other  seeds.  Time  of  flowering, 
end  of  June ;  weight  of  seed  per  bushel,  48  lbs. ;  germinating 
purity,  over  90  per  cent. 

4.  Meadow  Fescue  {Festuca  pratense)  is  a  later  grass  than  the 
others.  It  prefers  stiff  soils,  where  it  produces  an  even  and 
nutritious  growth  of  most  abundant  herbage.  It  is  nearly  twice 
as  valuable  when  cut  for  hay  in  flower  than  when  the  seeds  are 
ripe;  but,  as  it  does  not  seed  until  early  in  August,  this  will 
not  affect  it  much.  It  is  often  adulterated  with  rye-grass,  as  it 
costs  tenpence  per  pound,  while  rye-grass  can  be  bought  at 
about  threepence.     Weight  of  seed  per  bushel,  28  lbs. 

5.  Tall  Fescue  {Festuca  elatior)  generally  succeeds  wher- 
ever meadow  fescue  will  It  is  probably  the  same  grass  altered 
by  cultivation.  It  is  a  coarser  plant  with  a  tufted  growth;  and, 
though  wilUngly  eaten  by  stock,  it  is  not  to  be  sown  in  preference 
to  the  species  last  named.  Time  of  flowering,  first  week  in  July ; 
weight  of  seed  per  bushel,  25  lbs. 

6.  Golden  Oat-grass  {Avena  flavescens)  is  always  found  in  the 
best  natural  pastures.  It  is  a  late  grass,  and  succeeds  well  in  dry 
soils  and  upland  pastures.  Seeds  are  very  dear,  often  35-.  per  lb., 
and  in  consequence  it  is  often  adulterated.  Germinating  power, 
60  per  cent. ;  weight  per  bushel,  10  lbs. 

Small  Grasses : — 

7.  Hard  Fescue  {Festuca  duriuscula)  is  a  good  grass,  producing 
a  fine  herbage.  It  fills  up  the  spaces  between  the  other  grasses, 
and  is  found  nearly  everywhere.  It  is  cheap,  and  consequently 
is  rarely  adulterated.  Time  of  flowering,  June ;  weight  of  seed 
per  bushel,  22  lbs. 

8.  Fine  and  Various-leaved  Fescues  {Festuca  heierophylla, 
etc.)  are  very  much  the  same  kinds  of  seeds,  rather  dear  to  bu)'. 

9.  Sheep's  Fescue  {Festuca  ovina)  is  a  short  grass,  very  useful 
in  sheep  pastures,  where  it  is  much  liked.  It  affects  sandy  soils 
most.  Time  of  flowering,  second  week  of  June  ;  weight  of  seed 
per  bushel,  27  lbs.     It  is  an  annual  grass. 

10.  Rough-stalked  Meadow  Grass  {Poa  trivialis)  is  a  good 
grass  for  filling  up  turf  between  other  grasses.  It  gives  a  fair  amount 
of  herbage  of  high  feeding  value,  and  is  liked  by  most  stock. 

This   is   the  most  valuable  of  the   meadow  grasses.     It   is 


404  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

distinguished  from  the  smooth-stalked  meadow  grass  by  its  rougher 
stalk  and  long  pointed  ligule,  whilst  the  other  has  a  smooth  stalk 
and  short  blunt  ligule.  Time  of  flowering,  June;  weight  of 
seed  per  bushel,  28  lbs. 

11.  Smooth-stalked  Meadow  Grass  {Poa  praiense)  has  a 
creeping  stem,  liable  to  take  up  space  which  might  be  occupied 
by  more  valuable  grasses.  It  should  not  be  included  in  per- 
manent mixtures.  Time  of  flowering,  June ;  weight  of  seed  per 
bushel,  30  lbs. 

12.  Crested  Dog's-tail  (Cytiosums  cristatus)  is  most  suitable 
for  dry  land  and  upland  pastures.  Herbage  fine  and  late ;  it  is 
thus  not  eaten  off  till  autumn.  It  is  comparatively  innutritious, 
and  flowers  in  July ;  weight  of  seed  per  bushel,  34  lbs. 

13.  Sweet  Vernal  Grass  (Anthoxanthum  odoratum)  is  a  grass 
of  no  particular  value  except  that  it  gives  a  sweet  flavour  to  hay. 
It  flowers  early,  about  April,  and  continues  in  bloom  through 
summer. 

14.  Tall  Oat-grass  {Avena  elatior)^  is  only  of  use  on  exposed 
hill-sides.  It  is  a  coarse  and  innutritious  grass,  and  on  other 
places  should  not  be  grown. 

15.  Perennial  Rye-grass  {Lolium  perenne)  is  undoubtedly  a 
splendid  grass  for  temporary  pastures,  but  its  value  for  permanent 
pastures  has  been  very  much  doubted  by  many  excellent  autho- 
rities, and  the  evidence  at  present  is  decidedly  against  the  large 
percentage  generally  used  in  seed  mixtures  for  permanent  pastures. 
It  produces  a  large  amount  of  herbage,  which  appears  early,  and  is 
very  nutritious.  The  largest  crop  comes  the  first  year,  and  then 
it  gradually  falls  off,  and  by  the  third  year  its  place  is  mostly 
taken  by  other  natural  grasses.  The  extent  to  which  this  takes 
place  varies  very  much  indeed.  Some  old  pastures  contain  a 
very  fair  percentage  of  rye-grass,  whilst  in  others  it  is  almost 
absent.  From  an  examination  of  twenty  of  the  best  old  pastures 
of  England,  Mr.  Carruthers  found  an  average  of  25  per  cent,  of 
perennial  rye-grass,  but  the  permanent  pastures  of  Scotland 
contain  a  much  smaller  amount.  For  permanent  pastures  it  is 
advisable  to  use  some  rye-grass — say  4  lbs.  in  a  mixture  of 
34  lbs.  Whether  the  rye-grass  is  likely  to  be  permanent  or  not, 
it  will  produce  plenty  of  grass  the  first  year,  whilst  some  of 
the  other  grasses  will  give  very  little.  It  flowers  in  June,  and 
the  seed  weighs  28  lbs.  per  bushel. 

16.  Italian  Rye-grass  {Lolium  Italicum)  should  not  be  sown 
on  permanent  pastures,  although  it  yields  abundant  crops  of  hay 
on  sewage  farms.  It  produces  a  large  crop  the  first  year,  and 
then  soon  dies  out.  It  differs  from  the  last  species  in  its  bearded 
spikelets.     It  is  also  more  succulent,  more  palatable,  and  more 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  405 

productive,  and  is  well  suited  for  alternate  husbandry.  It  flowers 
in  June,  and  the  seed  weighs  about  24  lbs.  per  bushel. 

Poor  Grasses : — 

Yorkshire  Fog  {Holms  lanatus)  is  easily  distinguished  by  its 
woolly  appearance.  It  is  in  flower  nearly  all  summer.  It  is  not 
generally  eaten  by  cattle,  and  when  eaten  it  is  digested  with 
great  difficulty.  Cattle  allow  it  to  run  to  seed,  therefore  patches 
of  it  should  be  mown  when  young. 

Soft  Brome  Grass  {B ramus  mollis)  is  a  very  poor  grass,  of  low 
feeding  value.     Not  generally  eaten  by  stock. 

Couch  Grass  {Triticum  repens)  has  an  underground  stem. 
Very  difficult  to  get  rid  of,  but  is  more  troublesome  on  arable 
land  than  in  pastures. 

Barley  Grass  {Hordeum  murinum)  is  objectionable  because, 
although  its  leaves  have  good  feeding  properties,  the  seed  heads 
have  sharp  awns  which  are  dangerous  to  sheep  and  troublesome 
in  hay. 

Clovers. 

White,  or  Dutch  Clover  {Trifolium  repens)  is  a  small  clover 
growing  close  to  the  ground.  It  is  more  lasting  than  the  red, 
although  it  does  not  show  much  the  first  year.  It  is  very  valuable 
for  grazing  pastures,  and  consequently  its  growth  should  be 
encouraged  as  much  as  possible.  It  is  very  nutritious,  and 
relished  by  all  stock. 

Alsike  Clover  {Trifolium  hybridum)  is  a  cross  between  the 
red  and  the  white  clovers.  It  more  nearly  represents  the  red  in 
growth,  with  several  flowering  branches  from  the  same  stem, 
whilst  the  flowers  and  leaves  of  the  white  clover  spring  singly 
from  the  creeping  stem.  The  head  resembles  that  of  the  Dutch 
clover  in  shape  and  size,  but  is  generally  of  a  pinker  tinge.  It 
has  a  large  and  bulky  growth,  with  deep  roots,  which  render 
it  more  likely  to  grow  on  otherwise  clover-sick  soils.  It  is  more 
perennial  than  either  the  red  or  white  clovers.  It  is  well  suited 
to  poor  land,  but  cattle  do  not  like  it  so  well  as  the  white 
and  red  varieties. 

Perennial  Red  Clover  {Trifolium  pratense  perenne)  is  the 
cow-grass  of  commerce,  the  true  cow-grass  not  being  sold.  It 
prefers  rich  adhesive  loams,  and  yields  a  bulky  produce. 

Bird's-foot  Trefoil  {Lotus  corniculatus^  major  and  minor)  grow 
very  well  on  dry,  sandy,  or  loamy  soils. 

Trefoil  {Medicago  lupulina)  may  be  sown  on  some  pastures, 
when  it  is  not  naturally  present. 

Hop  Trefoil  {Trifolium  procumbens)  is  not  to  be  recommended 
much,  owing  to  its  small  dwarf  habit. 


4o6 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


Table  of  Seeds. 


Standard  Mixture. 

Price  per  lb 

Lbs.         JT.      d. 

£ 

*. 

d. 

Perennial  rye-grass 

'     3(^0    3 

0 

0 

9 

Meadow  foxtail  . . 

•     4  >>  0  II 

0 

3 

8 

Cocksfoot           

•     4  „  0  II 

0 

3 

8 

Timothy  . . 

•     3  >>  0    5 

0 

I 

3 

Meadow  and  tall  fescue 

.     6  ,,  0  10 

0 

5 

0 

Hard  fescue 

.     4  „  0  10 

0 

3 

4 

Rough-stalked  meadow  grass 

.      3  n    I     3 

0 

3 

9 

Sweet  vernal 

.     h  „  2    6 

0 

I 

3 

Crested  dog's-tail          

•     i  „  I     3 

0 

0 

7h 

White  Dutch  clover 

.     2  ,,  I    0 

0 

2 

0 

Alsike 

.     2  „  I    0 

0 

2 

0 

Cow-grass 

.     2  „  I    0 

0 

2 

0 

34  lbs.  jCi    9    3h 

For  upland  pastures  crested  dog's-tail,  yellow  oat-grass,  and 
sheep's  and  finer  fescues  should  be  added.  Some  people  prefer 
to  sow  clovers  after  the  grass,  but  that  is  a  matter  of  choice. 


Mixture  for  General  Purposes. 


Perennial  rye-grass 
Italian  rye-grass 
Timothy 
Cocksfoot 
Meadow  foxtail 
Red  clover 
Cow-grass 
White  clover   . . 
Alsike  . . 
Trefoil  or  Lucerne 


Lbs. 
13 
5 
5 
3 
2 

3 
3 

2 
2 
2 


Per  acre,  40  lbs. 


Mixture  for  Good  Medium  Soils, 


Foxtail 

Cocksfoot 
Timothy 
Meadow  fescue 
Tall  fescue 
Crested  dog's-tail 
Rough  meadow  grass 
Hard  fescue    . . 
Sheep's  fescue 
Yarrow 
Cow-grass 
Red  clover 
Alsike  . . 
Dutch  clover 


Lbs. 

10 

7 

3 

6 

3 
2 


Per  acre,  40  lbs. 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  407 

After  Cultivation  and  Manuring. 

Nearly  every  farmer  has  a  different  way  of  commencing  the 
after  cultivation.  The  grass,  when  well-grown,  is  often  fed  off 
with  sheep  and  lambs,  taking  care  not  to  eat  too  bare,  for  the 
first  few  years.  Another  method  is  to  cut  the  grass  the  first 
year,  and  then  feed  off  lightly  with  young  cattle  after  manuring 
with  compost ;  or  mow  the  grass  whilst  young  the  first  year,  then 
feeding  with  sheep  the  next  year,  and  afterwards  alternately  cutting 
and  grazing.  The  use  of  cake  on  the  land  is  a  good  thing,  but 
all  droppings  of  the  stock  on  the  land  should  be  carefully  spread, 
otherwise  there  will  be  a  growth  of  coarse  grass  around  the 
heap  of  excrement  Only  farmyard  manure  should  be  applied 
at  first;  the  manure  should  be  made  into  a  compost,  as  cattle 
will  feed  better  after  compost  than  fresh  dung.  The  manure 
should  be  well  distributed  over  the  land,  and  not  allowed  to 
remain  in  small  heaps.  It  is  important  that  the  grass  should  not 
seed  much  during  the  first  few  years.  If  cut  for  hay  the  first  year, 
the  land  should  be  manured  well  afterwards. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  a  crop  of  one  and  a  half  tons  of 
hay  per  acre  removes  about  fifty  pounds  of  nitrogen,  fifty  pounds  of 
potash,  and  twelve  to  fourteen  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid.  This 
amount  of  nitrogen,  potash,  and  phosphoric  acid  can  be  returned 
by  five  tons  of  good  rotten  dung,  or,  if  artificials  are  used,  by — 

3    cwts.  nitrate  of  soda. 

if     ,,      sulphate  of  potash  or  2h  cwts.  kainit. 

I       ,,      superphosphate. 

But  there  is  no  occasion  to  supply  all  the  materials  to  the 
soil  that^are  carried  off  in  the  grass  or  hay,  for  various  reasons  : — 

First,  we  have  every  year  a  fresh  supply  of  plant-food,  due  to 
the  gradual  conversion  of  unavailable,  insoluble  matter  to  the 
soluble  form,  and  fresh  supplies  of  nitrogen  from  the  nitrification 
of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil,  and  nitric  acid  and  ammonia 
brought  down  by  the  rain  and  dews. 

Added  to  this,  there  must  be  considered  the  nitrogen  obtained 
from  the  atmosphere  by  the  roots  of  the  clover  and  other  legu- 
minous plants. 

The  question  whether  clovers  have  the  power  of  abstracting 
nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere  has  been  debated  for  a  very  long 
time — Continental  authorities  holding  that  they  did,  and  most 
English  agriculturalists  maintaining  the  contrary.  An  indisputable 
fact,  in  favour  of  the  Continental  theory,  was  the  circumstance  that, 
after  clover  had  been  cut  and  carried  off  the  land  several  times, 
and  a  deal  of  nitrogen  in  this  way  removed,  there  was  still  found 
more  nitrogen  in  the  clover  stubble  than  there  was  in  the  soil  tp 


408 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


start  with,  and  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  no  nitrogen  had  been 
used  as  manure.     Where  had  the  excess  of  nitrogen  come  from  ? 

Messrs.  Lawes,  Gilbert  and  Warington  explained  this  by 
suggesting  that  the  deep  roots  of  the  clover  brought  the  nitrogen 
to  the  surface  from  the  subsoil;  but  it  is  now  undisputed  that 
all  plants  of  the  order  Leguminosse  have  the  power  of  obtaining 
nitrogen  by  their  roots,  and  this  in  a  very  peculiar  manner.  If 
a  clover  plant,  or  any  member  of  the  Leguminosse  be  carefully 
removed  from  the  soil,  large  numbers  of  small  nodules,  or  wart- 
like excrescences,  will  be  found  attached  to  the  roots.  With  the 
aid  of  a  powerful  microscope  it  will  be  found  that  they  contain 
small  organisms  that  have  the  power  of  absorbing  nitrogen  from 
the  air,  and  this  nitrogen  is  stored  up  within  the  nodules.  This 
can  readily  be  proved  by  first  growing  clover  in  sterilized  sand, 
watered  with  distilled  water  and  dissolved  salts.  No  small 
excrescences  will  be  found,  and  the  amount  of  nitrogen  can  all 
be  accounted  for.  But  if  the  clover  is  watered  with  an  extract 
of  clover  root,  or  even  water  that  has  filtered  through  turf,  the 
nodules  soon  make  their  appearance,  and  the  amount  of  nitrogen 
stored  up  can  only  be  accounted  for  by  the  supposition  that  the 
nodules  in  some  way  obtain  it  from  the  air. 

This  fact  of  the  nitrogen-storing  power  of  the  leguminous 
plants  explains  the  action  of  heavy  dressings  of  nitrogenous 
manures  on  permanent  pastures  encouraging  the  growth  of  grasses, 
especially  the  coarser  ones,  at  the  expense  of  the  clovers.  If 
persisted  in,  the  clovers  will  disappear.  The  following  examples 
from  experiments  at  Rothampstead  will  illustrate  this. 


Manured  heavily  with 
Nitrogenous  Manures. 

Unmanured 
Plots. 

Mixed  Mineral  Phos- 
phate and  Potash. 

Grasses 
Leguminosse 
Other  plants 

95*91 
•01 

4'o8 

67*43 

8-20 

24*37 

61-03 
2306 
15*91 

lOOOO 

loo-oo 

lOOOO 

Every  one  must  have  observed  how  the  clover  springs  up  in 
a  field  where  a  fire  has  been  lit  and  wood  ashes  left. 


Renovating  Old  Pastures. 

Always  eat  bare.  Give  good  brush  harrowings,  and  add  seeds 
of  those  nutritious  grasses  which  best  suit  the  soil.  Sow  the 
seeds  in  autumn,  harrow  and  roll.     Manure  with  good  compost. 


PERMANENT  PASTURES.  409 

twenty  loads  to  the  acre,  or  one  hundredweight  of  bone  meal 
mixed  with  two  hundredweights  of  superphosphate,  and  two 
hundredweights  of  kainit  to  the  acre.  Basic  slag  is  one  of  the 
cheapest  kinds  of  phosphatic  manures,  and  has  been  found  very 
successful ;  from  eight  to  fourteen  hundredweights  per  acre  may 
be  applied.  When  grazing  with  milk  cattle  or  growing  stock, 
large  amounts  of  phosphates  are  taken  out  of  the  soil,  and  must 
be  returned  in  some  form  or  other.  It  was  because  of  this  that 
the  application  of  bones  to  the  pasture  in  Cheshire  was  found 
so  beneficial. 

Breaking  up  Pastures. — It  is  not  advisable  for  the  farmer, 
when  he  has  once  got  a  good  pasture,  to  break  it  up  again.  In 
many  cases  on  the  Chalk  Downs,  when  this  has  been  done,  the 
plant-food  of  the  soil  has  got  exhausted  through  time,  and 
extreme  difficulty  has  been  experienced  when  trying  to  lay  the 
land  down  again.  When  breaking  up,  always  use  a  skim  plough, 
and  harrow,  and  otherwise  till  the  land  well  during  summer.  If 
necessary,  i.e.  if  the  vegetation  does  not  decompose  easily,  the 
land  may  be  limed.  When  first  broken  up,  excellent  crops, 
especially  of  wheat  and  cereals,  are  grown  for  some  time  after- 
wards, but  these  get  into  ordinary  condition  after  several  rotations. 


4IO  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

LIVE   STOCK. 

A. — Breeds  of  Horses, 

There  are  many  different  breeds  of  horses,  but  the  three  most 
commonly  used  for  agricultural  purposes  are  the  "Shires," 
"Clydesdales,"  and  "Suffolks."  The  "Cleveland  bays"  are 
also  used  for  farm  work  in  some  districts,  especially  in  some 
parts  of  Yorkshire. 

The  Shire  Horses  are  the  largest  and  heaviest  breed  we 
possess  \  they  have  their  origin  in  the  old  "  Black  Horse,"  and  are 
a  great  improvement  on  the  original  breed.  They  are  more 
suitable  for  heavy  work,  such  as  on  railways,  or  heavy  town 
waggons,  than  for  agricultural  purposes;  although  they  are 
much  used  for  the  latter  purposes  on  strong  land  farms  in  the 
Midlands  and  other  districts.  The  farmers  of  the  Fen  counties 
claim  to  be  the  breeders  of  the  largest  and  strongest  Shires. 
As  a  breed  they  vary  much  in  size.  The  heaviest  are  usually 
selected  for  heavy  draught  purposes,  whilst  the  lighter  ones  are 
retained  on  the  farms.  They  also  vary  in  colour,  but  brown  and 
bay  may  be  considered  the  prevailing  colours,  whilst  black,  roan, 
and  grey  are  common,  and  occasionally  a  chestnut  may  be  seen. 
They  often  have  white  ''stockings"  and  white  markings  on  the  face. 

A  good  stalHon  should  stand  from  sixteen  and  a  half  to  seven- 
teen hands,  girth  about  eight  feet,  and  measure  about  twelve  inches 
below  the  knee.  He  should  have  a  very  wide  chest,  this  being 
a  great  sign  of  strength  and  constitution.  The  line  from  the 
point  of  the  shoulder  to  the  withers  should  incline  well  back. 
The  neck  should  be  arched,  deep  and  muscular,  carrying  a  good 
mane ;  but  the  neck  itself  should  not  be  too  long.  The  head 
is  usually  fairly  large,  and  should  have  a  masculine  appearance. 
The  back  short,  but  not  low,  the  ribs  well   sprung,  and  should 


LIVE  STOCK. 


411 


extend  well  back,  so  that  the  space  between  the  last  rib  and 
the  hook  bone  is  short.  Loins  strong  and  muscular.  The 
quarters,  from  the  hook  bone  back,  should  be  long,  with  the  tail 
well  set.  The  thighs  should  be  large  and  deep ;  the  hocks 
clean  and  fairly  large.  The  bones  of  the  legs  flat  and  strong ; 
round  bone  should  be  avoided.  The  canon  bone,  or  shank  (from 
knee  to  fetlock),  should  be  short.  The  pasterns  should  be  rather 
short,  but  not  too  straight.  There  should  be  plenty  of  silky  hair 
from  the  knees  and  hocks  downward.     They  should  have  good 


Fig.  53. 

sound  feet,  and  be  free  from  any  sign  of  side  bone.  A  stallion 
should  be  active,  and  a  perfectly  free  mover.  Some  of  these 
stallions  trot  at  a  surprising  pace;  this  is  considered,  by  many 
breeders,  a  strong  point. 

These  stallions,  besides  serving  mares  of  their  own  breed, 
often  leave  excellent  stock  for  farm  work  and  light  waggons, 
when  used  to  serve  mares  of  too  light  a  stamp  for  such  purposes. 
The  progeny  often  possess  much  of  the  strength  of  the  sire, 
combined  with  the  activity  of  the  dam,  without  being  plain  in 
appearance. 


412 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


The  Clydesdales,  as  their  name  would  imply,  are  natives  of 
Scotland.  They  are  supposed  by  many  authorities  to  have 
originated  from  a  cross  between  the  old  British  "  Pack  Horse  " 
and  some  imported  Dutch  horses.  Whether  this  be  so  or  not, 
the  Clydesdales  of  the  day  are  a  very  excellent  breed  of  cart- 
horses. They  are  slightly  smaller  than  the  Shires,  and  there 
are  a  few  characteristic  points  in  which  they  differ  from  them ; 
although  many  men  say  there  is  no  appreciable  difference  in  the 
appearance  of  a  good-looking  Clydesdale,  and  a  good-looking 
Shire.  This,  however,  is  not  the  usual  opinion;  but  certainly 
some  first-class  Clydesdales  are  very  like  Shires  in  appearance. 


Fig.  54. — The  Clydesdale. 

The  characteristic  differences  are,  that  the  Clydesdales  have 
finer  bones,  longer  pasterns,  and  better  feet,  but  they  are  smaller 
in  girth  and  not  so  massive  in  the  body  as  Shires.  They  are  not 
so  strong,  but  take  longer  steps,  and  are  faster  walkers ;  this 
makes  them  more  adapted  to  farm  work,  and  are  usually  pre- 
ferred by  carters  who  have  great  distances  to  travel. 

There  is  usually  a  considerable  amount  of  jealousy  between 
the  Shire  and  Clydesdale  breeders.  Both  breeds  have  been 
selling  well  of  late  years,  very  long  prices  having  been  paid, 
in   many  instances,  for  good   specimens  of  both   these  breeds 


LIVE  STOCK. 


413 


for  exportation.     The   Americans,    especially,  have  been  good 
buyers. 

The  points  of  a  Clydesdale  may  be  summed  up  as  follows  :— 
Head  not  too  large  ;  neck  muscular,  upstanding,  and  rather  arched  • 
shoulders  slanting;  ribs  well  sprung;  body  round,  with  good 
back  and  loms  ;  barrel  hght ;  strong  quarters;  legs  rather  long, 
with  good  flat  bone,  and  plenty  of  hair  below  the  knees ;  they 
should  have  good  broad  open  feet.  They  stand  as  a  rule'  from 
sixteen  to  sixteen  and  a  half  hands  high ;  some  are  very  much 
higher.  They  often  show  too  much  daylight  between  the  belly 
and  ground.      Breeders  of  late  years  have   paid   considerable 


Fig.  55.— Suffolk  Punch. 

attention  to  filling  out  the  body  more,  and  in  many  cases  their 
efforts  have  been  attended  by  success. 

The  prevailing  colours  are  bay  and  brown,  and  they  often 
have  white  faces  and  "stockings;"  blacks  and  greys  are  occa- 
sionally seen,  and  in  exceptional  cases  chestnuts. 

There  is  perhaps  no  breed  of  horses  so  well  adapted  to 
agricultural  purposes  as  the  Suffolk  Punch.  These  horses  have 
been  in  great  demand  of  late  years,  both  at  home  and  abroad ; 
and  we  have  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  Suffolk  breeders 
have  a  bright  future  before  them.  They  have  not  only  come  into 
repute  for  farm  purposes,  but  also  as  waggoners,  especially  where 
speed  is  required.     They  step  lightly,  and  are  consequently  better 


414  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

adapted  to  trotting  with  an  empty  lorry  or  waggon  than  other 
cart-horses. 

Their  being  clean-legged  gives  them  a  great  advantage  over 
Shires  or  Clydesdales  for  farm  work,  especially  in  wet  weather  or 
on  clayey  soils  ;  as  the  soil  has  no  chance  of  adhering  to  their 
legs  in  such  large  quantities  as  it  does  with  these  hairy-legged 
animals.  The  unnecessary  amount  of  work  experienced  by  the 
Shire  or  Clydesdale  in  carrying  this  soil  all  day,  is  escaped  by  the 
less  hairy  Suffolk. 

They  are  strong,  active,  and  usually  pull  without  gibbing ;  the 
unpleasant  business  of  "gallop  and  stop"  or  "jerk  and  smash 
a  chain,"  are  by  no  means  characteristic  of  the  Suffolks.  They  are, 
as  a  breed,  exceedingly  hardy,  and  will  keep  themselves  in  good 
working  condition  with  less  food  than  either  the  Shires  or 
Clydesdales. 

They  are  almost  invariably  chestnut  in  colour,  with  manes  and 
tails  lighter  than  the  rest  of  the  body,  but  usually  of  two  shades. 
They  sometimes  have  a  white  star  on  the  face,  but  the  legs  should 
be  free  from  white.  They  are  occasionally  sorrel  or  bay.  They 
stand  from  fifteen  to  sixteen  hands  high,  possess  good  constitutions, 
and  lay  on  flesh  very  quickly  in  return  for  extra  food,  after  having 
perhaps  dropped  in  condition. 

The  head  should  be  carried  well  forward  with  a  spirited  appear- 
ance, on  a  strong  arched  neck.  The  shoulders  are  deep,  but  not 
set  back  as  far  as  those  of  the  Shire.  This  point  in  draught  horses 
is  sometimes  held  to  be  advantageous,  on  the  ground  that  they 
are  less  likely  to  pull  against  their  wind,  and  choke  in  their  collar. 
The  body  is  round  and  compact,  looking  perhaps  a  little  too 
heavy  for  the  short  clean  legs  supporting  it ;  the  chest  is  wide, 
giving  plenty  of  room  between  the  two  fore  legs.  They  should 
girth  well,  be  ribbed  well  back  to  the  hook  bone,  and  carry 
plenty  of  belly  ;  the  hind  quarters  are  fairly  long,  but  not  usually 
so  wide  as  those  of  the  Shire. 

They  often  look  smaller  than  a  Shire  or  Clydesdale  of  the 
same  weight ;  and  weight  for  weight  will  do  more  than  either  of 
these  breeds,  on  the  same  keep.  They  are  usually  active,  and 
possess  great  power  of  endurance. 

A  few  white  hairs  may  occasionally  be  seen  on  the  rumps  of 
these  chestnuts,  which,  to  a  person  not  knowing  the  horse,  might 
be  suggestive  of  age.  This  point  is  peculiar  to  certain  strains, 
and  horses  possessing  this  peculiarity  are  usually  good  ones. 

These  horses  are  sometimes  low  in  the  back ;  this  gives  them 
a  very  awkward  appearance,  and  with  their  strong  neck  and  large 
shoulders  the  fault  is  easily  shown  up. 

Some  complain  of  their  bone  being  occasionally  round,  instead 


LIVE   STOCK. 


415 


of  flat,  and  consider  them  more  liable  to  go  wrong  in  their  joints 
than  the  Shires  or  Clydesdales.  Their  feet,  too,  are  often  con- 
sidered a  weak  point.  Their  general  appearance  is  excelled  by 
both  the  above-mentioned  breeds. 

The  Thoroughbred,  or  "  Blood-horse,"  is  the  oldest  established 
breed  we  have.  This  breed  traces  back  to  the  old  native  English 
horses,  which  are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  improved  by 
imported  Turkish  and  Arab  blood. 

They  are  tall,  slender-looking  animals  with  a  small  body, 
covered  with  a  thin  skin,  carrying  a  fine  glossy  coat.    Head  small, 


Fig.  56.— ITie  Thoroughbred. 

with  a  bright,  prominent,  intelligent-looking  eye.  Neck  long  and 
slender,  carrying  small  mane.  Withers  high,  and  shoulders 
sloping  well  back.  Body  deeper  in  front  than  behind ;  often 
straight  over  the  rump  or  croup,  in  this  case  the  tail  is  set  high. 
The  legs  are  long,  clean,  and  sinewy,  free  from  any  long  hair ; 
bone  should  be  flat  and  clean.  They  stand  from  15-2  to  16  hands 
high.  Bay,  chestnut,  and  brown  are  the  prevailing  colours,  whilst 
grey  may  occasionally  be  seen. 

This  breed  of  horses  excel  all  others  as  regards  speed  and 
endurance ;  but,  owing  to  their  high  breeding,  they  are  usually  very 


4I6  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

nervous  and  excitable,  and  therefore  unfit  for  slow  or  steady 
work.     They  are  used  for  both  riding  and  driving. 

Besides  their  importance  in  producing  horses  for  the  racecourse, 
the  stallions  are  used  for  getting  hunters,  hacks,  and  driving 
horses.  It  is  for  these  purposes  that  they  are  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  the  tenant  farmer.  Since  the  premium  system  has 
been  instituted,  the  ordinary  farmer  with  a  likely  half-bred  or 
light  mare,  has  been  able  to  get  her  covered  by  an  excellent 
thoroughbred  horse,  without  having  to  pay  an  extravagant  fee. 
The  premium  for  each  selected  horse  is  ;j2oo ;  the  conditions 
being,  that  a  stallion  winning  a  premium  shall  serve  not  less  than 
fifty  half-bred  mares,  if  required,  during  the  season,  at  a  fee  not 
exceeding  forty  shillings,  and  two  and  sixpence  groom  fee,  for 
each  mare.  This  excellent  system  has,  of  course,  induced  farmers 
to  have  such  mares  covered,  and  the  result  is  usually  satisfactory. 
It  will  greatly  depend  on  the  dam  as  well  as  on  the  sire,  to  which 
class  the  foal  will  be  eligible  for  classification.  If  it  fails  to  be 
a  hunter,  it  will  in  all  probability  sell  as  a  hack  or  harness  horse, 
or  in  some  cases  be  a  useful  combination  of  both. 

Some  people  recommend  mating  Shire  or  Clydesdale  mares 
with  a  thoroughbred  horse,  in  order  to  get  half-bred  horses.  This 
cross  often  fails  to  produce  the  happy  mean  which  brings  out 
the  good  points  of  both.  The  result  of  such  crosses  too  often 
brings  disappointment,  for  instead  of  the  breeder  becoming 
possessor  of  the  ideal  animal  looked  forward  to,  he  will  in  many 
cases  get  an  awkward-looking  specimen,  having  characteristic 
points  of  the  two  breeds,  which  on  the  same  animal  are  widely 
opposed.  A  result  of  such  a  cross  may  be  described  as  follows  : — 
A  horse  with  perfectly  clean  thoroughbred  legs,  a  long  thin  neck 
with  a  cart-horse  head,  fine  high  withers,  cart-horse  body  and  belly, 
and  a  high  straight  breedy  hind  quarters.  The  above  description 
is  taken  from  a  few  specimens  that  have  come  under  the  author's 
notice,  but  it  would  only  be  right  to  mention  that,  in  a  few  cases, 
we  have  known  breeders  have  better  luck,  when  good-looking 
specimens  and  useful  animals  have  been  produced. 

There  is  more  chance  of  the  mare  proving  in  foal  when 
mated  with  a  horse  of  a  different  breed.  For  instance,  we  have 
known  a  Shire  mare  continually  take  a  Shire  stallion  without  effect, 
and  yet  settle  to  the  first  service  of  a  Thoroughbred.  This  is 
often  a  point  in  favour  of  the  cross,  when  it  is  particularly  desired 
that  a  mare  should  get  a  foal. 

The  Hackneys,  or  roadsters,  are  undoubtedly  a  very  useful  breed. 
They  may  vary  a  great  deal  in  size  and  weight,  the  heavier  as 
well  as  the  lighter  ones  being  grand  movers,  with  plenty  of  style 
and  action. 


LIVE  STOCK. 


417 


Almost  any  kind  of  horse  could  be  got  by  the  use  of  these 
sires,  providing  sufficient  judgment  is  exercised  in  selecting  both 
dam  and  sire,  in  order  that  the  progeny  may  be  adapted  to  the 
required  purpose. 

Formerly  the  Hackneys  were  chiefly  bred  in  Norfolk  and 
Yorkshire.  The  horses  from  the  two  counties  were  distinct  in 
character,  the  old  Norfolk  trotter  being  heavier  than  the  York- 
shire horse ;  but  since  the  introduction  of  foreign  blood  in  each 
case,  these  horses  bred  in  the  different  counties  have  become 
much  more  uniform  in  type,  and  like  each  other. 

The  points  desired  are  that  they  should  be  neither  too  slender 
nor  too  heavy,  standing  about  fifteen  hands  two  inches  high,  with 
good  free  action,  and  level  appearance.     The  head  should  be  neat 


Fig.  57.— The  Hackney. 

with  a  prominent  eye  and  good-tempered  countenance  ;  neck  not 
too  short,  good  withers  and  sloping  shoulders  ;  short  back,  strong 
loins  and  rump,  well  sprung  ribs,  with  plenty  of  girth  and  good 
chest.  (Narrow-chested  animals  are  often  poor  stayers).  They 
should  be  fairly  long  underneath,  with  fore  legs  not  too  long,  and 
well  set  forward,  so  that  the  animal  stands  on  plenty  of  ground. 
The  legs  should  be  free  from  blemish,  with  strong  well-developed 
hocks,  and  good  sound  feet  j  toes  should  not  be  turned  in. 

2  E 


41 8  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

No  doubt  the  best  plan  for  the  tenant  farmer,  when  dealing 
in  this  class  of  animals,  is  to  breed  for  hunters,  as  the  misfits  will 
usually  sell  as  ordinary  saddle  and  harness  horses,  or  for  posting 
purposes. 

For  driving  purposes  it  is  not  necessary  that  they  should  be  so 
short  in  the  back,  or  have  such  sloping  shoulders. 

Cleveland  Bays,  and  Yorkshire  Coach-horses,  are  classed 
together  by  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  though 
the  breeders  fight  hard  for  separate  classes.  These  two  breeds 
are  closely  related,  but  still  they  differ  a  little  in  character,  the 
Cleveland  being  thicker  and  heavier,  with  less  action  than  the 
Yorkshire  Coach-horse.  In  many  instances  the  blood  of  these 
two  breeds  has  been  intermingled  with  great  advantage  to  both 
breeds;  the  Cleveland  blood  being  useful  to  counteract  the 
tendency  of  the  Yorkshire  Coach-horse  becoming  too  leggy  and 
lightboned,  whilst  the  Yorkshire  Coach-horse  imparts  action  and 
style  to  the  Cleveland  which  is  often  wanting  in  this  breed. 

It  appears  that  the  Cleveland  Bay  must,  at  one  time, 
have  exhibited  much  of  the  type  of  the  cart-horse,  and  that  the 
breed  we  now  possess  has  been  acquired  by  selection,  keeping 
certain  lines  in  view.  In  proof  of  this  we  have  recorded  that,  in 
1847,  an  aged  cart  stallion  of  the  Cleveland  breed  was  commended. 

The  Yorkshire  Coach-horse  is  invariably  used  for  driving 
purposes.  It  stands  sixteen  to  sixteen  and  a  half  hands  high. 
Its  colour  is  usually  brov/n  or  bay,  with  black  points.  ^ 

The  Cleveland  is  used  for  driving,  ploughing,  light  carting 
where  speed  is  required,  and  occasionally  for  slow  saddle  work. 
Cleveland  dams,  when  crossed  with  thoroughbreds,  have  often 
been  known  to  produce  good  hunters.  These  horses  stand  about 
sixteen  hands,  often  a  little  coarse  about  the  head,  with  sloping 
shoulders,  and  not  too  long  in  the  back,  but  with  long  hind 
quarters.  Their  legs  are  clean  ;  action  not  always  good.  Their 
colour  is  light  or  dark  bay  with  black  legs,  mane,  and  tail; 
they  sometimes  have  a  white  star  on  their  forehead. 

Both  these  breeds  appear  to  be  weaker  in  their  middles  than 
elsewhere. 

Ponies  are  bred  in  various  parts  of  the  British  Isles.  They 
vary  much  in  size,  anything  below  fourteen  hands  being  classed 
as  a  pony.  The  Shetlanders  are  the  smallest  breed,  often  standing 
very  Uttle  over  eight  hands  high  ;  four  inches  being  a  hand.  The 
measurement  is  taken  over  the  withers  from  the  level  standing 
ground. 

Many  good  ponies  are  bred  in  Devon  and  Wales.  The 
Exmoors  and  Dartmoors  are  the  Devon  breeds,  whilst  those  bred 
in  Wales  are  known  as  Welsh. 


LIVE   STOCK.  419 

These  ponies  are  very  clever  and  strong,  with  wonderful  con- 
stitutions. They  are  much  stronger  proportionately  than  horses. 
Many  of  the  Devonshire  ponies  are  exceedingly  fond  of  the  dogs, 
and  with  a  good  light-weight  rider  will  go  straight  with  the  hounds 
all  day. 

Many  valuable  hunters  are  obtained  by  crossing  a  thorough- 
bred or  hackney  stallion  with  a  good  thick  Exmoor  pony  mare, 
which  is  able  to  jump  and  cross  country,  as  well  as  having  an 
attractive  appearance. 

Management  of  Horses. 

Unless  a  man  takes  a  keen  interest  in  horses,  and  has  had  a 
deal  of  experience,  he  will  rarely  make  a  successful  breeder. 
Indeed,  it  may  be  said,  to  become  a  successful  breeder  of  horse- 
flesh, a  man  should  be  born  with  that  natural  talent  possessed  by 
most  skilful  breeders.  Although  many  such  men  are  found  in 
Yorkshire,  Norfolk,  Lincoln,  Cambridge,  Gloucestershire,  and  a 
few  other  counties,  yet,  speaking  generally,  it  will  pay  the  ordinaiy 
farmer  better  to  turn  his . attention  to  '^beef"  and  "mutton," 
rather  than  dabble  too  deeply  in  "  horse-flesh."  But,  at  the  same 
time,  we  recommend  every  farmer  with  suitable  land  to  breed  his 
own  horses,  and,  in  doing  so,  he  will  occasionally  have  one  to  sell. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  will  not  pay  a  man  to  breed 
low-class  horses,  such  as  may  bring  jr^2^  to  £^2P  when  three  years 
old.  This  sum  would  scarcely  pay  for  the  food  consumed  in 
that  time,  if  the  foal  had  been  properly  fed.  And,  beside  this,  there 
are  many  items  to  be  reckoned  before  a  profit  can  be  declared, 
such  as  the  following  :  Cost  of  service,  risk  of  mare  not  holding, 
risk  of  losing  mare  and  foal,  or  one  of  them,  inconvenience  of  not 
being  able  to  work  the  dam  much  for  some  time  after  foaling,  and 
cost  of  breaking.  Most  farmers  possess  a  good  useful  mare, 
and  sometimes  more  than  one,  suitable  for  carrying  a  good  foal. 
In  many  cases  a  foal  from  such  a  mare,  and  got  by  a  good  sire, 
will  grow  into  a  horse  which  will  be  particularly  adapted  to  the 
work  on  that  farm,  and  will  be  often  easier  kept  in  condition 
(being  bred  on  the  same  soil)  than  any  the  farmer  might  buy. 
Although  such  a  horse  might  not  be  particularly  good  looking,  and 
therefore  perhaps  not  very  saleable,  it  might  very  likely  be  of  a 
greater  value  to  the  owner,  than  one  that  might  fetch  a  much 
higher  price  in  the  open  market. 

In  the  case  of  such  a  horse  not  being  required  on  the 
farm,  it  might  be  sold,  or  perhaps  retained,  and  an  older  one 
disposed  of,  as  an  opportunity  presented  itself.  The  cost  of 
keeping  the  dams  in  such  cases  as  these  would  be  very  little,  as 


420  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

they  would  be  doing  their  daily  work  almost  throughout  the  year, 
whilst  when  breeding  on  a  large  scale  the  mare  often  leads  a 
very  idle  life.  In  such  cases  sums  ranging  from  ;^9o  to  ;^ioo 
should  be  about  the  average  for  the  three-  or  four-year-olds,  in 
order  to  make  the  business  pay. 

Heavy  horses  may  be  broken  at  two  and  a  half  or  three  years 
old,  and  lightly  worked.  If  not  required  on  the  farm,  as  soon  as 
they  become  seasoned,  about  four  or  five  years  old,  they  may  be 
sold.  A  horse  is  usually  supposed  to  be  worth  most  money  when 
rising  five,  being  at  this  age  well  seasoned  and  still  to  come  in 
prime  for  work,  from  five  to  eight  or  nine. 

In  the  case  of  slender  horses  the  young  ones  may  be  kept  for 
hunting,  riding,  or  driving,  until  a  younger  one  is  ready  to  be 
taken  up,  and  the  other  sold,  at  perhaps  about  five  years 
old.  In  this  way  the  horse  is  earning  its  own  living  whilst  getting 
seasoned. 

The  kitid  of  mares  to  breed  from  will  vary  with  the  style  of 
horse  to  be  produced.  They  should  in  all  cases  be  sound 
animals  with  good  constitutions,  and  perfectly  free  from  vice ; 
jibbers  or  mares  with  bad  tempers  should  not  be  selected.  Their 
bone  should  be  sound  and  flat,  free  from  any  bony  deposit,  such 
as  splint,  spavin,  ringbone,  curb,  etc.  Round  soft  bone  is  more 
prone  to  such  diseases  than  flat.  The  feet  should  be  sound  and 
well  formed,  turned-in  toes  should  be  avoided.  They  should  be 
free  movers  with  no  signs  of  tripping  or  lameness.  Roarers, 
crib-biters,  or  mares  with  any  hereditary  weaknesses  should  not  be 
selected. 

In  choosing  a  horse,  great  care  should  be  taken  in  selecting 
one  that  is  likely  to  suit  the  mare.  As  a  rule  violent  crosses 
should  be  avoided.  In  some  cases  mares  with  weak  points  are 
mated  with  horses  having  those  points  correspondingly  strong,  in 
the  hope  that  these  failings  may  be  rectified  in  the  progeny.  If, 
however,  the  faults  on  either  side  are  too  glaring,  the  cross  will 
usually  lead  to  disappointment,  although  when  less  intense  it  will 
often  have  its  desired  effect. 

Notwithstanding  the  law  of  heredity  or  "like  begetting  like," 
there  is  always  a  vast  amount  of  uncertainty  about  horse-breeding, 
that  perhaps  too  often  favours  "  variation "  with  an  additional 
member.  Some  horses  cross  remarkably  well  with  cross-bred 
mares,  others  do  not.  Big  sires  often  get  small  stock,  while  small 
compact  sires  may  leave  large  well-grown  horses.  A  good-looking 
sire  often  "  throws  back,"  and  gets  inferior-looking  foals.  There 
is  no  better  way  of  judging  the  capabilities  of  a  stallion,  than 
by  examining  the  stock  he  leaves  (when  possible). 

The  kind  of  soils  best   adapted  to   horse-rearing  are   those 


LIVE  STOCK.  421 

which  produce  a  good  coarse  pasture,  affording  the  young 
animals  a  cheap  run  during  summer  and  autumn.  The  subsoil 
should  be  fairly  dry  without  being  too  light,  whilst  the  soil  itself 
should  contain  a  good  percentage  of  carbonate  and  phosphate  of 
lime,  and  magnesia,  in  order  to  supply  the  requisite  amount  of 
mineral  matter,  without  which  the  proper  development  of  the  bone 
cannot  take  place. 

When  a  mare  is  inclined  for  the  horse,  she  is  said  to  be 
*'/«  season ^'^  or  **in  use."  When  in  season  they  are  usually 
sluggish,  often  stop  to  urinate  when  working  in  the  plough  or 
in  the  harrow,  rub  against  the  next  horse,  or  lean  over  on 
the  chains,  and  occasionally  give  way  to  a  screeching  noise. 
They  remain  in  season  for  about  a  week,  and  if  not  successfully 
mated  come  in  use  again  at  intervals  of  three  weeks. 

In  order  to  test  if  a  mare  will  receive  the  horse,  she  should  be 
put  to  a  strange  one  ;  or  to  the  stalUon  that  is  intended  to  serve 
her,  in  the  event  of  his  being  within  easy  distance  :  the  arrange- 
ment being  'for  the  horse  to  be  placed  in  a  stable,  loose  box,  or 
any  other  convenient  place,  with  a  door  or  gate  between  the  two, 
over  which  the  horse  can  get  its  head,  but  is  sufficiently  high  to 
prevent  the  mare  striking  him.  The  mare  is  at  first  placed  head  to 
head  with  the  horse,  and  then  turned  with  her  tail  towards  him ;  if 
she  is  in  proper  season  she  will  stand  quietly,  but  if  not,  will 
usually  attempt  to  kick  him. 

Mares  are  occasionally  very  highly  in  season,  but  of  too 
nervous  a  disposition  to  allow  the  stallion  to  mount.  In  such 
cases  '*  hobbles  "  have  to  be  resorted  to,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
mare  kicking.  This  is  a  dangerous  practice,  and  should  only  be 
used  in  exceptional  cases — such  as  when  holding  up  a  fore  leg  (the 
usual  thing  to  do)  does  not  appear  to  be  a  sufficient  precaution. 

The  "  hobbles  "  are  made  of  a  strong  rope.  A  loop  being  tied 
in  the  middle  and  passed  fairly  tightly  round  the  neck,  the  two 
ends  put  between  the  two  fore  legs  and  around  each  of  the 
hind  legs,  from  outside  in,  passing  behind  the  pasterns  (between 
the  fetlock  and  hoof),  the  ends  are  brought  out  underneath  the 
rope  running  from  between  the  fore  legs  back,  passes  outside  the 
fore  arms  and  under  the  loop  around  the  neck,  and  pulled  just 
tightly  enough  to  prevent  the  mare  from  kicking.  Great  care 
should  be  exercised  when  a  heavy  horse  is  used ;  the  ropes  must 
not  be  drawn  too  tightly,  as  it  might  result  in  the  mare  not  being 
able  to  bear  the  horse,  in  which  case  both  might  be  injured. 

A  mare  is  more  likely  to  hold  to  the  horse  when  going  out  of 
season  than  at  any  other  time.  Some  grooms  have  a  pail  of  cold 
water  to  throw  over  the  mare  after  she  has  been  served,  the  idea 
being  that  the  shock  produced  makes  them  surer  in  holding,  and 


422  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

more  likely  to  prove  in  foal,  though  some  condemn  the  practice 
and  consider  it,  if  anything,  detrimental. 

Horses  travel  for  the  purpose  of  serving  mares  during  April, 
May,  June,  and  July. 

The  period  of  gestation  in  the  mare  is  about  eleven  months. 
In-foal  mares  may  be  worked  up  to  very  near  the  time  of 
foaling,  but  care  should  be  taken  to  let  the  work  be  of  a  light 
character,  so  as  to  prevent  any  chance  of  straining,  as  it  might  be 
the  cause  of  abortion  or  premature  birth.  In  the  case  of  a  mare 
being  accustomed  to  working  in  shafts,  she  should  not  be  allowed 
to  have  any  backing  work  to  do  when  foaling  time  is  approaching ; 
in  fact,  they  are  much  better  doing  light  work  in  chains  at  this 
period. 

They  should  be  kept  in  good  thriving  condition  by  the  supply 
of  good  nutritious  food,  as  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  foal, 
as  well  as  the  mare,  will  require  nourishment,  besides  a  certain 
amount  being  taken  up  for  the  production  of  milk.  Mares  in 
foal  should  never  get  dusty  hay. 

Just  before  the  period  of  parturition  the  mare  should  be  kept 
in  a  good  roomy  box,  and  well  watched ;  some  one  should  always 
be  present  during  parturition.  A  mare  very  rarely  requires  any 
assistance  in  foaling,  but  in  the  case  of  her  getting  a  hard  time, 
she  may  kill  the  foal  by  knocking  its  head  against  the  wall, 
during  parturition,  or  may  step  on  it  as  she  rises,  in  the  event  of 
the  navel  string  not  snapping.  When  an  attendant  is  present  he 
should  cut  the  navel  string,  and  tie  it  with  a  piece  of  disinfected 
waxed  cord ;  he  should  also  see  that  the  mare's  teats  are  clear, 
and  put  the  young  foal  to  suck.  In  some  cases  the  foal  has  diffi- 
culty in  expelling  the  faeces,  which  may  form  hard  lumps  in  the 
anus  ;  these  should  be  cleared  by  a  gentle  syringe,  or  by  the  in- 
sertion of  a  tallow  candle.  They  are  sometimes  born  with  a 
closed  anus ;  in  such  a  case  they  should  be  cut  with  a  knife  and 
dressed  with  a  disinfectant. 

When  mares  are  late  they  are  often  allowed  to  foal  in  the 
field,  but  should  be  closely  watched.  April  and  May  are  the 
usual  months  for  mares  to  foal,  but  some  arrive  earlier  and 
some  later  in  the  season. 

In  the  case  of  the  mare  having  no  milk  or  dying  during  par- 
turition, the  foal  is  often  very  difficult  to  rear.  The  best  thing  to 
give  them  is  a  little  cow's  milk  with  a  small  amount  of  sugar 
dissolved  in  it.  Some  people  recommend  a  very  complicated 
mixture,  but,  as  a  rule,  the  one  mentioned  proves  the  best.  The 
young  animal  usually  finds  the  want  of  the  mother's  first  milk, 
as  it  acts  as  a  purgative  in  getting  rid  of  the  faeces.  Below  is 
a  composition  of  mare's  milk  compared  with  that  from  a  cow. 


LIVE 

;  STOCK. 

Composition  of 

Milk  (Warington). 

Mare. 

Cow. 

Water 
Casein 
Fat     .. 
Sugar 
Mineral  matter 

..      90-2 
..        1-9 

IT 

..6-4         . 
..       0-4 

87-0 
37 
3'9 
47 
07 

423 


Management  of  Mare  and  Foal. 

The  mare  with  her  foal  should  be  kept  in  a  loose  box,  where 
she  should  be  supplied  with  plenty  of  good  food,  with  an  occa- 
sional bran  mash.  As  soon  as  the  weather  is  fine  enough,  they 
should  be  allowed  to  run  together  on  the  grass  by  day,  being 
brought  in  by  night  at  first ;  but,  usually,  by  the  middle  of  May 
they  may  be  allowed  to  run  out  altogether.  Late  foals  are  some- 
times never  brought  into  the  box  at  all. 

The  mare  should  be  allowed  to  run  with  her  foal  for  at  least  a 
month  before  she  is  put  to  any  work.  A  nursing  mare  is  usually 
in  a  weak  condition,  and  works  faintly,  consequently  she  should 
only  be  put  in  light  draughts.  When  the  mare  is  worked  whilst 
nursing,  the  foal  is,  as  a  rule,  left  in  the  loose  box,  where  it 
scampers  about  in  an  excitable  manner  until  the  mother  returns. 
Some  farmers  allow  the  foal  to  run  by  the  side  of  the  mother 
whilst  at  work. 

Before  the  mare  is  returned  to  the  foal  after  working,  she 
should  have  a  little  milk  taken  off,  as  the  first  milk  after  her 
exertion  may  act  injuriously  on  the  young  foal. 

A  male  foal  is  named  a  "  colt,"  whilst  the  female  is  known  as 
a  "filly"  foal. 

The  usual  age  for  weaning  is  about  five  or  six  months  old;  by 
this  time  the  little  animal  will  have  learnt  to  eat  grass  and  a  little 
crushed  oats  or  meal.  If  possible,  a  foal  should  not  be  weaned 
alone;  it  often  frets  without  company.  In  the  event  of  the 
breeder  only  having  one,  it  would  be  well  for  him  to  make  an 
arrangement  with  the  nearest  neighbour  who  may  have  one  to 
allow  them  to  run  together,  in  which  case  they  might  be  kept  on 
each  farm  alternately. 

Some  people  prefer  to  keep  their  foals  in  loose  boxes  during 
winter,  giving  them  hay,  a  little  crushed  oats,  and  perhaps  a  little 
linseed  cake,  as  well  as  a  few  roots ;  whilst  others  recommend 
keeping  them  on  the  pastures,  with  a  shed  to  retire  to  when  they 
wish,  where  they  get  a  supply  of  hay  and  corn  once  a  day.  We 
much  prefer  the  latter  plan,  for  the  following  reasons.  They  get 
much  more  natural  exercise,  and,  consequently,  develop  better 


424  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

bone,  muscle,  and  feet  than  when  kept  indoors.  The  outdoor  life 
hardens  their  constitutions,  and  is  more  conducive  to  the  develop- 
ment of  good  lungs.  Foals  lying  out  cost  less  to  keep  than 
those  kept  in  boxes  all  the  winter. 

They  run  on  grass  during  the  summer,  and  get  the  same  treat- 
ment as  described  throughout  until  they  are  taken  up  to  be  broken. 

The  colts  are  castrated  usually  at  one  to  two  years  old, 
although  some  breeders  have  the  operation  performed  at  six  to 
eight  weeks  old. 

When  a  horse  is  to  be  retained  on  the  farm  it  is  often  well  to 
let  him  run  until  two  years  old  before  performing  the  operation. 
They  get  slightly  coarse  in  the  head,  but  develop  thick  muscular 
necks,  and  massive  chests,  and  are  usually  stronger  in  constitu- 
tion. People  who  object  to  the  coarse  appearance  of  the  head 
and  neck  prefer  to  castrate  at  one  year  old.  It  is  also  often 
considered  that  the  operation  is  attended  by  less  risk  at  one  year 
old  than  at  two.  The  operation  is  usually  performed  in  the 
spring.  Some  castrate  with  the  animal  standing ;  but  the  more 
usual  way  is  to  cast  the  horse  on  the  grass  by  means  of 
"  hobbles."  As  soon  as  the  horse  is  down  it  is  placed  on  its 
back,  and  its  legs  are  tied  securely  together  with  the  ends  of  the 
hobbles.  Precautions  should  always  be  taken  in  having  strong 
ropes,  as  a  powerful  horse  might  suddenly  burst  them  during  the 
operation,  which  would  be  exceedingly  awkward. 

The  operator  stands  behind  the  horse ;  the  purse  and  penis 
are  washed,  and  dressed  with  disinfecting  oil.  The  purse  is  cut 
with  a  very  sharp  knife,  one  testicle  taken  out  at  a  time,  and  the 
clams  put  on ;  the  cord  is  burnt  through  with  the  searing  iron,  a 
little  ointment  put  on  and  reburnt  to  prevent  bleeding.  The 
second  stone  is  taken  out  in  the  same  way ;  the  parts  are  then 
dressed  with  a  disinfectant,  and  a  little  lard  is  rubbed  around  the 
parts  to  prevent  inflammation  taking  place  after  the  operation. 

Young  farm  horses  are  usually  broken  in  the  winter,  when 
rising  three  years  old,  so  that  they  may  be  got  into  working  order 
to  assist  at  the  busy  time,  when  preparing  the  ground  for  sowing 
the  spring  and  summer  crops. 

In  some  cases,  when  the  farmer  happens  to  be  short  of 
horses,  or  has  mares  in  foal,  they  may  be  broken  to  work  in 
chains  when  rising  two,  to  assist  in  spring  work,  and  then  allowed 
to  run  during  the  summer,  and  broken  to  harness  in  the  following 
winter. 

Horse-breaking.— A  great  deal  depends  on  how  a  young  horse 
is  handled ;  a  well-broken,  tractable  horse  will  usually  fetch  a  great 
deal  more  than  one,  similar  in  all  other  respects,  but  badly 
trained.     A  young  horse  with  a  peculiar  temper,  placed  in  the 


LIVE  STOCK.  425 

hands  of  a  careless  breaker,  is  often  mined  for  ever ;  whilst  if 
it  had  been  put  in  the  charge  of  a  patient  and  skilful  trainer  it 
might  have  been  made  fairly  tractable  and  a  valuable  animal. 
Hence  it  is  often  economical  to  place  a  young  horse  under  the 
care  of  an  experienced  hand,  although  it  may  cost  a  little  more 
money. 

The  modes  of  breaking  a  farm  horse  only  vary,  as  a  rule,  in 
minor  details,  differing  a  little  according 
to  locality  and  circumstances.  So  if  we 
describe  one  common  method  it  will  be 
all  that  a  student  will  require.  Unless 
the  animal  has  been  handled  when  young, 
the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  place  a 
long  halter  on  its  head,  so  that  two  or 
three  men  can  get  hold  of  it,  to  prevent 
its  escape.  When  the  halter  is  put  on, 
a  half  hitch  should  be  taken  round  the 
loop,  as  shown  in  Fig.  58,  to  prevent  its 
running  too  tightly  round  the  jaw. 

The  men  get  hold  of  the  rope,  whilst 

one  stands  behind  with  a  whip  to  prevent 

its  hanging  backwards.     They  then  pro-  p^^    ^ 

ceed  to  a  soft  ploughed  field,  or  a  loose  '^'  ^  * 

sea  beach  is  still  better.     The  animal  is  then  "lunged."     This 

consists  of  the  men  holding  on  to  the  halter,  whilst   the  whip 

sends  the  animal  round,  describing  a  circle;  first  going  a  few 

rounds  the  near  way  (left),  and  then  a  few  the  further  way. 

The  left  side  of  a  horse,  as  a  man  sits  in  the  saddle,  is  known 
as  the  "near  side,"  the  right  the  *'off,"  or  "further"  side. 

This  exercise  on  the  soft  ground  soon  puffs  the  animal,  and 
makes  it  much  easier  to  handle.  The  next  thing  is  to  get  it  into 
a  loose  box  to  put  the  bridle  on,  and  place  the  bit  in  its  mouth. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  allow  it  to  stand  in  the  loose  box  with  the 
bridle,  bit,  and  side-reins  on  for  a  few  hours  every  day,  so  as  to  let 
it  get  accustomed  to  the  bit  before  being  led  out. 

Some  breakers  use  very  sharp  bits,  which  cut  the  sides  of 
the  jaws,  and  cause  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of  the 
mouth ;  this  is  both  barbarous  and  unnecessary. 

The  animal  is  then  usually  shod  on  the  front  feet,  and  led  out 
on  the  high  way  in  order  to  get  it  accustomed  to  passing  carriages, 
carts,  etc.  When  led  out  in  this  way  it  should  have  the  breaking- 
gear  on,  known  as  a  dumb  jockey,  on  to  which  the  side  reins  are 
fixed.  To  get  it  to  steer  properly  with  the  bit,  it  is  necessary  to 
lead  it  from  both  sides  alternately. 

When  it  answers  the  bit  in  this  way,  the  breaker  stands  behind 


426  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

with  a  long  pair  of  reins,  whilst  a  man  on  either  side  leads  it,  so  as 
to  keep  the  horse  from  turning  or  running  backwards.  As  soon 
as  it  becomes  under  the  command  of  the  reins,  the  breaker  takes 
it  to  the  highway,  to  make  it  pass  any  vehicles,  etc.,  that  may  be 
met,  without  being  led  by  the  side. 

As  soon  as  the  animal  is  under  command  of  the  reins  it  is 
generally  mounted  and  ridden ;  when  mounted  for  the  first  time  it 
usual  for  the  breaker  to  be  accompanied  by  another  person  on 
horseback,  until  the  young  horse  gets  accustomed  to  the  saddle. 
In  the  case  of  a  farm  horse  it  is  not  ridden  much ;  but  when 
intended  for  saddle  work  it  is  broken  completely,  and  taught  to 
canter,  etc. :  it  should  answer  the  rein  on  either  side  with  a 
delicate  pull.  In  order  to  develop  good  action  and  a  high  step, 
young  horses  are  sometimes  ridden  over  small  pebbles  with 
magnifying  glasses  on. 

It  is  usual  to  break  a  horse  to  chains  before  putting  it  in 
shafts.  In  order  to  get  it  accustomed  to  the  chains  rubbing 
against  its  legs,  it  should  be  taken  in  a  field  with  two  long  chains 
held  out  by  two  men  and  allowed  to  rub  against  the  legs  whilst 
it  is  led  by  the  breaker.  After  this  has  been  done  satisfactorily, 
the  animal  is  yoked  to  a  log,  or  anything  that  it  can  draw  easily, 
so  as  to  get  it  familiar  with  the  collar.  In  the  south  of  England, 
where  two-horse  carts  are  used,  young  horses  are  usually  yoked 
in  front  of  the  shafts,  and  behind  the  leader,  being  of  course  led 
by  the  breaker  to  start  with.  The  leader  should  be  a  good,  steady, 
strong  horse,  then  the  young  one  cannot  turn  to  the  right  or  left,  but 
is  bound  to  follow.  No  larger  load  is  put  on  the  cart  than  the  two 
horses  can  manage  easily  until  the  young  animal  gets  accustomed 
to  the  collar,  when  it  may  be  made  to  pull  a  share.  It  is  a  great 
mistake  to  overload  to  begin  with,  for  if  a  young  horse  finds 
that  it  has  got  more  than  it  can  easily  manage  it  will  often  show 
ill  temper,  and,  consequently,  turn  a  jibber.  Many  a  young 
draught-horse  has  been  spoilt  by  being  overloaded  before  it  has 
been  properly  seasoned,  or  by  being  worked  with  jibbing  horses. 

The  next  operation  after  working  in  front  of  the  cart  is  to  put 
it  with  another  steady  horse  in  low  draught.  A  chain  harrow  is  a 
good  implement  to  start  with,  as  there  is  no  chance  of  the  horse 
damaging  itself  by  coming  back  on  it,  whereas  there  might  be  a 
risk  in  using  an  ordinary  harrow.  It  should  be  tied  back  to  the 
other  horse's  collar,  to  prevent  it  getting  too  far  in  advance.  As 
soon  as  it  gets  to  work  well  in  the  chain  harrow  it  may  be  put  in 
the  plough,  and  is  usually  placed  on  the  land  side.  If  it  is  at  all 
inclined  to  kick  whilst  coming  round  at  the  headlands,  the  plough 
is  the  best  implement  for  preventing  it,  as,  by  pressing  on  the  stilts, 
the  whipples  and  chains  can  be  kept  higher  than  in  any  other  low 


LIVE  STOCK.  427 

draught.  There  is,  consequently,  less  chance  of  the  chain  rubbing 
against  the  bottom  of  the  legs,  or  of  the  animal  getting  a  leg  out 
of  trace,  which,  with  young  horses,  is  often  a  cause  of  kicking. 

An  advantage-whipple  should  be  used  when  a  young  horse  is 
first  yoked,  so  that  it  may  get  less  than  half  the  draught 


0 0==:9       ^       .cr=Q 

Young  horse. 

Fig.  59. 

After  the  animal  has  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  chain- 
work,  it  is  usually  easy  to  break  it  to  the  harness.  The  best  thing 
for  this  purpose  is  to  get  an  arrangement  where  the  shafts  are 
fixed  on  to  the  axle-case,  and  a  seat  put  in  the  place  of  the  butt 
of  the  cart — the  heavier  and  stronger  it  is  the  better.  As  soon  as 
the  animal  is  tackled  to  the  shafts,  a  heavy  log  of  wood  should  be 
fastened  to  the  axle-case ;  this  should  project  backwards  and 
downwards,  so  that  if  the  horse  attempts  to  rear,  this  comes  in 
contact  with  the  ground  and  prevents  it.  If  the  shafts,  axle,  and 
wheels  cannot  be  procured  without  the  butt,  an  ordinary  cart  will 
answer  the  purpose. 

A  strong  rope  should  be  passed  over  the  rump  of  the  horse 
and  tied  to  each  shaft  to  prevent  its  kicking ;  this  is  named  the 
"  kicking-strap." 

The  animal  should  be  led  by  a  man  on  each  side  until  it  goes 
safely  with  a  man  driving,  it  may  then  be  worked  in  the  cart 
in  the  ordinary  way. 

If  required  for  a  carriage  or  posting  purposes,  it  will  need  to 
be  driven  a  great  deal  in  a  light  conveyance  until  it  will  pass 
everything  on  the  road  without  being  shy  or  nervous  ;  such  things 
as  traction  engines  will  try  their  boldness  as  well  as  anything. 
A  horse  that  is  broken  for  driving  should  almost  guide  with  a 
thread,  and  answer  the  rein  as  well  on  one  side  as  the  other.  It 
should  be  driven  through  town  streets  and  got  accustomed  to  a 
railway  station  before  leaving  the  breaker's  hands. 

The  cost  of  keeping  a  farm  horse  will  vary  in  different  districts. 
Where  very  large  horses  are  kept,  the  working  days  long,  and  the 
farmer  fond  of  seeing  his  horses  carrying  plenty  of  flesh,  they  eat 
far  more  than  when  circumstances  are  somewhat  opposite.  The 
farm  horses  in  the  north  of  England  are,  on  the  whole,  larger, 
work  longer  hours,  and  are  often  better  cared  for  than  in  some  oif 
the  southern  counties,  consequently  they  get  a  more  liberal  ration. 

Fann  horses  are,  as  a  rule,  brought  to  the  stable  on  dry  food 


428 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


in  October,  and  will  generally  remain  until  May.  They  are 
turned  out  earlier  in  some  districts  than  others;  but,  on  an 
average,  they  are  in  the  stable  about  thirty-two,  and  on  grass 
twenty  weeks. 

Farm  horses  usually  live  on  oats,  hay,  straw,  and  roots.  Many 
farmers  give  a  small  quantity  of  beans  with  the  crushed  oats,  and 
a  bran  mash  on  Saturday  nights. 

They  usually  get  straw  for  the  first  twelve  weeks,  whilst  it  is 
fresh,  then  a  little  hay  with  the  straw  for  the  next  four,  and  the 
last  fourteen  hay,  with  perhaps  a  little  straw  at  nights.  Some 
liberal  feeders  give  hay  altogether. 

The  Cumberland  horses  are  chiefly  Clydesdales,  and  receive 
from  a  stone  to  a  stone  and  a  half  of  oats  daily,  whilst  in  some  parts 
of  the  south  of  England,  where  the  horses  are  smaller,  from  twelve 
to  fifteen  pounds  of  oats  per  day  is  considered  liberal,  getting 
twelve  when  in  ordinary  work,  and  fifteen  when  the  work  gets 
harder,  as  in  spring.  The  horses  in  the  South  of  England  usually 
get  mangolds,  whilst  in  the  north  a  few  swedes  are  more  common. 
From  sixteen  to  twenty-four  pounds  per  day  of  hay  or  straw  may 
be  taken  as  the  quantity  consumed,  varying  with  the  amount  of 
corn  given. 


Estimated  Cost  of  Keeping  a  Cumberland  Farm  Horse 
FROM  October  to  middle  of  May,  32  Weeks. 

First  Period:  12  ivceks. 


16  lbs.  straw  per  day  =  i  cwt.  per  week,  at  \s.  6d. 

17  ,,     oats         ,,        =3  bus.      „       „       2s.  Tyd. 

16  ,,     swedes    ,,        =  i  cwt.      ,,       ,,       os.  6d. 

Straw  for  litter  =  \  cwt.      „       ,,       is.  6d. 

Twelve  weeks  at 
Second  Period :  4  weeks. 

8  lbs.  hay  per  day  =  \  cwt.  per  week,  at  3J.  od. 
8    „    straw   ,,        =2  cwt.       ,,       ,,        \s.  6d. 

17  ,,    oats      ,,       =3  bus.       „       ,,        2s.  ^d. 
16   ,,    swedes,,       =  i  cwt.      ,,       ,,        os.  6d. 


Straw  for  litter 


J  cwt.      „       ,,        IS.  6d. 
Four  weeks  at 


Third  Period:    16  weeks. 

16  lbs.  hay  per  day  =  i  cwt.  per  week,  at  3^.  od. 

17  „    oats      ,,         =3  bus.       „      „       2s.  zd. 
16   ,,    swedes,,         =  i  cwt.      ,,       ,,       os.  6d. 

Straw  for  litter  =  J  cwt.      „       ,,       i^.  6d. 

Sixteen  weeks  at 


s. 

d. 

I 

6 

'.'.       6 

9 

0 

6 

0 

6 

..       9 

3 

s. 

d. 

I 

6 

0 

9 

..       6 

9 

0 

6 

0 

6 

10 

0 

s. 

d. 

3 

0 

6 

9 

0 

6 

0 

6 

10    9 


LIVE  STOCK.  429 

Cost  0/  Winter  Keep. 

12  weeks,  at  9^.  3a.    ..         ..         ..         ..         ..         5110 

4        ,,        \os.  od. 200 

16        „        los.  9d. 8     12    o 

.^16      3    o 
Average  weekly  cost  about  loy. 

Cost  of  Summer   Feeding. 

First  Period:  6  loeeks — busy  7uork. 

s.    d. 
Grazing  per  week   . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  . ,         36 

Oats  I  bus.  per  week         . .  . .  . .  . .  , ,         26 

Cut  fodder  for  six  days  i|  cwt.,  at  8^^.    ..  ..  .,         10 

Six  weeks  at    ..         ..         ,,         70 

Second  Period :  7  weeks — light  work. 

s.    d. 
Grazing  only,  at  4J,  per  week 40 

Seven  weeks  at  ..         ..        4    .0 

Third  Period  :  7  weeks — busy  work. 

s.    d. 
Grazing,  corn,  etc.,  per  week      ..  ..  ..  ,,         70 

Seven  weeks  at        70 

Total  Cost  0/ Summer  Keep. 

£    s.    d. 

6  weeks,  at  7s.  per  week        . .         . .  . .         . .         220 

7  M        4^-        ..  180 

7       >»       7s.        „  290 

Average  cost  per  week  in  summer,  6s. 

Total  Cost  of  Food  the  Year. 

£  s.  d. 

Total  summer  keep    ..          ..          ..          ..          ..         5  19  o 

,,    winter      „        16  3  o 

;^22         2      O 

Average  weekly  cost  per  year  about  Ss.  6d. 

The  horse  would  probably  leave  about  six  tons  of  manure, 
worth  3^.  6d.  per  ton.  This  would  reduce  the  total  keep  to  about 
;^2 1  for  the  year. 

It  should  be  clearly  understood  that  the  ration  given  is  a 
typical  one  of  this  neighbourhood.  As  different  farmers  have 
different  ways   of   keeping   their    horses,   it  would   be  almost 


430  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

impossible  to  give  rations  to  be  in  accordance  with  those  given 
in  different  districts.  Many  farmers  would  consider  this  ration 
liberal,  but  others  might  think  it  low.  Farm  horses  in  the  southern 
counties  cost  less  than  this,  and,  as  a  rule,  do  less  work  than  the 
Cumberland  horses. 

Beans  might  be  added  to  the  ration  by  reducing  the  oats, 
without  making  any  difference  to  the  cost. 

Some  of  the  hay  and  straw  might  be  chopped  and  mixed  with 
the  corn  for  dinner  times.  As  horses  have  only  a  limited  time 
for  dinner  they  can  consume  more  of  the  chop  than  when  given 
in  the  long  state. 

The  price,  2S.  3^.  per  bushel,  is  below  the  present  market 
value  for  white  oats  weighing  forty-two  pounds  per  bushel :  but 
still  it  is  a  good  average  price,  and  it  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration that  the  oats  horses  consume  are  not  so  well  conditioned 
as  those  sent  to  the  market.  Nothing  is  charged  for  crushing,  as 
that  would  balance  the  cost  of  marketing  if  sold.  The  price  is 
raised  to  2s.  6d.  in  the  summer,  owing  to  oats  being  then  usually 
dearer  than  in  winter. 

The  hay,  straw,  and  roots  are  charged  lower  than  usual  market 
prices;  but  as  the  farmer  is  generally  bound  by  agreement  to 
consume  such  produce  on  the  farm,  only  such  prices  as  cattle 
would  be  likely  to  return  for  their  consumption  can  be  charged. 

The  amount  of  litter,  to  some  readers,  might  appear  low ;  but  if 
all  the  clean  straw  be  shaken  back,  and  about  five  pounds  added 
daily,  it  will  usually  be  found  sufficient. 

In  some  cases  carrots  are  added  to  a  horse's  ration  ;  they  are 
much  relished  by  them,  and  should  be  given  if  a  horse  is  not  quite 
well,  or  off  its  feed.  It  should  be  remembered  that  they  tend  to 
make  the  ration  more  costly  if  given  in  large  quantities. 

The  Blacksmith  usually  charges  from  2s.  6d.  to  35-.  6d,  per 
set,  and  from  is.  3^.  to  2s.  for  removing  the  shoes  of  farmers' 
horses.  They  require  to  be  shod  often er  on  some  farms  than 
others,  sharp  stony  soils  wear  the  shoes  fastest.  In  the  ordinary 
way,  farm  horses  should  get  from  three  to  four  new  sets  during  the 
year,  and  the  shoes  should  be  removed  the  same  number  of  times. 
Besides  this,  they  will  require  to  be  frosted  or  sharpened  during 
frosty  weather.  Some  farmers  contract  with  the  smith  to  shoe 
their  horses  for  a  stated  sum,  155-.  per  horse  being  about  a  fair 
average  price  paid  under  this  system.  Other  smith  work,  such  as 
repairing  implements,  carts,  laying  and  sharpening  harrows  and 
cultivators,  new  tyres  for  cart  wheels,  repairing  chains,  etc.,  are 
expenses  which  indirectly  belong  to  the  horse.  When  speak- 
ing of  the  cost  of  a  man  and  pair  of  horses  per  day,  the  carts 
and  implements  used  by  the  horses  are  usually  included;  but 


LIVE  STOCK.  431 

some  people  might  prefer  to  charge  this  item  of  repairs 
separately  against  the  crops.  Taking  one  year  with  another, 
these  items  would  amount  to  from  255-.  to  30J.  for  each  horse 
per  year. 

The  Saddler's  bill  for  repairing  harness,  restuffing  collars, 
repadding  harness  pads,  and  yearly  depreciation  of  harness  could 
not  be  reckoned  less  than  13^.  per  horse  per  year. 

Depreciation  and  Risk. — After  a  few  years'  work  the  value  of 
a  horse  decreases  yearly,  and  finally  it  has  to  be  replaced  by  a 
younger  one.  The  amount  the  horse  has  fallen  in  value,  divided 
by  the  number  of  years  it  has  worked  on  the  farm,  will  give  its 
annual  depreciation,  which  item  has  to  be  added  to  the  yearly 
cost.  In  working  out  an  example  to  explain  this,  we  know  quite 
well  that  farm  horses  differ  very  much  in  value,  but  we  will  con- 
sider ;^38  to  be  the  average  value  of  a  four-year-old  farm  horse. 
Suppose  this  horse  to  work  well  for  ten  years ;  it  would  be  four- 
teen years  old,  and  might  sell  then  for  about  ;£"i6.  It  is  plain 
that  the  horse  has  depreciated  ;^22  in  value  in  ten  years,  which 
would  amount  to  £,2  4J.  per  year. 

Besides  this  item  there  is  a  risk  of  losing  the  horse,  or  its 
getting  lame  or  blemished  in  any  way,  which  would  lessen  its 
value  more  or  less  under  different  circumstances. 

Horses  sometimes  require  veterinary  attendance,  which  on  a 
farm  is  usually  very  little,  but  still  it  must  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion, as  some  years  it  might  amount  to  a  large  sum.  To  arrive 
at  these  items  suppose  that  we  are  dealing  with  a  stable  of  six 
horses,  varying  in  value  from  ;£"i6  to  ;£38,  then  the  average 
value  would  be  £^2*1.  If  one  of  these  horses  died  every  six 
years  there  would  be  a  loss  of  £21  =  £4  los.  a  year  to  be 
divided  amongst  the  six  horses,  =  155.  per  year.  To  this,  5^. 
might  be  added  per  horse  to  cover  the  veterinary  expenses,  and 
also  any  depreciation  that  might  occur  in  the  value  of  the  horse 
from  being  lamed,  blemished,  etc.  The  three  items  combined 
making  £1  per  year. 

Then  there  will  always  be  some  little  repairs  to  be  done  in  the 
stable,  besides  new  rugs,  brushes,  combs,  etc.,  to  be  supplied  at 
intervals.  We  will  reckon  this  item  to  amount  to  $os,  per  year 
in  a  six-horse  stable :  that  would  equal  5^.  per  horse. 

If  any  allowance  is  to  be  made  for  attendance  and  grooming, 
not  less  than  £1  los.  could  be  charged.  Some  would  object  to  this 
charge,  as  it  would  be  included  in  the  man's  wages,  when  speak- 
ing of  a  man  and  team,  and,  therefore,  this  item  might  be  reckoned 
twice  over  if  not  careful. 

Interest  of  five  per  cent,  on  £^S  on  the  first  cost  of  the  horse 
=  j£i  iSs.  for  the  year. 


432  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Total  cost  of  keeping  the  horse  for  one  year — 


For  food  consumed 
Deduct  value  of  manure 


£ 

22 
I 

s. 
o 
o 

6 
6 

;ted  with  the  horse 

.'.*  (?)i:i 

10 

o 

£   s.    d. 


21       O      O 

For  shoeing         ..          ..          ..          ..          ..  ..  0150 

other  smith's  work  connected  with  the  horse     . .  (?)  i     5    o 

saddler's  bill             ..          ..          ..          ..  ..  o  13     o 

yearly  depreciation             . .          . .          . .  . .  240 

vet.  and  risk            ..          ..          ..          ..  ..  100 

repairs  to  stable,  etc.          ..          ,.          ..  ..  050 

attendance    ..          ..          ..          ..    (?);^i  10    o 

interest  on  capital,  5  per  cent,  on  ;^38    ..  ..  i  18    o 

;^29      o      o 

Some  farmers,  who  sell  their  young  horses  at  five  or  six  years 
old,  would  probably  object  to  the  item  for  depreciation,  as  their 
young  horses  would  increase  in  value  from  three  to  six  years  old. 
It  should,  however,  be  remembered  that  when  young  horses  are 
intended  for  sale,  they  not  only  cost  more  to  keep,  but  it  takes 
three  unseasoned  horses  to  do  the  work  of  two  seasoned  ones,  as 
when  they  are  worked  too  hard  it  injures  their  appearance,  and 
consequently  depreciates  their  value. 

Management  of  Horses  and  Stables. 

Horses,  like  all  other  farm  animals,  should  be  fed  regularly, 
and  should  get  their  first  feed,  which  might  consist  of  corn,  hay, 
or  chop,  with  perhaps  a  few  roots,  very  early  in  the  morning, 
usually  about  five  o'clock. 

The  stable  should  be  cleaned  out  every  morning.  If  the 
bedding  is  allowed  to  lie  in  the  stall  through  the  day,  the  floor 
has  no  chance  of  getting  aired  and  dried  as  it  should  do.  All 
straw  that  is  fairly  dry  should  be  shaken  back,  and  only  the  damp 
thrown  out  with  the  dung.  The  straw  that  is  shaken  back  is 
often  put  under  the  horse's  manger  until  needed  again  at  night, 
but  we  much  prefer  to  see  it  put  in  an  empty  stall,  or  at  the  back 
of  the  stable  until  required ;  when  placed  under  the  manger  the 
pungent  smell  that  rises  must  tend  to  contaminate  the  horse's  food. 

Horses  should  be  groomed  twice  a  day,  once  in  the  morning 
before  going  out  to  work,  and  again  at  night.  The  use  of  grooming 
is  to  keep  the  coat  and  skin  clean,  and  free  from  mange  and  lice ; 
it  also  gives  the  coat  a  glossy  appearance.  When  a  horse  is 
working,  it  naturally  perspires,  and  in  some  cases  the  coat  as  well 
as  the  sweat  glands  get  clogged  after  it ;  this,  if  not  removed, 
must  materially  interfere  with  the  health  of  the  animal.  When 
a  horse  has  its  coat  clogged  in  this  way,  a  curry-comb  may  be 


LIVE  STOCK.  433 

used  previous  to  the  brush.  It  may  here  be  remarked,  that 
some  horsemen  are  far  too  fond  of  using  the  curry-comb.  Its  use 
should  be  limited  to  such  cases  as  for  the  purpose  of  removing 
clotted  dirt,  or  combing  out  clotted  hair.  Two  brushes  should  be 
used,  the  first  a  stiff,  and  the  second  a  soft,  one,  to  give  the  coat 
a  soft  and  glossy  appearance.  In  some  cases  indiarubber  brushes 
or  pieces  of  flannel  are  used  after  the  brushes,  to  give  an  extra  shine. 

A  raw  egg  broken  and  mixed  with  the  corn  will  produce 
a  glossy  coat,  and  is  also  good  for  the  animal ;  but  drugs  should 
not  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

Horses  should  not  be  allowed  to  drink  after  a  meal.  It  is 
a  common  practice  amongst  farm  labourers  to  allow  their  horses 
to  do  this  the  first  thing  after  they  have  had  their  morning  feed, 
before  going  to  work  ;  this  is  a  bad  practice.  The  water  a  horse 
drinks  goes  straight  to  its  caecum,  and  consequently,  when  it  drinks 
immediately  after  a  feed,  the  water  passes  through  the  stomach 
and  takes  with  it  more  or  less  of  the  undigested  food.  This 
sometimes  acts  as  an  irritant  on  the  intestines,  and  may  produce 
colic.  Even  though  no  derangement  takes  place  there  must  be  a 
loss  occasioned  by  the  food  being  washed  through  the  intestines 
in  a  partially  digested  state. 

The  next  point  of  importance  is  the  bed.  It  is  usual  to  give 
farm  houses  their  bed  when  they  come  in  from  work  in  the  evening, 
but  it  should  be  shaken  up  again  to  make  it  even  and  comfortable 
for  them  at  about  8.30  p.m.  The  bed  usually  consists  of  wheat 
or  oat  straw.  But,  when  this  is  scarce,  peat  moss  will  be  found 
economical ;  it  makes  a  comfortable  bed,  and  acts  as  a  disinfec- 
tant, having  a  great  power  of  absorbing  both  gases  and  liquids. 
It  is  for  this  reason  more  valuable  as  manure  than  straw.  As  soon 
as  it  gets  damp  it  should,  of  course,  be  removed.  It  is  particularly 
adapted  for  use  in  loose  boxes,  and  should  be  thrown  up  against 
the  sides  of  the  walls  by  day  and  replaced  at  night,  when  horses 
remain  in  the  boxes  idle. 

The  Stable. — A  good  farm  stable  should  be  about  twenty  feet 
wide;  this  leaves  a  distance  of  about  eleven  feet  behind  the 
horse.  The  stalls  should  be  about  six  feet  wide,  and  the  par- 
titions higher  in  front  than  behind,  in  order  to  prevent  the  horse 
getting  its  head  over  to  annoy  or  bite  the  next  whilst  feeding. 
The  lower  part  of  the  partition  between  the  stalls  is  usually  fitted 
with  wood,  but  the  top  part  is  sometimes  made  of  iron  grating  or 
rails,  which  are  placed  closely  enough  to  prevent  the  horse  from 
getting  its  head  through,  but  sufficiently  wide  to  allow  the  horses 
to  see  one  another,  for  the  sake  of  companionship. 

Each  stall  is  fitted  with  a  hay-rack  and  a  manger.  The 
manger  should  be  made  fairly  deep,  otherwise,  when  a  horse  has 

2  F 


434  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

a  feed  of  corn  and  chaff  mixed,  it  may  be  wasted  to  a  certain 
extent  by  the  horse  pulUng  or  blowing  it  over  the  side.  The 
mangers  are  wider  at  the  top  than  bottom.  In  ordinary  farm 
stables  they  are  generally  made  of  wood,  and  are  consequently 
made  with  square  corners  ;  these  are  more  difficult  to  keep  clean 
than  those  with  rounded  bottoms  and  corners,  which  are  usually 
found  in  the  better  class  of  stables,  where  the  mangers  are  made 
of  iron  or  glazed  earthenware. 

In  some  stables  the  manger  runs  the  whole  length  of  the 
stall,  in  such  a  case  the  hay-rack  is  placed  above.  In  others, 
it  is  only  allowed  to  come  half  way,  and  the  hay  is  placed 
in  a  crib  or  heck  on  the  remaining  half.  The  latter  is  usually 
considered  the  best  arrangement,  as  the  horse  is  in  an  unnatural 
position  when  feeding  from  the  hay-rack  above  the  manger.  The 
bottom  of  the  hay-rack  should  not  quite  reach  the  ground;  a 
sliding  grating  (from  top  to  bottom)  should  be  fixed  within  the 
rack  to  prevent  the  horse  pulling  out  the  hay  too  quickly,  and 
wasting  it.  As  the  hay  gets  consumed  this  grating  gradually  falls 
with  it.     It  may  be  lifted  out  when  placing  fresh  hay  in  the  rack. 

Stables  are  often  fitted  with  lofts  overhead,  for  the  purpose  of 
holding  hay.  There  is  usually  a  hole  over  each  horse's  rack  through 
which  the  hay  is  put  into  the  rack.  This  system,  although  con- 
venient, is  not  altogether  to  be  recommended,  as  the  odours  rise 
from  the  stable  and  consequently  injure  the  flavour  of  the  hay. 
Another  drawback  is,  that  the  racks  are  often  filled  with  more 
than  the  horse  will  eat  at  one  meal;  whatever  is  left  after  the 
animal  has  been  breathing  over  it  becomes  distasteful,  and  often 
results  in  more  or  less  being  wasted.  It  is  best  only  to  supply 
the  animal,  as  near  as  possible,  with  as  much  as  it  will  require  for 
one  meal ;  less  will  be  wasted  in  this  way  than  when  more  is  given. 

The  Night  Collar. — There  should  be  a  ring  fixed  to  the  manger 
through  which  the  collar-strap,  chain,  or  rope  passes  for  fastening 
the  horse.  The  strap,  rope,  or  chain  is  fastened  at  one  end  to 
the  head  collar,  and  passed  through  a  fairly  heavy  block  at  the 
other.  The  end  with  the  block  on  it  passes  down  an  iron  gutter 
placed  in  an  upright  position  against  the  wall  under  the  manger. 
The  block  is  just  made  heavy  enough  to  keep  the  strap  down  the 
gutter,  whilst  a  very  gentle  pull  from  the  horse's  head  will  lift  it 
when  required,  but  directly  the  horse  slackens  its  hold  it  returns 
again  to  the  gutter  ;  thus  no  slack  can  possibly  dangle  about  the 
horse's  legs  or  feet  Chains  are  often  used  for  fastening  horses 
in  farm  stables,  but  they  are  objectionable,  as  they  make  such 
a  noise  every  time  a  horse  moves  its  head,  consequently  leather 
straps  or  ropes  are  often  used  in  preference.  Accidents  often 
happen  from  the  halter  or  rope  of  the  neck  collar  being  tied  to 


LIVE   STOCK. 


435 


the  manger  ring.  This  is  a  very  dangerous  practice,  as  when  the 
rope  gets  slack  the  horse  can  easily  put  its  fore  leg  over  it ;  con- 
sequently as  soon  as  the  horse  raises  its  head  it  finds  itself 
entangled,  and  has  to  stay  in  this  position  until  visited  by  the 
stableman.  If  it  happens  to  be  a  spirited  horse  it  may  injure 
itself,  or  pull  down  the  manger  before  the  stableman  appears, 
especially  when  such  an 
accident  happens  at  night. 

Some  horses  have  a 
particular  fancy  for  getting 
loose  in  the  stable ;  this 
is  a  great  nuisance,  as 
they  may  kick  or  get 
kicked  by  other  horses. 
They  usually  free  them- 
selves by  rubbing  the  night 
collar  over  their  heads. 
The  best  preventative  is 
to  use  a  neck  collar,  which 
should  be  put  sufficiently 
tightly  round  the  neck  tO" 
prevent  its  being  rubbed 
over  the  head.  The  chief 
objection  to  the  neck  collar 
is  that  it  slightly  interferes 
with  the  mane,  but  still 
they  are  much  used  in  farm  stables,  and  are  much  lighter  than 
ordinary  head  collars.  In  some  stables  a  long  iron  rod  is  run  into 
the  travis,  which  may  be  pulled  out  at  night,  when  it  extends 
from  the  heel  post  to  a  socket  in  the  back  wall,  about  four  feet 
from  the  ground;  so,  if  a  horse  happens  to  get  loose,  it  has  no 
chance  of  mixing  with  the  other  horses. 

There  should  be  a  gutter  or  drain  behind  the  stables,  to  carry 
off  the  urine  unabsorbed  by  the  litter.  It  should  have  a  gentle 
fall  towards  the  end  of  the  stable  at  which  it  is  to  be  discharged. 

The  stalls  themselves  should  slope  slightly  towards  the  gutter, 
but  the  fall  should  be  as  gentle  as  possible,  just  enough  to  carry 
the  liquid  to  the  gutter.  When  made  too  steep  it  is  bad  for  the 
horses  standing  in  the  stall,  as  the  fore  feet  are  on  higher  ground 
than  the  hind. 

A  well-arranged  stable  may  be  seen  at  Lynehow,  Cumberland, 
the  property  of  Major  Irwin.  The  back  of  the  stall  is  on  the 
same  level  as  the  front,  but  the  back  half  of  the  floor  slopes  from 
each  side  to  the  middle  with  a  very  gentle  slope ;  an  iron  grating 
extends  about  halfway  up  the  middle  of  the  stall,  through  which 


Fig.  6o.— Sketch  of  a  single  stall  with  fittings  :  A, 
manger ;  B,  heck  or  hayrack  ;  C,  gutter  for  night- 
collar  strap  and  block ;  D  D  D,  grating  over 
drain ;  E,  iron  work  (bars)  at  top  of  stall ;  F,  rod  of 
iron  partly  pulled  out. 


436 


ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 


Fig.  6i. 


the  urine  passes  to  the  gutter  below,  which  is  built  with  the  neces- 
sary fall.  An  iron  grating  extends  the  whole  length  of  the  stable 
behind  the  stalls,  over  the  main  drain,  in  the  same  way. 

A  new  stable  should  be  built  higher  than  the  ground  outside, 
in  order  to  keep  it  dry.  It  should  also  be  well  drained,  both 
underneath  and  around  it.  Damp  stables  are  very  injurious  to 
the  health  of  horses  kept  in  them,  and  are  frequently  the  cause  of 
colds,  influenza,  and  other  complaints. 

Particular  care  should  be  taken  in  providing  ventilation.     A 

common  and  fairly  good 
way  of  ventilating  is  by 
means  of  bricks,  which  are 
placed  in  the  wall,  near  the 
ground  and  in  front  of  the 
horse.  These  bricks  are 
not  exactly  allowed  to  meet, 
but  still  the  space  between 
them  is  not  sufficient  to 
cause  a  draught;  by  this 
means  the  animal  is  always 
supplied  with  fresh  air.  The 
heated  and  impure  air  rises 
to  the  top,  and  should  pass  out  by  means  of  ventilators. 

Stables  should  always  be  kept  well  lighted ;  darkness  is 
injurious  to  horses'  sight.  The  windows  should  be  strongly 
constructed  to  prevent  breakages.  They  may  be  of  different 
construction,  but  we  much  prefer  those  that  are  hinged  at  the 
bottom  and  open  inwards  from  the  top,  somewhat  hke  the  rough 
sketch  above. 

The  width  of  opening  the  window  may  be  regulated  by  means 
of  a  rope  and  pulley,  or  by  means  of  a  piece  of  iron  coming  over 
the  top  with  catches,  or  holes  and  pins. 

Windows  constructed  in  this  way  serve  a  double  purpose,  as 
they  may  be  used  both  as  windows  and  ventilators.  Any  air  that 
enters  is  directed  towards  the  ceiling  before  it  falls,  consequently 
it  causes  no  draught  over  the  horse's  back.  The  sides,  A,  may  be 
fitted  with  a  sheeting  of  zinc,  to  prevent  any  air  coming  in  at  the 
sides. 

Low  stables  are  very  objectionable,  as  they  so  soon  become 
full  of  impure  air.  Some  badly  constructed  stables  are  so  low 
that  the  horse  can  knock  its  head  against  the  ceiling.  Such 
stables  are  dangerous  with  young  horses,  as  they  may  often  knock 
the  top  of  their  head,  and  might  in  some  cases  be  the  cause  of 
*' Poll  Evil." 

The  stable  door  should  neither  be  too  low  nor  too  narrow ; 


LIVE   STOCK.  437 

when  low,  young  horses  are  often  shy  at  entering,  or  may  knock 
their  heads  in  doing  so.  When  too  narrow  they  may  smash  off 
a  piece  of  either  hook  bone  when  entering  quickly  :  although  this 
might  not  much  interfere  with  its  working  quaUties,  it  would  very 
much  lessen  the  sale  value. 

There  should  always  be  a  "  loose  box  "  on  a  farm.  This  is 
often  a  part  of  the  stable,  but  for  many  purposes  it  is  better 
separate.  When  in  the  stable  with  other  horses  it  is  impossible 
to  keep  the  air  so  pure  as  when  it  is  separate.  It  is  often 
necessary  to  remove  a  horse  from  its  stable  companions  when  it 
gets  anything  wrong  with  it,  and  in  such  cases  it  should  be  placed 
in  as  pure  air  as  possible.  Besides  invalids,  mares  with  foals, 
young  horses,  and  hacks  are  usually  kept  in  "  loose  boxes."  The 
usual  dimensions  of  these  boxes  vary  between  twelve  feet  by  ten, 
and  fourteen  feet  by  twelve. 

Well-built  stables  are  usually  paved  with  tiles,  specially  made 
for  that  purpose,  but  ordinary  bricks  placed  on  their  sides  make 
an  excellent  floor.  Cobble  paving  is  disliked  by  stablemen, 
because  it  is  rather  difficult  to  keep  clean.  Notwithstanding  this 
drawback,  it  must  be  recognized  that  it  is  an  exceedingly  healthy 
kind  of  floor;  cobbles  do  not  absorb  moisture,  and  the  spaces 
between  them  allow  of  the  free  passage  of  air,  and  therefore 
make  a  dry  and  healthy  floor.  Flags  are  often  used  and  recom- 
mended for  paving  stables ;  the  one  point  in  their  favour  is,  that 
they  may  very  easily  be  kept  clean ;  they  are,  however,  very 
unhealthy,  as  they  absorb  moisture,  and  therefore  should  not 
be  used. 

B.— Breeds  of  Cattle. 

Amongst  the  numerous  breeds  of  cattle  the  Shorthorn  is  the 
most  popular  and  most  widely  distributed.  They  are  found  in 
every  county  in  England,  as  well  as  in  many  parts  of  Scotland, 
Ireland,  and  Wales,  besides  being  widely  distributed  abroad.  No 
other  brecQ  nas  yet  been  found  to  adapt  itself  to  so  many  variations 
of  soil  and  climate  as  the  Shorthorn.  And,  although  many  other 
breeds  may  be  more  esteemed  in  localities  in  which  they  have 
been  bred  for  generations,  and  therefore  become  acclimatized, 
yet  it  is  a  common  thing  to  find  the  Shorthorn  monopolizing  the 
better  land  of  these  particular  localities.  Or,  perhaps,  if  the 
breed  is  not  kept  entirely.  Shorthorn  bulls  may  be  used  to  improve 
the  size,  and  give  the  future  generations  greater  aptitude  to  come 
earlier  to  maturity. 

The  great  improvement  of  the  original  large,  coarse,  and 
rather  awkward  breed  of  Durham  and  Yorkshire  was  first  taken 
in  hand  by  two  brothers,  Charles  and  Robert  Colling.     For  the 


438  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

purpose  of  reducing  the  size,  and  producing  cattle  of  a  more 
uniform  character,  they  purchased  the  famous  and  world-renowned 
"  Hubbock,"  calved  in  1777. 

Lord  Althorp  purchased  some  of  Mr.  Robert  Colling's  stock 
at  his  sale  at  Barmpton  in  18 18,  and  started  a  Shorthorn  herd  at 
Wiseton.  This  herd  was  bequeathed  to  the  steward,  Mr.  Hall. 
Most  of  them  were  sold  at  Wiseton  in  1846,  the  year  after  Lord 
Althorp's  death.  Two  years  later  Mr.  Hall  himself  died,  and  the 
remainder  of  this  herd  were  sold  in  1848. 

The  celebrated  Mr.  Thomas  Bates,  of  Kirklevington,  made  his 
name  famous  as  a  Shorthorn  breeder  early  in  the  century.  He 
went  in  for  line  breeding,  and  with,  his  excellent  bull,  "  Duke  of 
Northumberland,"  took  the  first  prize  in  the  two-year-old  class  at 
the  first  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society's  shows,  held  at  Oxford 
in  1839.  He  also  won  prizes  with  two  females  of  the  same 
family,  as  well  as  the  first  prize  for  "  Oxford  Premium  Cow,"  which 
left  the  '*  Oxford  "  name  to  her  half-sister's  lineal  descendants. 

Mr.  Bates  also  owned  the  leading  winners  at  Cambridge  the 
following  year.  But  at  Liverpool,  in  1841,  Mr.  John  Booth,  of 
Killerby,  proved  and  continued  to  be  a  powerful  rival.  Mr. 
Bates  died  in  1849,  and  the  herd  was  sold  by  public  auction  in 
1850.  Lineal  descendants  of  this  herd  are  still  to  be  found 
carrying  off  prizes  in  our  show-yards.  The  Bates  cattle  are 
usually  smaller  boned  and  generally  considered  weaker  in 
constitution  than  thfe  Booths;  but  they  have  inherited  greater 
milking  properties. 

Mr.  John  Booth,  of  Killerby,  and  his  brother,  Mr.  Richard 
Booth,  of  Warlaby,  were  both  successful  breeders  and  exhibitors. 
At  the  death  of  Mr.  Richard  Booth,  in  1864,  the  Warlaby  herd 
came  into  the  hands  of  his  nephew,  Mr.  T.  C.  Booth ;  whilst  his 
brother,  Mr.  J.  B.  Booth,  also  a  nephew  of  Mr.  John  Booth,  had 
become  the  happy  possessor  of  the  Killerby  herd.  After  his 
death  the  Killerby  herd  was  dispersed,  whilst  the  Warlaby  herd 
is  still  in  existence. 

The  herds  that  sprung  up  from  these  two  lines  of  cattle 
(Booth  and  Bates)  would  be  too  numerous  to  mention;  some 
breeders  having  shown  preference  for  one  line,  and  some  the 
other,  whilst  many  have  met  with  great  success  by  using  blood  of 
both  strains  in  the  same  herd.  Up  to  within  the  last  ten  years, 
the  Booth  and  Bates  breeds  were  the  leading  strains  of  Shorthorn 
blood.  Unfortunately,  through  breeding  too  much  for  pedigree 
and  appearance,  they  lost  many  of  their  good  points  as  farmers' 
cattle,  and  fell  somewhat  into  disrepute.  At  this  time,  the  cattle 
bred  by  Mr.  Amos  Cruickshank,  of  Sittyton,  in  Scotland,  were 
brought   prominently  forward,  and  animals  of  this  strain  have 


LIVE  STOCK. 


439 


lately  been  securing  almost  all  the  prizes  at  the  leading  shows. 
Although  breeding  from  pedigree  animals,  Mr.  Cruickshank  aimed 


Fig.  62.— Shorthorn  Bull. 


at  getting  beasts  possessing  good  constitutions,  and  which  would 
die  full  of  lean,  marketable  flesh,  and  in  this  he  has  certainly 
succeeded. 

The  bull's  head  is  short,  but,  at  the  same  time,  fine ;    very 


Fig.  63.— Shorthorn  Dairy  Cow. 

broad  across  the  eyes,  but  gradually  tapering  to  the  nose,  the 
nostrils  being  full  and  prominent.     The  nose  should  be  of  a  rich 


440  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

flesh  colour,  free  from  black ;  eyes  bright  and  placid ;  ears  fairly 
large  and  thin.  The  head  is  well  set  on  to  a  rather  lengthy, 
broad,  muscular  neck.  The  horns  are  usually  dirty  white  colour, 
curved,  but  rather  flattened  at  the  sides.  The  chest  should  be 
wide  between  the  two  fore  legs,  deep,  and  well  set  forward.  The 
shoulders  fine  and  obliquely  set,  the  fore  legs  short  with  the 
upper  arm  large  and  powerful.  The  ribs  well  sprung,  and  ribbed 
well  back  to  the  hips ;  the  barrel  round  and  deep  ;  the  back 
wide,  level,  and  straight  from  the  withers  to  the  setting  of  the 
tail ;  whilst  the  hind  quarters  should  be  long  and  well  filled  in. 
The  hair  is  fairly  long  and  silky ;  hide  not  too  thin,  with  a  fine 
mellow  touch. 

The  colours  vary  very  much.     Light  and  dark  roans  and  dark 


Fig    64 — Sliorthoin  Cow. 

reds  are  very  fashionable.  Whites  are  very  common,  but  con- 
sidered delicate.  Red  and  white  is  the  most  unfashionable 
colour,  and  consequently  these  cattle  are  not  very  saleable  for 
breeding  purposes. 

The  cow  has  a  longer,  thinner,  and  more  tapering  head; 
thinner  and  less  muscular  neck,  and  shoulders  more  inclined  to 
narrow  towards  the  chine  than  the  bull. 

The  Shorthorn  breed  make  excellent  dairy  cows,  as  well  as 
being  grand  beef  producers.  They  may  be  brought  very  early  to 
maturity,  and  are  suitable  for  grazing  as  well  as  stall  feeding ;  but, 
owing  to  their  great  size,  they  are  more  suitable  for  strong,  rich 
soils  than  poor  pastures. 

The  Herefords  are  the  prevailing  breed  in  their  own  county. 


LIVE   STOCK.  441 

They  are  also  found  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  grazing 
districts  of  South  Wales  and  in  all  southern  counties — especially 
Shropshire,  Warwick,  Worcester,  Gloucester,  Somerset,  Wilts, — 
and  a  few  herds  have  been  established  in  Cornwall  and  Dorset. 
Many  of  these  cattle  have  been  exported  to  Canada,  the  States, 
and  Australia,  the  foreigners  having  often  paid  large  sums  for 
good  specimens. 

The  usual  colour  is  a  rich  light  or  dark  red,  with  white  face, 
throat,  and  chest.  The  under  part  of  the  body,  feet,  and  tip  of 
the  tail,  as  well  as  the  top  of  the  neck  and  back,  are  also  white. 

Early  in  the  century  the  colour  was  not  nearly  so  uniform. 
Dark  and  light  greys  were  common,  whilst  the  spotted  or  mottled- 


FiG.  65.— Hereford  Heifer. 

faced  Herefords,  having  red  marks  intermixed  with  the  parts 
usually  white,  are  still  to  be  seen.  As  late  as  1862  the  mottled- 
faced  bull  "  Maximum,"  from  the  royal  herd  at  Windsor,  took  the 
first  prize  in  his  class  at  Battersea. 

The  head  is,  if  anything,  small  in  comparison  with  the  size  ot 
the  body;  the  muzzle  is  flesh-coloured;  the  horns  are  usually 
yellowish  with  blackish  tips.  In  the  bull  they  spring  out  straightly 
from  a  broad  forehead.  Those  of  the  cow  extend  outward 
and  slightly  upwards.  As  the  cows  get  to  mature  age  the  tips 
of  the  horns  become  sharp,  and  often  have  to  be  fitted  with 
brass  tops  to  prevent  them  from  ripping  each  other.  The 
countenance  is  open,  the  eye  full  and  lively.  The  chest  is  full, 
deep,   wide,  and   comes   well   forward;   whilst,  as   regards  their 


442  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

shoulders,  they  stand  pre-eminent.  The  ribs  should  be  well 
sprung  and  body  deep.  The  back  and  loins  are  broad,  the  hips 
are  moderately  wide,  and  the  hind  quarter  from  the  hip  back 
fairly  long — this  breed  is  usually  lighter  at  the  hind  quarters  than 
elsewhere.  The  legs  are  short  and  small.  The  hair  is  usually 
wavy,  soft,  and  moderately  long,  having  a  tendency  to  curl.  The 
body  should  be  evenly  covered  with  flesh,  which  has  a  soft  and 
mellow  touch. 

The  breed  is  not  as  a  rule  adapted  to  dairy  purposes,  although 
Herefords  in  some  exceptional  cases  prove  excellent  dairy  cows ; 
and,  no  doubt,  with  good  management,  combined  with  careful 
selection,  they  might  be  developed  into  useful  dairy  cows.  They 
are,  at  present,  more  adapted  for  grazing  purposes  than  anything 
else.  Their  beef  is  good  in  quality ;  but  these  beasts  are  often 
slack  in  their  hind  quarters,  and  also  lay  on  a  greater  proportion 
of  outside  to  inside  fat.  Like  the  shorthorn,  they  have  a  re- 
markable aptitude  to  fatten  early ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  the  meat 
from  the  early  fattened  beast  is  usually  wanting  in  that  beautiful 
marbled  appearance  so  common  in  the  more  matured  Hereford. 

The  Herefords  are  often  used  for  crossing  with  other  breeds ; 
but  the  crossing  is  not  usually  attended  with  such  satisfactory 
results  as  when  the  shorthorn  is  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

The  Devons  are  divided  into  two  breeds — North  Devons,  or 
"  Rubies;"  South  Devons,  "South  Hams,"  or  ''Hammers." 

The  North  Devons  are  the  older  breed,  being  smaller  but 
much  more  symmetrical  than  the  "South  Hams."  They  are 
undoubtedly  a  very  ancient  breed;  their  blood  has  been  kept 
remarkably  pure,  and  consequently  some  very  close  breeding  has 
taken  place  amongst  the  Devon  herds,  with  the  result  of  pro- 
ducing excellent  symmetry  without  improving  the  size.  Although 
this  is  true  with  the  North  Devons,  the  opposite  may  be  said  of 
the  cattle  of  Somerset  and  South  Devon.  The  blood  of  these 
cattle  has  not  been  kept  so  strictly  pure ;  consequently  they  are 
usually  much  larger,  less  symmetrical,  and  better  milkers,  although 
their  beef-producing  quaUties  fall  below  the  standard  of  the 
North  Devons. 

The  colour  of  the  North  Devon  is  bright  red,  varying  slightly 
in  shade,  some  being  a  little  lighter  than  others.  They  should 
have  no  white  markings,  except  at  the  udder  of  the  cow  or 
scrotum  of  the  bull.  They  have  fine  heads  with  gracefully  curved 
horns  of  a  yellowish  colour,  and  blackish  at  the  tips.  The  eyes 
are  full  and  bright ;  ears  of  moderate  size  and  yellowish  inside ; 
muzzles  light  flesh-coloured,  with  expanded  nostrils  ;  the  neck 
rather  long ;  shoulders  usually  very  oblique,  and  well  filled  with 
flesh  behind ;  the  legs  are  small  and  straight ;  the  chest  is  wide 


LIVE   STOCK. 


443 


and  fairly  prominent ;  good  backs  and  loins  with  well-sprung  ribs ; 
rumps  level,  and  should  be  well  filled  with  flesh.  The  thighs  of 
the  cow  are  usually  lighter  than  those  of  the  ox. 

In  breeding,  more  attention  is  usually  paid  to  the  fore  than 
the  hind  quarters.  The  excellent  fore  quarters  is  a  strong  point 
with  the  Devon ;  and  some  breeders,  in  trying  to  bring  the  hind 
parts  to  an  equal  state  of  perfection,  have  done  so  at  the  expense 
of  the  fore  quarters,  which  they  have  found  difficult  to  remedy. 

These  cattle,  in  a  lean  condition,  usually  have  curly  coats; 
but  when  fat  they  become  beautifully  sleek,  short,  and  often 
spotted  or  dappled. 

A  fat  Devon  ox  is  a  perfect-looking  animal,  having  a  very 
round  appearance,  with  bones  thoroughly  well  covered  and  flesh 


Fig.  66.— Devon  Bull. 

of  excellent  quality.  Its  legs  look  very  small  and  fine  in  com- 
parison with  the  heavy  body.  The  breed  is  much  liked  by  the 
butcher,  as  it  carries  such  a  large  proportion  of  its  weight  in 
parts  where  the  joints  are  most  valuable,  having  proportionately 
very  little  coarse  flesh. 

These  cattle  have  good  constitutions,  and,  not  being  too  large, 
are  suitable  for  grazing  the  hilly  pastures  of  North  Devon.  They 
are  often  left  on  the  pastures  the  whole  year  round,  with  perhaps 
a  shed  to  retire  to  by  night,  where  they  may  be  supplied  with 
a  little  straw  or  hay.  They  are  small  consumers;  but  many 
people  complain  of  the  time  they  take  to  come  to  maturity. 
They  certainly  are  not  so  suitable  for  selling  at  an  early  age  as 
Shorthorns   and   some   other  breeds;   but  in  this  respect  they 


444  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

have  been  much  improved  of  late  years.  They  will  live  on 
pastures  which  are  not  good  enough  for  Shorthorns,  and  on  such 
land  will  prove  far  better  rent-payers.  Four  Devons  may  easily 
be  kept  on  the  same  quantity  of  food  as  three  Shorthorns. 

The  Devons  are  perhaps  better  adapted  for  grazing  than  for 
arable  land,  but  do  well  on  both. 

The  old  practice  of  working  the  oxen  of  this,  as  well  as  the 
Sussex  and  Hereford,  breeds,  may  be  said  to  be  almost  extinct  in 
this  country. 

South  Devons,  or  "  South  Hams,"  are  found  in  Mid  and  South 
Devon,  as  well  as  in  some  parts  of  Cornwall.  Their  exact  origin 
is  a  little  uncertain,  but  the  generally  accepted  theory  is  that  they 
have  sprung  from  crossing   Guernseys  with  Devon  bulls.     It  is 


Fig.  67.— North  Devon  Cow. 

usual,  both  in  Devon  and  Cornwall,  to  keep  either  a  Jersey  or 
Guernsey  or  two  amongst  the  milking  herd,  in  order  to  give  the 
cream  and  butter  a  good  colour.  These  Guernseys  would  be 
served  with  Devon  bulls,  and  the  progeny  crossed  again;  this 
would  probably  go  on  for  generations,  so  long  as  the  cross  main- 
tained their  milking  qualities.  It  is  evident  that  the  Guernsey 
blood  would  be  in  time  distributed  amongst  the  whole  of  the 
herd,  in  consequence  of  selecting  heifers  with  a  little  of  the  blood 
in  their  veins,  in  order  to  get  good  milkers.  As  pedigree,  until 
lately,  has  not  been  considered  amongst  the  breeders,  no  doubt 
the  bulls,  too,  would  have  some  of  the  same  blood,  and  the  breed 
has  in  this  way  been  established. 

The  colour  is  much  lighter  red  than  that  of  the  North  Devons, 
being  occasionally  almost  yellow.     They  are  much  larger  animals, 


LIVE   STOCK. 


445 


being  generally  both  high  and  long,  but  as  young  stock  are  narrow 
and  rather  flat-sided,  although  when  arriving  at  maturity  they 
thicken  and  lay  on  flesh  very  rapidly. 

In  some  parts  of  Cornwall  they  are  much  preferred  to  the 
Shorthorn,  as  they  possess  good  constitutions,  and  keep  in  much 
better  condition  on  the  poorer  classes  of  food,  such  as  straw  and 
turnips.     They  are  also  well  adapted  to  grazing. 

They  are  excellent  milkers,  and  altogether  very  useful  cattle 
and  well  suited  to  the  locality  in  which  they  are  bred.  Many 
attempts  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  to  introduce  North 
Devons,  Shorthorns,  Jerseys,  and  even  Aberdeen  Angus  into 
South  Devon,  but  none  of  these  breeds  have  proved  themselves 
so  suitable  to  the  locality  as  the  native  breed. 

The  Sussex  cattle  were  originally  very  large,  coarse,  strong 
animals,  and  chiefly  bred  for  draught  purposes.     After  they  had 


Fig.  68. — Sussex  Bull. 

been  worked  for  some  years,  they  were  fattened  for  the  market, 
when  they  made  great  weights.  They  were  always  exceedingly 
hardy  animals,  and  well  suited  for  grazing  on  poor  coarse 
pastures. 

As  times  altered  and  horses  began  to  take  their  places  in 
teams,  their  breeders  had  to  hold  other  things  in  view,  and  con- 
sequently get  their  cattle  more  adapted  to  beef  production  than 
for  draught  purposes.  In  order  to  arrive  at  this  end,  breeders 
used  animals  with  small  bone  and  a  large  proportion  of  flesh.  This 
selection  has  had  its  desired  eff'ect,  and  has  produced  cattle  of  very 
different  type  to  the  old  Sussex.  It  may  be  seen  by  glancing  at 
the  Smithfield  Show  list  that  this  breed  comes  early  to  maturity, 
and  are  also  great  favourites  with  the  butchers.  Two  Sussex 
steers  shown  at  Smithfield,  1891,  were  respectively  649  and  679 


446 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


days  old  (i  year,  40  weeks,  and  i  year,  45  weeks).  The  weight 
of  dressed  carcase  was  936  and  995  lbs.  respectively. 

The  colour  of  the  Sussex  cattle  now  is  a  uniform  red,  not 
unlike  the  Devon  in  this  respect.  The  original  oxen  were  not  so 
uniform  in  colour,  being  sometimes  light  as  well  as  very  dark  red, 
and  were  exceedingly  coarse  about  the  shoulder. 

They  have  clean  bone  and  an  attractive  appearance.  The 
head  is  neat,  with  fairly  wide  forehead ;  narrow  across  the  face, 
and  larger  again  at  the  muzzle,  which  is  of  a  yellowish  colour; 
eye  rather  prominent;  longish  horns,  inclined  upwards  at  the 
points  ;  the  chest  is  wide  between  the  fore  legs,  and  should  project 
well  forward ;  fairly  deep  in  the  girth ;  back  and  sides  straight, 
but  rather  narrow  and  light  over  the  hind  quarters  ;  legs  moderately 
long ;  the  coat  is  soft  and  mellow. 


,  ,-.  ,,t  r",-rf  £-</»3«i 


Fig.  69.— Cross-bred  Heifer. 

They  are  an  exceedingly  hardy  breed,  and  appear  to  be  better 
adapted  to  the  pastures  of  their  county  (which  are  sometimes  very 
poor)  than  any  other  breed. 

The  cows  are  poor  milkers,  and  are  usually  allowed  to  suckle 
their  calves.  A  common  practice  with  the  Sussex  farmer  is  to  get 
his  cows  to  calve  at  the  back  end  of  the  year  (October  and 
November).  The  calf  is  suckled  during  the  winter,  and  then  a 
purchased  one  is  put  on  the  same  cow  in  the  spring,  after  weaning 
the  first,  so  that  each  cow  rears  two  calves. 

The  Red  Polled  Cattle  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  have  originated 
from  the  native  cattle  of  these  counties,  which  may  have  at  one 
time  received  a  little  of  the  Galloway  blood. 

By  many  people  it  is  considered  that  these  **  Red  Polls  "  are 
merely  red  Galloways,  whilst  many  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  men  deny 


LIVE   STOCK.  447 

the  fact  of  their  having  any  Galloway  blood  in  them,  and  consider 
that  they  have  originated  entirely  from  the  native  breeds. 

The  native  cattle  of  Norfolk  were  a  red,  horned  breed.  Those 
of  Suffolk  were  dun-coloured,  and  polled.  Later  on  they  have 
been  described  as  being  red,  and  white,  and  brindled.  From 
the  earliest  periods  they  have  been  renowned  for  their  milking 
qualities.  From  very  early  times  large  numbers  of  polled  Galloways 
were  driven  into  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  for  grazing  purposes,  and  it 
is  only  likely  that  some  of  these  cattle  were  crossed  with  the  native 
breeds,  and  from  these  crossed  cattle,  with  careful  selection,  the 
"  Red  Polls  "  of  to-day  may  have  been  produced.  It  may  be 
long  since  any  of  the  Scotcli  blood  was  used,  but  from  all  that  has 


Fig.  70.— Red  Poll  Bull. 

been  recorded  respecting  the  breed,  we  may  justly  believe  that  it 
has  been  used,  though  perhaps  to  a  small  extent. 

The  Red  Polls  are  dark-red  in  colour,  with  a  neat  head  carry- 
ing a  tuft  of  hair  on  the  top.  They  have  good  shoulders  and  are 
fairly  square  in  frame,  but  are  inclined  to  be  a  little  wanting 
behind  the  shoulders,  and  also  in  the  hind  quarters. 

They  are  a  medium-sized  breed,  with  a  very  good  constitution, 
and  more  suitable  to  the  poorish  pastures,  cold  winds  of  winter  and 
spring,  natural  to  their  own  counties,  than  most  other  heavier 
breeds. 

They  are  excellent  dairy  cattle,  and  hold  their  milk  for  longer 
periods  than  most  other  breeds.  They  are  also  good  beef  pro- 
ducers, having  a  tendency  to  fatten  quickly. 

The  Longhorns,  in  Bakewell's  time,  were  a  very  popular  breed, 
and  were  very  much  improved  by  him.     After  the  introduction 


448  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

of  the  Shorthorn  their  numbers  quickly  declined,  and  they  are 
now  confined  to  a  few  breeders  in  the  Midland  Counties. 

There  were  two  classes  for  these  cattle  at  the  R.A.S.E.'s 
Show  at  Windsor,  1889.  The  entries  numbered  eleven;  the 
male  class  five,  and  females  six  entries. 

The  Longhorns  may  be  all  colours,  the  brindles  and  pyes  are 
perhaps  the  most  common ;  but,  whatever  their  colour  may  be, 
they  usually  have  a  characteristic  white  streak  along  the  back. 
Their  horns  are  long  and  peculiar  in  shape.  They  are  shorter 
and  thicker  in  the  bull  than  in  the  cow,  usually  turning  down- 
wards towards  the  cheeks,  and  forwards  at  the  tips.  Compared 
with  the  Shorthorn,  the  girth  is  small,  but  the  ribs  are  fairly 
well  sprung,  and  well  covered  when  fat;  they  also  have  good 
backs,  loins,  and  long  fleshy  hind  quarters  when  in  flourishing 
condition.  Their  legs  are  fairly  fine  and  long ;  hide  rather  thick, 
with  good  amount  of  hair.  They  produce  beef  of  good  quality, 
and  are  very  suitable  to  grazing,  but  they  take  a  long  time  in 
coming  to  maturity ;  they  are  considered  good  for  dairy  purposes, 
and  the  milk  is  usually  very  rich. 

Scotch  Cattle. 

The  Aberdeen-Angus,  or  "  Doddies."  The  real  origin  of  these 
cattle  seems  a  little  obscure.  Although  much  has  been  written 
respecting  this  matter  from  time  to  time,  the  theories  put  forth 
have,  as  a  rule,  been  questionable.  Many  writers  hold  that  they 
have  a  common  origin  with  the  Galloways ;  but,  whether  that  be 
the  case  or  not,  it  is  certain  that,  under  the  name  of  "  Buchan 
Hummlies/'  black  polled  cattle  were  the  native  breed  of  Aberdeen- 
shire for  many  long  years  before  an  Aberdeen-Angus  Herd-book 
was  thought  of.  The  two  great  improvers  of  the  breed  were 
Mr.  Hugh  Watson,  of  Keiller,  and  Mr.  William  McCombie,  of 
Tillyfour. 

The  colour  of  this  breed  is  black,  though  white  markings  on 
the  belly  are  not  uncommon. 

The  general  form  of  a  good  specimen  of  an  Aberdeen-Angus 
is  as  near  perfection  as  we  get  with  cattle;  it  may  well  be 
described  as  a  parallelogram. 

They  are  naturally  poUed,  head  of  moderate  length,  broad 
forehead,  and  face  slightly  prominent,  with  a  tuft  of  hair  on  top 
of  their  head  ;  neck  moderate  length  ;  shoulders  well  covered  with 
flesh,  broad  on  the  withers,  and  straight  with  the  back;  chest 
broad,  very  deep,  and  well  set  forward ;  ribs  well  sprung  and  well 
covered ;  broad  and  straight  back,  good  loins,  hook  bones  not 
prominent  but  well  covered,  rump  full  and  level ;   hind  quarters 


LIVE  STOCK. 


449 


deep ;   muscular  and  full  thighs ;  legs  short  and  well  set ;    skin 
fairly  thick,  well  covered  with  soft  hair. 

These  cattle  are  much  prized  by  the  butchers ;  their  beef  is 


of  excellent  quality,  large  proportions  being  carried  on  the  back, 
loins,  and  best  selling  parts. 

Both  the  Aberdeen-Angus  and  the  Galloways  make  excellent 

2  G 


450  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

crosses  with  the  Shorthorn.  These  crossed  cattle  are  known  as 
"  Blue  Greys,"  and  usually  fetch  the  best  prices  at  the  Smithfield 
Market. 

The  Aberdeen- Angus,  like  the  Shorthorns,  are  brought  early  to 
maturity  and  make  great  weights.  They  are  generally  only 
moderate  milkers,  though  the  little  they  give  is  very  rich  in 
cream.  The  chief  aim  of  the  breeder  has  been  to  develop  beef- 
producing  qualities,  and  consequently  their  milking  qualities 
have  usually  been  neglected.  There  have  been  some  notable 
exceptions  to  this  rule,  and  at  the  London  Dairy  Show  in  1892  a 
Polled  Angus  cow  carried  off  the  premier  honours  in  the  milking 
competition. 

The  Galloways  are  also  a  black  polled  breed,  native  to  the 


Fig.  72.— Galloway  Bull. 

south-west  of  Scotland.  They  have  very  strong  constitutions 
and  are  excellent  grazing  cattle.  In  very  early  periods  this  good 
quality  was  well  known  by  the  English  farmer,  consequently  they 
were  brought  in  very  great  numbers  into  this  country  for  that 
purpose,  especially  into  the  counties  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk.  The 
fact  of  their  being  polled  was  greatly  in  their  favour. 

They  are  shghtly  smaller,  rougher  in  their  coat,  and  less 
peaked  at  the  poll  than  the  Aberdeen-Angus.  They  do  not 
mature  so  early  as  the  Angus  (though  this  is  probably  due  to  the 
conditions  under  which  they  are  kept),  and,  like  them,  they  are 
not  as  a  rule  good  milkers,  though  what  they  give  is  usually  very 
rich.  They  are  better  adapted  for  grazing  in  exposed  situations 
than  the  Angus,  being  exceedingly  hardy  in  constitution. 

They  may  be  described  as  being  a  black  polled  breed.     The 


LIVE   STOCK. 


451 


hair  is  very  long  and  usually  black,  though  red  ones  are  occa- 
sionally seen ;  also  the  tips  of  the  hair,  when  long,  are  often  red. 

The  head  is  short,  but  broad  on  the  forehead  and  between  the 
eyes.  The  ears  are  large,  open,  and  fringed  with  long  black  hair. 
The  chest  is  deep  and  the  beef  well  distributed ;  back  and  loins 
very  good ;  hind  quarters  long,  but  often  a  little  narrow ;  legs  rather 
short.  The  line  from  the  head  to  die  rump  is  almost  straight,  but 
dropping  slightly  in  the  back. 

For  the  purpose  of  getting  Bluegreys,  white  Shorthorn  bulls 
are  used  with  the   black  Galloway  cows;    these  crossbreds  are 


Cross-bred  Steer. 


usually  polled,  and  shaped  more  like  a  Galloway  than  the  Short- 
horn. Many  farmers  consider  the  best  way  to  produce  crossbreds 
is  to  use  a  Galloway  bull  with  Shorthorn  cows. 

The  percentage  of  polled  offsprings  is  greater  when  the  polled 
bull  is  used.  The  colour  is  usually  black  or  blue-grey,  from  the 
black  male  parent;  the  proportion  of  patchy  colours  being 
greater  from  the  Shorthorn  sire. 

Hereford  bulls  are  used  in  some  cases  with  Galloway  cows, 
and  leave  very  good  results. 

The  Ajrrshire  is  purely  a  dairy  breed.  For  cheese-making 
they   are   more   celebrated   than   any    other   cattle   we   possess. 


452 


ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 


They  are  exceedingly  hardy,  and  are  therefore  very  suited  to 
the  severe  northern  climate.  The  size  of  the  Ayrshires  varies 
very  much,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  land  on  which  they 
have  been  bred.  They  are  much  smaller  than  the  Shorthorn, 
so  can  be  kept  on  much  less  food.  They  will  produce  large 
quantities  of  milk  on  pastures  that  Shorthorns  would  be  barely 
maintained  on. 

For  the  production  of  beef  they  are  by  no  means  valuable, 
consequently  the  second-rate  bull  calves  are  usually  sent  to  the 
butcher  for  veal. 

Ayrshires  cross  fairly  well  with  the  Shorthorns;  the  crossbreds 


Fig.  74. — Ayrshire  Cow. 

are  much  better  feeding  cattle  than  the  pure  Ayrshire,  and  are 
also  good  milkers. 

Cattle  of  this  breed  vary  somewhat  in  colour.  Brown  and  white, 
white  and  brown,  red  and  white,  and  white  are  the  usual  colours. 

Their  general  form  is  sometimes  described  as  being  wedge- 
shaped,  on  account  of  the  body  getting  wider  and  deeper  from 
the  fore  quarters  backwards.  That  is  to  say,  they  are  light  in 
the  fore,  but  comparatively  heavy  in  the  hind  quarters.  The 
hook  bones  are  set  widely  apart,  but  not  well  covered  with  flesh ; 
the  back,  too,  is  usually  lean ;  neck  long  and  thin,  being  especially 
small  where  it  joins  on  to  the  head.  The  horns  are  rather  large 
and  turned  upwards.    The  eyes  are  bright,  the  face  inclined  to  be 


LIVE  STOCK. 


453 


long.  The  tail  is  long,  thin,  and  bushy  at  the  bottom.  The 
udder  is  large,  well  hung  forward,  with  the  teats  set  well  apart ; 
the  milk  vein  prominent. 

The  West  Highland  Cattle,  or  Kyloes,  are  found  in  great 
numbers  on  the  hills  of  Scotland.  They  are  well  adapted  for 
grazing  these  rough,  poor,  upland  pastures,  where  they  have  to 
travel  great  distances  for  their  daily  food,  and  withstand  the 
severe  storms,  to  which  they  are  naturally  subjected,  without 
taking  any  great  harm. 

They  vary  much  in  size,  with  the  different  kind  of  soils  they 
are  bred  upon ;  but  they  are  usually  very  small. 


Fig.  75.— West  Highland  Bullock. 

They  differ  greatly  in  colour,  being  different  shades  of 
dun,  brown,  red,  black,  and  sometimes  brindled.  Their  hair  is 
very  long  and  shaggy.  The  head  is  short  and  horns  very  long. 
Their  appearance  to  strangers  looks  a  little  fierce.  The  body  is 
stout,  square,  and  massive  ;  the  legs  are  very  short. 

They  give  very  little  milk,  but  it  is  exceedingly  rich.  Being 
kept  on  these  poor  pastures,  they  are  naturally  very  slow  in 
coming  to  maturity;  but  their  beef  is  of  excellent  quality. 

When  crossed  with  larger  breeds,  such  as  the  Shorthorn,  the 
produce  make  excellent  beef  cattle. 


454 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


Other  Breeds. 

The  Welsh  Cattle  may  be  divided  into  two  breeds,  viz.  the 
South  Wales  cattle,  or  Pembrokes,  and  the  North  Wales,  or  Angle- 
sea  cattle. 

The  colour  is  black,  but  sometimes  they  have  small  white 
markings  on  the  underside.  Both  these  breeds  are  exceedingly 
hardy  and  well  suited  to  the  climate  and  rough  country  they 
have  to  live  in.  They  vary  a  good  deal  in  size,  according  to 
the  quality  of  soil  they  are  brought  up  on.  When  well  cared 
for   the  oxen  of  these  breeds  make  great  weights.     More  than 


Fig.  76. 

once,  Welsh  steers  have  been  the  heaviest  of  all  exhibited  at  the 
Smithfield  show.  Unfortunately  the  Welsh  farmers  are  not  as  a 
body  keen  breeders,  consequently  the  improvement  of  the  breed  is 
left  in  too  few  hands  to  note  the  universal  improvement  in  the 
breed  that  we  might  otherwise  see,  although  in  many  herds  most 
marked  improvements  have  taken  place  within  the  last  few  years. 
These  cattle  are  driven  in  great  numbers  to  the  Midlands  and 
Eastern  Counties,  where  they  are  used  for  grazing  purposes,  and 
are  usually  well  liked  for  this  purpose.  They  are  favourites  with 
the  butcher  as  well  as  with  the  farmer.     The  South  Wales  cows 


LIVE  STOCK.  455 

are  good  milkers,  much  better  than  the  North,  and  usually  have 
a  finer  coat  than  the  Anglesea  cattle.  The  Angleseas  are  thicker 
set,  shorter  on  their  legs,  a  little  coarser  on  their  fore,  but  much 
better  on  their  hind  quarters  than  the  Pembrokes. 

The  Jerseys  for  butter-making  excel  all  other  breeds;  but, 
being  rather  delicate  in  constitution,  they  are  better  adapted  to 
the  southern  than  the  northern  climate.  For  beef-production  they 
are  of  very  Httle  value  :  they  take  a  long  time  to  feed,  and  when 
fed  they  make  light  weights  and  carry  only  a  small  proportion 
of  their  beef  in  the  choice  parts. 


^^ 


Fig.  77.— Jersey  Cow. 

They  cross  exceedingly  well  with  the  Shorthorn.  The  crosses 
retain  to  a  great  extent  the  dairy  qualities  of  the  Jersey,  and  are 
far  more  valuable  as  beef  makers. 

They  are  commonly  used  in  the  south  of  England  for  dairy 
purposes.  Many  people  keep  a  Jersey  cow  to  every  six  or  seven 
of  other  breeds ;  by  so  doing,  the  colour  and  consistency  of  the 
butter  and  cream  are  improved,  and  the  cream  is  supposed  to  be 
more  easily  churned.  They  are  also  very  much  used  in  small 
dairies  for  private  families. 

As   a    breed    they  have   a   very   characteristic    appearance, 


456 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


being  small  and  fine  boned.    The  usual  colours  are  different  shades 
of  fawn,  grey,  silver  grey,  sometimes  brown  and  broken  colour. 


Fig.  78.— Jersey  Bull. 

The  head  is  small  and  neat  with  rather  small  crumpled  homs, 


Fig.  79.— Guernsey  Cow. 

eyes  black  and  prominent,  nose  black,  the  nose  and  eyelids  are 


LIVE   STOCK. 


457 


encircled  with  yellow  hair.  The  neck  is  thin,  back  straight  and 
not  well  covered  with  flesh,  bones  of  the  hind  quarters  prominent, 
barrel  very  full  and  deep,  girth  comparatively  small,  coat  fine, 
short  and  sleek  (not  turned),  udder  of  fleshy  colour  and  well  hung, 
milk  veins  prominent. 

They  are  more  famous  for  the  quality  than  quantity  of  their 
milk  ;  it  is  exceedingly  rich  in  butter  fat. 

The  Guernseys,  Uke  the  Jerseys,  are  Channel  Island  catde ;  they 


Fig.    8o.— Kerry  Cow. 

have  very  much  the  characteristics  of  the  Jerseys.  Although  these 
are  the  breeds  of  the  islands,  many  of  the  best  animals  of  both 
kinds  are  bred  by  English  farmers.  The  Guernseys  are  larger,  and 
deeper  milkers  than  the  Jerseys,  but  the  milk  is  not  quite  so  rich. 

In  form  they  are  very  like  the  Jerseys,  but  differ  in  colour, 
usually  being  fawn  and  white,  and  sometimes  red  and  white. 

These  cattle,  too,  cross  exceedingly  well  with  the  Shorthorn  ; 
as  regards  beef  the  resulting  animal  is  superior  to  the  Jersey  and 
Shorthorn  cross.  Many  of  these  cross-bred  cattle  are  found  in 
the  south  of  England. 


458 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


The  Irish  Cattle  may  be  divided  into  two  breeds — the  Kerries, 
and  Dexter  Kerries.  These  are  very  small  but  exceedingly 
hardy  cattle,  and  well  adapted  for  grazing  on  poor  land,  or  suited 
for  a  poor  man  with  only  a  small  allotment.  Of  the  two  the 
Kerries  are  the  better  milkers ;  they  produce  a  large  proportion 
of  milk  in  comparison  with  the  amount  and  quahty  of  food  they 
consume. 

The  colour  of  the  Kerries  is  black,  and  in  form  they  are  very 
like  the  Ayrshires,  but  are  much  smaller,  and  have  longer  hair. 


Fig.  8i.- Dexter  Kerry  Bull. 

The  Dexter  Kerries  are  also  often  good  milkers,  but  more  adapted 
to  beef  production  than  the  Kerries.  They  usually  have  long 
black  hair,  sometimes  red,  and  blue-grey.  They  are  thicker  and 
better  made  than  the  Kerries,  their  bones  being  much  better 
covered ;  in  fact,  some  of  the  red  specimens  have  more  the 
appearance  of  a  miniature  Shorthorn  than  an  Ayrshire.  Both 
these  breeds  are  kept  by  Martin  J.  Sutton,  the  noted  seedsman 
of  Reading,  who  usually  figures  well  in  the  prize  list  where 
these  breeds  are  shown. 


Principles  of  Breeding. 

Every  breeder  who  tries  to  improve  his  herd,  flock,  or  stud 
should  hold  certain  objects  in  view,  in  order  that  he  may 
eventually  produce  points  of  excellence  in  his  stock.  These 
points  would,  of  course,  differ  according  to  the  animals  he  went 
in  for  breeding.     A  man  who  breeds  without  a  definite  object, 


LIVE  STOCK.  459 

or  without  holding  in  his  mind's  eye  an  ideal  animal,  and  trying 
to  his  best  ability  to  produce  such  animals,  will  usually  meet  with 
unsatisfactory  results. 

There  are  a  few  well-known  and  accepted  principles  which 
should  be  studied  by  all  young  breeders,  as  the  good  and  bad 
results  are  to  a  very  great  extent  under  a  man's  control ;  although 
occasionally  good  and  bad  points  appear  as  mere  matters  of  chance. 

The  first  thing  to  be  remembered  is  that  '''Like  begets  like ;" 
that  is,  the  peculiarities  of  the  parents  are  likely  to  appear  in  the 
offspring.     This  is  known  as  the  Law  of  Heredity. 

Spontaneous  Variation. — Although  the  law  of  "  Like  begetting 
like  "  is  true  in  the  general  sense,  it,  like  all  other  rules,  has  its 
exceptions ;  hence  we  get  spontaneous  variation  cropping  up  in 
all  kinds  of  breeding.  That  is  to  say,  the  offspring  is  unlike,  and 
sometimes  very  unlike  its  parents,  or  any  of  its  ancestry.  These 
variations  often  amount  to  freaks  of  nature,  and  cannot  in  any 
way  be  accounted  for. 

Besides  this  spontaneous  variation  we  also  get  variation  appear- 
ing in  a  less  marked  degree,  simply  caused  by  changes  of  climate, 
food,  or  soil,  on  certain  breeds.  For  instance,  mountain  sheep, 
when  kept  for  a  few  generations  in  better  climates,  and  on 
stronger  soils,  will  often  differ  in  having  finer  quality  wool,  and 
better  developed  carcases,  than  the  original  breed.  The  same 
with  the  Highland  cattle  when  taken  to  the  parks  in  the  south  of 
England ;  after  a  few  generations  Ihey  lose,  to  a  certain  extent, 
that  large  development  of  hair,  which  in  the  Highlands  is  necessary 
for  protection,  whilst  in  the  mild  climate  of  the  south  of  England 
it  is  not  required. 

Spontaneous  variation  is  less  likely  to  occur  in  animals  that 
have  been  bred,  for  many  generations  back,  to  a  uniform  type, 
than  when  the  contrary  is  the  case. 

Atavism,  or  "reversion."  ''Throwing  back,"  "breeding 
back,"  frequently  occurs  in  even  well-bred  stock.  It  means  that 
certain  characteristic  points  possessed  by  the  ancestors  of  genera- 
tions back  are  transmitted  to  the  offspring,  although  not  possessed 
by  the  parents.  An  example  might  be  taken  in  the  case  of 
Galloway  cattle  developing  horns,  which  is  occasionally  the  case ; 
although  these  cattle  have  been  bred  as  polled  beasts  for  many 
generations,  yet  at  some  time,  no  doubt,  the  cattle  from  which 
the  breed  has  sprung,  had  horns. 

Cases  of  reversion  are  often  interesting  in  helping  to  show  the 
origin  of  our  different  breeds.  It  is  sometimes  very  difficult  to 
decide  as  to  whether  a  case  is  reversion  or  spontaneous  variation. 

Prepotency. — Some  animals  have  greater  powers  of  transmitting 
their  characteristic  points  to  the  offspring  than  others,  consequently 


46o  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

the  offspring  is  most  like  the  animal  that  possesses  the  greatest 
prepotency.  As  a  rule  the  male  is  supposed  to  have  a  greater 
power  of  transmitting  his  points  than  the  female,  but  this  is  by  no 
means  always  the  case. 

Of  two  animals  the  one  that  has  the  longest  pedigree,  or  is  the 
better  bred,  is  usually  the  one  that  possesses  the  greatest  power 
ot  transmitting  its  characteristics  to  the  offspring. 

Heredity. — None  but  the  best  animals  should  be  selected  to 
breed  from,  as  the  points  of  the  parents  are  usually  inherited  by  the 
offspring ;  and,  as  a  rule,  there  is  a  much  greater  chance  of  the  weak 
points  being  inherited  than  the  stronger  ones.  The  weak  points, 
too,  are  often  intensified  in  the  offspring ;  consequently  animals 
with  any  constitutional  weakness  should  never  be  bred  from. 

The  offspring  is  usually  considered  to  inherit  more  of  the  size 
and  outward  appearance  of  the  male,  whilst  it  resembles  the 
female  in  a  greater  degree  as  regards  its  internal  organs  and 
constitution. 

"  In-and-in  Breeding  "  means  mating  animals  that  are  closely 
related  to  one  another.  This  practice  of  family  breeding  is  not 
carried  on  to  the  extent  it  was  at  one  time,  but  it  is  still  done. 
It  is  no  doubt  the  quickest  way  of  establishing  a  uniform  breed  of 
animals,  but  it  is  often  attended  by  a  loss  of  size  and  constitution. 
The  great  danger  is  that  there  may  be  a  constitutional  weakness 
running  through  the  cattle,  and  family  breeding  has  the  tendency 
to  intensify  this  weakness.  Consequently,  if  this  practice  is  to  be 
carried  on  successfully,  very  careful  selection  has  to  be  resorted 
to,  and  only  the  most  robust  animals,  which  show  no  signs  of 
weakness  of  any  kind,  should  be  selected  from,  and  those  pos- 
sessing any  fault  should  be  weeded  out. 

It  is,  as  a  rule,  advantageous  to  introduce  blood  from  other 
families ;  by  this  means  faults  may  be  remedied,  by  selecting  a 
male  with  strong  points,  where,  perhaps,  the  female  may  be 
slightly  weak. 

Selection. — There  are  a  vast  number  of  points  that  have  to  be 
taken  into  consideration  with  regard  to  selection,  varying  much 
with  the  breed  of  animals  that  are  dealt  with,  and  also  with  the 
different  purposes  for  which  they  may  be  required.  In  every 
case  animals  most  likely  to  leave  stock  best  fitted  for  the  different 
purposes  that  they  may  be  required  for,  should  be  selected. 

In  the  wild  state  we  get  the  survival  of  the  fittest,  the  weaker 
ones  either  die  from  disease,  or  are  killed  by  their  betters,  and 
only  the  strong  and  robust  animals  are  allowed  to  live.  ^Vith 
our  domesticated  animals  we  have  to  go  in  for  artificial  selection, 
and  only  breed  from  the  fittest. 

In  selecting  for  breeding  purposes,  it  is  necessary  to  look  into 


LIVE  STOCK.  461 

the  pedigree  and  ancestry  of  the  animals,  as  well  as  choosing 
good-looking  stock.  It  is  sometimes  the  case  that  good-looking 
cattle,  sheep,  or  horses  may  be  got  by  one  good  and  one  inferior 
parent ;  in  such  a  case  the  stock  got  from  such  animals  will  pro- 
bably possess  some  of  the  bad  points  of  the  undesirable  ancestor, 
instead  of  possessing  the  good  points  of  the  parent. 

A  plain  bull,  whose  ancestry  have  all  been  good  specimens  of 
the  breed,  will  usually  produce  much  better  stock  than  a  good- 
looking  bull  derived  from  inferior  stock. 

It  is,  as  a  rule,  bad  policy  to  select  stock  from  a  very  strong 
soil  to  improve  stock  on  poor  land.  The  change  in  the  quality 
of  the  food  will  usually  be  felt,  and  will  prove  insufficient  to  keep 
up  the  development  of  the  animals,  and  consequently  the  change 
will  be  accompanied  with  a  loss  of  form,  instead  of  producing 
cattle  similar  to  those  from  the  strong  land. 

Crossing  usually  means  mating  animals  that  are  purely  bred, 
but  of  two  distinct  breeds,  such  as  mating  a  pure-bred  Shorthorn 
with  a  pure-bred  Galloway. 

The  first  cross  is  usually  the  best,  as  it  usually  embraces  the 
good  characters  of  both  breeds,  whilst  a  second  cross  often 
produces  stock  which  lack  uniformity. 

Crossing  is  carried  on  extensively  amongst  cattle  and  sheep,  for 
the  purposes  of  producing  size,  good  quality  meat,  and  early  maturity, 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  both  the  farmer  and  the  butcher. 

For  producing  size  and  early  maturity,  males  of  larger  breeds 
possessing  the  quality  of  coming  early  to  maturity  are  usually 
used  with  smaller  females.  We  see  such  results  most  pointedly 
amongst  hill  cattle  or  mountain  sheep.  If  Highland  cows  are 
served  by  small  Shorthorn  bulls,  the  size  will  be  much  improved, 
and  they  will  be  almost  equal  to  the  Highland  cattle  as  regards 
constitution.  But  if  Shorthorn  cows  are  served  by  Highland  bulls, 
they  would  not  have  such  strong  constitutions,  and  would  not  be 
nearly  so  suited  to  hill  grazing  as  if  crossed  the  other  way. 

The  same  thing  may  be  noticed  in  sheep ;  take,  for  instance, 
the  crossing  Cheviot  ewes  with  Leicester  rams.  The  size  is 
improved,  they  come  early  to  maturity,  and  have  strong  con- 
stitutions. But  if  a  Cheviot  tup  were  used  wath  Leicester  ewes, 
the  cross  would  not  be  so  well  adapted  for  upland  pastures  as 
when  the  half-bred  is  got  from  the  Cheviot  mother. 

A  ''''pure  bred "  animal  is  one  descended  on  both  sides  from 
animals  belonging  to  any  one  of  the  recognized  pure  breeds. 

A  "  cross  bred "  animal  is  one  that  is  the  offspring  of  parents 
of  two  distinct  breeds. 

A  '''grade''  is  the  offspring  of  parents  one  of  which  is  pure 
bred,  but  the  other  nou 


4^2  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

A  "■  high  grade''  is  an  animal  of  mixed  breeding,  in  which  the 
blood  of  pure-bred  animals  largely  predominates. 

Soil  and  Climate  influence  to  a  certain  extent  the  characteristic 
points  of  live  stock.  This  is  most  strikingly  seen  in  breeds  that  live 
entirely  on  the  natural  produce  of  the  soil,  and  are  exposed  to  the 
natural  climate,  such  as  mountain  sheep  and  Highland  cattle. 

The  influence  of  soil  and  climate  is,  perhaps,  best  known  to 
the  farmers  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  who  have  found  from 
experience  that,  in  taking  over  a  farm,  it  pays  them  best  to  take 
the  sheep  that  have  been  bred  on  the  farm,  with  it,  although  they 
may  cost  a  great  deal  more  than  they  might  be  purchased  for 
elsewhere.  The  death-rate  of  strange  sheep  put  on  the  farm 
would  probably  be  very  great  until  they  became  acclimatized. 

Every  sheep-breeder  knows  that  climate  and  soil  have  a  great 
influence  on  wool,  and  will  consequently  be  particular  in  select- 
ing rams  from  certain  districts  to  improve  their  wool  if  necessary. 
To  take  an  instance,  the  South  Ham  sheep  are  well  adapted  to 
the  Cornish  climate  generally,  yet  the  breeders  frequently  find  a 
falling  ofl"  in  the  weight  of  the  fleece,  and  go  to  Devonshire  for 
their  rams  in  order  to  remedy  this  failure. 

The  reasons  for  mountain  breeds  being  more  influenced  than 
others  by  soil  and  climate  are,  because  they  usually  have  to  live 
on  the  natural  pasture,  and  are  exposed  to  the  natural  climate ; 
whilst  other  breeds  are  often  artificially  fed,  and  are  also  provided 
with  shelter,  and  are  therefore  less  exposed  to  the  natural 
influences  of  soil  and  climate. 

Management  of  Cattle. 

The  first  thing  we  will  consider  under  this  heading  will  be  the 
Selection  of  Stock.  From  what  has  been  already  said  in  describing 
the  difl'erent  breeds  of  cattle,  it  will  be  seen  that  some  breeds  are 
more  suited  to  some  locaUties  and  climates  than  others.  So 
there  are  many  things  that  should  be  taken  into  consideration 
before  selecting  any  particular  breed  of  cattle,  in  order  that  they 
may  be  adapted  to  the  kind  of  farming,  and  land  for  which  they 
may  be  required. 

The  chief  points  to  be  considered  may  be  summed  up  as 
follows: — (i)  Climate;  (2)  Quahty  of  Land;  (3)  District,  or 
Locality ;  (4)  Kind  of  Farming,  viz.  dairying  or  beef-producing. 

Climate. — For  cold  and  exposed  northern  climates,  only  the 
hardier  breeds  should  be  selected  ;  such  as  the  difl'erent  Scotch 
breeds,  Shorthorn,  and  Welsh.  For  milder  and  more  southern 
climates  more  delicate  breeds  may  be  selected  in  addition  to 
those  suited  to  more  severe  situations. 


LIVE   STOCK.  463 

The  Quality  of  the  Land  must  in  all  cases  influence  selection, 
the  larger  breeds  being  suited  to  the  richer  classes  of  soils,  and 
the  smaller  and  hardier  races  for  the  poorer  class  of  land.  Cattle 
should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  brought  from  a  richer  to  a  poorer  soil, 
as  such  a  change  will  probably  be  accompanied  with  a  loss  of 
symmetry,  deterioration  in  size,  weakness  of  bone,  less  aptitude 
to  fatten,  and  later  maturity.  The  quality  of  the  food  grown  on 
the  farm  will  be  poorer  in  direct  proportion  with  the  quality  of 
the  land  and  manure  used.  So,  to  make  up  for  this,  a  larger 
amount  of  artificial  food  will  have  to  be  used,  in  order  to  keep 
the  cattle  in  such  good  condition.  On  the  other  hand,  cattle 
should  not  be  brought  from  a  very  poor  soil  to  a  very  rich  one, 
as  they  will  not  be  large  enough  to  make  the  best  use  of  the 
richer  food ;  but  this  will  generally  be  a  better  change  than  from 
a  richer  to  a  poorer  soil,  although  in  some  cases  the  superior 
quality  of  food  produces  such  diseases  as  black  leg  or  black 
quarter  amongst  cattle,  when  brought  to  a  much  richer  soil  than 
they  have  been  bred  upon.  When  cattle  are  brought  to  a  better 
soil  than  they  have  been  accustomed  to,  the  breed  will  get  larger 
in  frame,  and  develop  a  greater  aptitude  to  come  early  to  maturity. 
It  should  always  be  the  aim  in  such  cases  to  avoid  extremes,  and 
select  cattle  from  a  slightly  poorer  soil  than  they  will  in  future 
have  to  live  on. 

District. — The  general  farming  of  the  district  may  be  arable 
or  pasture,  so,  in  selection,  these  points  should  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. Some  breeds  are  much  more  adapted  for  pasture 
than  arable  land,  especially  when  they  have  been  bred  for  years 
on  pasture.  In  the  same  way,  other  breeds  may  be  more  suited 
to  arable  land,  and  appear  to  be  adapted  to  producing  beef  or 
milk  from  the  consumption  of  roots  and  dry  foods,  of  which 
straw  may  form  a  major  part. 

Cattle  that  have  been  bred  for  generations  in  a  locality  are 
usually  better  adapted  to  their  own  natural  soils  than  other 
breeds.  For  examples  we  might  take  the  Herefords,  Devons, 
Sussex,  West  Highland  cattle,  Ayrshires  and  Galloways ;  although 
the  Shorthorn  can  generally  adapt  itself  to  most  circumstances 
and  districts,  providing  the  land  does  not  fall  too  low  in  quality. 

Kind  of  Farming. — This  may  be  divided  under  several  head- 
ings, viz.  Breeding,  Rearing,  Dairying,  and  Beef-producing. 

To  be  a  successful  breeder  a  man  should  have  a  large  capital, 
fairly  good  land,  and,  most  important  of  all,  a  natural  talent 
and  inchnation  in  this  direction,  combining  foresight  and  good 
judgment,  which  may  be  brought  nearer  perfection  by  long  experi- 
ence. It  need  scarcely  be  mentioned  that  such  a  man  will  not  be 
found  in  the  ordinary  average  farmer,  and,  even  if  it  were  so,  it  is 


4^4  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

exceedingly  doubtful  as  to  whether  breeding  would  be  the  most 
profitable  course  to  pursue  in  many  cases. 

Rearing  is  usually  carried  on  in  districts  which  are  hilly,  and 
contain  a  large  amount  of  the  poorer  class  of  land,  which  will 
maintain  young  stock  and  cows  with  the  addition  of  a  little 
artificial  food,  but  is  not  so  suited  for  fattening  cattle.  The 
practice  is  to  sell  stock  in  lean  condition  to  some  neighbouring 
farmers  on  a  better  class  of  soil,  where  they  can  be  fattened.  This 
kind  of  farming  is  also  practised  to  a  small  extent  amongst 
Cumberland  farmers,  farming  on  good  land,  their  plan  being  to 
feed  their  calves  well  until  they  are  about  twelve  months  old,  and 
then  sell  them  in  the  spring  to  graziers  on  rich  soils,  such  as  the 
Holderness,  in  Yorkshire.  These  yearlings,  when  well  brought 
out,  fetch  from  ;^i2  tO;£'i4  per  head.  In  their  place  are  pur- 
chased Irish  or  Scotch,  from  two  to  three  years  old,  for  less  money ; 
and  as  they  have  in  all  probability  been  accustomed  to  poorer 
fare,  thrive  very  rapidly  on  the  Cumberland  soils,  with  the 
addition  of  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  artificial  food. 

Dairying. — Various  circumstances  may  guide  a  man  as  to 
whether  it  will  be  better  to  go  in  for  dairying  or  beef-producing. 
Generally  speaking,  it  will  usually  be  better  for  him  to  take  up 
the  one  that  he  has  had  most  experience  in ;  but,  after  this,  the 
following  circumstances  should  materially  influence  his  selection : 
(i)  whether  the  land  of  the  district  has,  or  is  likely  to  prove 
itself  valuable  for  the  production  of  milk,  butter,  or  cheese ;  (2)  the 
state  of  the  supply  of  pure  and  fresh  water ;  (3)  distances  from  large 
centres  of  population ;  and  (4)  facilities  for  conveying  the  dairy 
produce  to  these  centres.  If  these  circumstances  appear  satis- 
factory, the  probabilities  are,  that  dairying  will  be  the  best  plan 
of  management  to  adopt. 

Beef-producing. — If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  farm  is  at  a  great 
distance  from  well-populated  districts,  and  the  railway  communi- 
cation not  close  at  hand,  or  any  other  circumstances  which  seem 
opposed  to  dairying  place  themselves  in  the  way,  and  thus  reduce 
the  prospect  of  profit,  the  next  best  thing  will  be  for  a  man  to 
turn  his  attention  to  the  production  of  beef,  and  such  stock  should 
be  selected  as  will  be  considered  suitable  in  each  case. 

For  the  guidance  of  the  student  a  table  has  been  drawn  up 
(see  next  page)  showing  the  various  breeds  of  cattle  that  might 
be  suitable  under  various  circumstances. 

As  regards  the  management  of  cattle,  the  main  object  of  the 
British  farmer  must  be  to  produce  beef  and  milk  profitably,  at 
market  price.  In  order  to  do  this  we  must  have  good  stock ; 
that  is  to  say,  cattle  that  will,  with  good  management,  produce 
large  quantities  of  rich  milk,  or,  if  required,  produce  a  heavy 


LIVE   STOCK. 


465 


Dairy. 

Beef. 

(Shorthorn 

Short- 

Short- 

Norfolk 

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Norfolk 

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Jersey 

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Polls 

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M  ^  Hereford       / 

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£ 

Galloway 

Kerry 

2  H 


466  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

carcase  of  good  quality  beef  at  an  early  age,  and  at  the  same  time 
develop  a  hardy  constitution.  In  order  to  get  and  retain  these 
good  qualities,  careful  selection  and  breeding  is  necessary.  Much 
of  the  success  or  failure  in  the  future  will  depend  on  the  breeding 
of  the  present  generation,  in  the  same  way  as  we  have  been  to  a 
very  great  degree  dependent  upon,  and  have  to  thank,  such  men  as 
Messrs.  Collings,  Booth,  Bates,  Cruickshank,  Watson,  McCombie, 
etc.,  for  the  superior  class  of  stock  we  possess  in  the  Shorthorns  of 
the  present  time.  These  men  had  to  strike  out  Hnes  of  their  own, 
and,  in  order  that  their  stock  should  not  revert  or  throw  out  bad 
points  which  might  have  been  possessed  by  their  forefathers,  only 
beasts  with  the  longest  pedigrees  were  safe  to  breed  from.  Although 
a  bull  without  a  pedigree  might  have  been  in  many  cases  a  better 
developed  animal  than  the  one  with  a  pedigree,  yet  the  stock  got 
by  the  non-pedigree  beast  would,  in  all  probability,  show  bad 
points,  which  had  been  characteristic  of  some  of  its  ancestors. 
So  to  prevent  this,  in  many  cases  in-and-in,  or  family  breeding, 
had  to  be  resorted  to.  The  tendency  of  line  breeding  in  cattle 
is,  as  with  all  other  animals,  to  produce  degenerate  stock, 
and  cause  weak  constitutions,  etc.  So,  when  possible,  line 
breeding  should  be  avoided.  In  the  days  of  Booth  and  Bates 
there  was  a  comparatively  small  number  of  choice  stock  to  select 
from,  so  they  had  to  use  cattle  that  were  closely  related  to 
each  other ;  but  such  is  not  the  case  in  the  present  day,  for  it 
is  not  hard  now  to  find  plenty  of  good  beasts  that  can  date  back 
quite  far  enough  for  breeding  purposes.  A  strong,  robust  animal, 
with  a  deep  and  wide  chest,  thick  through  the  thoracic  cavity, 
showing  signs  of  good  constitution,  and  carrying  beef  in  the 
right  places,  with  only  a  short  pedigree,  providing  it  is  sound  as 
far  as  it  goes,  should  be  selected  in  preference  to  an  animal 
showing  signs  of  a  weaker  constitution,  although  its  pedigree  may 
be  traced  back  many  generations.  In  this  way  our  breeds  may 
be  improved,  and  the  kind  of  stock  we  require  may  be  raised. 

The  question  suggests  itself.  What  class  of  men  should  go  in 
for  breeding  ?  If  we  say  the  tenant-farmer,  it  is  as  good  as  im- 
plying that  all  British  farmers  should  turn  to  breeders.  If  we 
could  export  all  animals  not  required  at  home,  for  large  prices,  it 
would  pay ;  but  every  reasonable  person  knows  that  the  demand 
would  not  be  equal  to  the  supply,  and  thus  the  market  would  be 
glutted.  Although  these  beasts  would  not  be  produced  at  butchers' 
prices,  many  of  them  would  have  to  be  sold  at  that  rate,  and, 
consequently,  at  a  loss.  Breeding,  in  any  case,  may  be  con- 
sidered a  speculation,  and  should  be  left  to  men  of  means,  who 
wish  to  win  honour  and  renown  rather  than  money.  Many  highly 
bred  beasts  have  to  fall  to  the  butcher's  pole-axe  at  tender  ages  as 


LIVE   STOCK.  467 

it  is,  at  a  loss  to  their  breeder ;  and  if  breeding  were  taken  up 
extensively  by  the  tenant-farmer,  it  would  be  the  fate  of  an 
increased  number,  thereby  causing  a  greater  loss ;  therefore,  as 
before  mentioned,  it  should  be  the  aim  of  the  British  farmer  to  pro- 
duce beef  and  dairy  produce  profitably  at  the  market  prices,  whilst 
the  breeder  should  breed  with  a  view  to  produce  a  class  of  stock 
which  would  be  likely  to  assist  the  tenant  in  attaining  this  object. 

Calf-rearing^. — In  order  to  describe  the  life  history  of  an  animal 
or  plant,  it  is  usual  to  start  with  the  embryo,  or  seed,  so  we  will 
do  so  in  this  case. 

If  a  good  calf  is  desired,  perhaps  the  best  way  of  obtaining  it 
will  be  to  select  a  dam  which  possesses,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the 
points  and  good  qualities  required  in  the  calf,  and  let  her  be 
bulled  by  a  beast  that  would  be  likely  to  prove  a  desirable  sire. 
The  next  point  will  be  to  keep  the  dam  in  a  healthy  and  good 
condition  during  her  period  of  gestation,  which  is  usually  con- 
sidered to  be  285  days,  roughly  nine  calendar  months.  It  is  by 
no  means  usual  for  cows  to  calve  at  the  exact  day  they  are  due  ; 
they  sometimes  calve  before  that  time,  and  often  after.  If  the 
calf  is  dropped  before  the  cow  has  gone  her  full  time,  the  proba- 
bility is  that  it  will  be  a  heifer  calf,  and  if  she  goes  beyond  the 
time,  a  bull  calf  is  usually  the  result.  Physiologists,  I  believe, 
account  for  this  fact  on  the  assumption  that  the  female  organs 
differ  from  those  of  the  male  in  being  in  a  much  less  developed 
state ;  but  be  this  as  it  may,  the  fact  remains  that  the  larger  pro- 
portion of  calves  born  after  the  normal  time  has  expired  are  males. 

If  the  animal  bearing  the  calf  is  a  milking  cow,  she  should  be 
dried  at  least  two  months  before  she  is  due  to  calve,  and  should 
be  supplied  with  wholesome  and  nutritious  food,  as  it  must  not 
be  forgotten  she  has  the  foetus  to  supply  with  sufficient  nourish- 
ment, so  that  it  may  be  a  strong  and  well-developed  animal  at 
birth.  The  constitution  of  the  calf  will  be  influenced  very  much 
by  the  style  of  feeding  the  mother  gets  during  the  last  stage 
of  her  pregnancy.  Cows  meanly  fed  and  ill-cared  for  at  this 
stage,  often  produce  calves  with  a  weak  constitution,  which  they 
rarely  shake  off  during  their  after  life,  and,  consequently,  prove 
unprofitable.  The  best  managers  keep  cows  at  this  period  in  a 
good  healthy  condition,  without  allowing  them  to  get  too  fat. 
When  allowed  to  get  too  high  in  condition,  there  is  a  great 
chance  of  their  getting  a  severe  time  during  parturition,  and  are 
much  more  liable  to  fall  victims  to  milk  fever  and  other  partu- 
rient complaints,  which  so  often  prove  fatal  to  cows  kept  in  high 
condition,  and  yet  are  comparatively  unknown  amongst  herds 
which  lack  flesh  at  this  period. 

As  soon  as  a  cow  shows  signs  of  coming  parturition  by  the 


468  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

dropping  of  the  pelvic  bones,  distention  of  the  udder  and  teats, 
etc.,  she  should  be  placed  in  a  comfortable,  well-bedded  loose 
box,  so  that  she  may  become  thoroughly  accustomed  to  her  new 
abode  before  the  arrival  of  her  progeny. 

Some  people  give  a  calving  drink  before  parturition  takes 
place,  as  a  preventative  of  milk-fever,  and,  in  the  case  of  very  heavy 
milkers,  some  milk  may  be  taken  a  day  or  two  before  calving. 
Such  a  drink  might  consist  of  small  doses  of  linseed  oil  or  Epsom 
salts,  which  may  be  started  about  a  fortnight  before  the  time  of 
calving.  A  sloppy  bran  mash  or  two  may  be  given  with  advantage 
at  this  period. 

The  methods  of  rearing  calves  vary  very  much  in  different 
districts,  and  with  different  styles  of  farming.  For  instance,  the 
modes  of  management  with  a  breeder  and  a  dairyman  will  be 
almost  directly  opposed  to  one  another.  The  breeder  would 
probably  give  his  calves  almost  as  much  as  they  would  take, 
whilst  the  dairyman,  with  a  good  sale  for  his  milk,  would  supply 
them  with  only  the  bare  quantity  he  considered  necessary. 

Some  farmers  on  grazing  land  simply  let  the  cows  suckle  their 
calves,  as  on  the  pasture  lands  of  Herefordshire,  this  system 
being  much  like  the  breeders'.  Then,  again,  in  some  districts 
where  dairy  produce  is  not  saleable,  farmers  go  in  for  beef 
production,  and  bring  up  as  many  purchased  calves,  in  addition 
to  their  own,  on  the  milk  from  only  a  few  cows,  their  system 
being  much  like  the  dairyman's.  Besides  these,  we  have  the 
general  farmer,  who  goes  in  for  a  style  between  the  two,  giving 
plenty  without  being  too  lavish. 

To  take  the  breeder.  If  his  object  were  to  produce  beef  at 
market  price  no  doubt  he  would  be  a  little  less  liberal  towards 
his  calf  than  is  usually  the  case.  He  has  to  look  at  things  in 
a  different  light ;  his  object  being  to  bring  his  bulls  out  in  show 
condition  at  twelve  to  thirteen  months  old,  so  that  they  may 
attract  the  eyes  of  the  buyers,  and  compete  favourably  with  other 
competitors.  In  order  to  do  this,  the  calf  has  to  be  forced 
beyond  its  natural  growth,  with  expensive  food;  but  as  they 
usually  fetch  sums  far  beyond  their  value  to  the  butcher,  the  cost 
of  the  food  is  not  begrudged.  It  is  often  argued  that,  if  these 
beasts  were  kept  in  a  less  pampered  and  a  more  natural  con- 
dition, their  health  and  breeding  qualities  would  be  improved. 

But  when  a  beast  is  brought  into  a  show  or  sale  ring  out  of 
condition,  no  one  is  to  know  that  it  has  had  food  inferior  to  the 
best-fed  beast  in  this  class,  and  is  consequently  at  a  disadvantage, 
generally  being  smaller  and  less  sightly.  The  poorer  condition 
is  often  put  down  to  less  constitution  and  aptitude  to  thrive, 
weak  points  are  also  more  plainly  seen  in  a  lean  than  a  fat  beast. 


LIVE   STOCK.  469 

Some  good  judges,  it  is  true,  would  rather  trust  to  their  judgment 
and  buy  the  animal  in  a  less  pampered  condition,  but  this  is  the 
exception  rather  than  the  rule,  for  it  is  usually  the  animals  best 
brought  out  that  appear  to  the  best  advantage. 

The  bull  calves  are  often  allowed  to  suck  their  dams  until 
they  get  dry,  when  the  calf  would  be  from  seven  to  nine  months 
old.  In  addition  to  the  milk  they  get  from  their  mother,  they 
begin  to  eat  cake,  hay,  roots,  etc.,  when  about  a  month  old,  and 
are  given  as  much  as  they  will  consume,  which  will  be  very  little 
at  first ;  but  at  eight  to  ten  months  old  the  cake  and  meal  might 
amount  to  six  or  seven  pounds  per  day.  After  being  weaned 
from  the  mother  they  often  receive  an  allowance  of  skim  milk. 

The  heifer  calves  as  a  rule  do  not  get  such  a  liberal  fare ;  one 
cow  is  often  allowed  to  suckle  two  calves,  or  perhaps  they  may 
be  weaned  at  two  or  three  weeks  old,  when  they  would  be  kept 
on  whole  and  skim  milk  mixed. 

In  grazing  districts,  such  as  Herefordshire,  the  calves  are  often 
allowed  to  suck  their  dams.  The  management  is  so  arranged 
that  the  cows  may  calve  in  spring,  the  calf  being  allowed  to  run 
with  the  mother  at  grass  until  she  becomes  dry,  the  cow  will  not 
be  hand-milked  at  all,  excepting  for  the  first  few  days,  when 
she  gets  a  little  taken  off  to  prevent  her  teats  becoming  hard, 
until  the  calf  is  able  to  suck  her  fairly  dry. 

The  expense  of  this  system  will  be  considered  later,  under 
the  head  of  "  Herefordshire  Management." 

In  some  cases,  where  the  cows  are  fairly  good  milkers,  they 
are  made  to  maintain  two  calves  ;  they  naturally  make  smaller 
calves  than  when  only  one  is  suckled,  but  this  system  is  much 
more  economical.  It  is  also  a  common  practice  to  put  a  pair  of 
calves  on  one  cow  for  about  three  months ;  they  are  then  weaned, 
and  a  third  one  put  on  for  the  remainder  of  her  milking  period. 

Another  and  perhaps  less  common  practice  is  to  get  an  old 
dairy  cow  after  she  has  had  her  last  calf,  with  the  addition  of 
a  little  skim  milk,  to  bring  up  as  many  as  five  calves.  It  may  be 
arranged  as  follows.  At  first,  two  are  put  on  her,  and  weaned 
from  ten  to  twelve  weeks  old,  when  two  more  are  put  on  for 
another  twelve  weeks,  and  after  these  are  taken  away  she  will 
maintain  one  for  the  remainder  of  her  milking  period. 

It  is  a  common  practice  to  take  calves  from  heifers  not 
required  to  replace  other  cows  in  the  dairy,  these  being  allowed 
to  calve  in  early  summer  and  run  three  or  four  months  on  the 
pasture  with  their  calf;  they  are  then  dried,  and  fed  for  the  butcher, 
under  four  years  old. 

We  will  now  consider  a  general  way  of  bringing  up  calves, 
or  a  system  that  might  be  suitable  in  any  district,  and  especially 


470  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

so  for  a  farmer  who  wished  to  bring  up  more  than  his  own  bred 
calves,  as  is  often  the  case.  When  such  a  farmer  requires  calves 
he  can  usually  get  well  bred  ones  from  a  dairy  farmer,  at  from  ;£i 
to  £,\  \os.  per  head. 

We  will  suppose  that  an  attendant  is  present  when  the  cow 
drops  her  calf;  it  is  taken  away  and  put  in  a  calf-hutch,  and,  when 
rubbed  dry  with  a  wisp  of  straw,  given  a  little  of  its  mother's 
first  milk,  or  beistyns  (colostrum).  This  first  milk  that  a  cow 
produces  after  calving  is  very  different  to  her  ordinary  milk.  It 
contains  a  high  percentage  of  albumin  and  casein,  and  a  much 
lower  percentage  of  water.  It  has  a  much  higher  albuminoid 
ratio  than  ordinary  milk.  The  first  three  or  four  milkings  are 
unfit  for  butter  making. 


Composition 

OF 

Ordinary  Milk  and  Colostrum. 

Of  Ordinary  Milk. 

Of  Colostrum. 

Water   .. 

.. 

87-5                             78-8 

Fat 

3'5                         4'o 

Casein  .. 

..        .. 

3-3                 ri 

Sugar    . . 

4-6                          1-5 

Albumin 

.. 

0-4                         7-4 

Ash       .. 

.. 

07                          vo 

lOO'O  lOO'O 

Colostrum  has  peculiar  properties,  and  has  a  purgative  action 
on  the  bowels  of  the  young  calf.  It  is  necessary  that  the  calf 
should  be  fed  on  this  colostrum  in  order  to  clear  the  intestines 
of  the  brown  gluey  faeces  contained  therein. 

It  is  sometimes  a  little  difficult  to  get  the  calf  to  take  its  milk 
at  first,  but  with  patience  the  most  stubborn  may  be  made  to  take 
it.  If  the  finger  be  placed  in  their  mouth  they  will  usually  begin 
to  suck  it,  especially  if  the  roof  of  the  mouth  be  tickled ;  then,  by 
placing  the  mouth,  with  the  finger  in  it,  in  some  milk  it  may 
be  got  to  suck  up  about  a  pint  and  a  half  at  a  time.  It 
should  get  this  quantity  about  four  times  a  day,  and  a  little  more 
at  its  last  meal  at  night.  By  about  the  third  day  it  will  take 
about  a  gallon  in  three  meals  ;  and  by  the  end  of  the  week  about 
five  quarts  per  day.  It  should  have  its  mother's  milk  for  at  least 
the  first  week.  The  second  week  it  will  require  nearly  six  quarts 
a  day;  third  week,  about  four  quarts  of  whole  milk  and  three 
of  skim  ;  fourth  week,  two  of  whole  and  six  of  skim.  After  this 
the  whole  milk  may  be  stopped,  and  its  place  supplied  by  linseed 
boiled  with  a  little  wheat  flour. 

Three  pounds  of  linseed  with  one  of  flour  would  make  about 
five  gallons  of  gruel ;  this,  mixed  with  six  gallons  of  skim  milk, 
v/ould  be  sufficient  for  five  calves  for  one  day,  and  should  keep 
them  well  after  a  month  old. 


LIVE  STOCK.  471 

The  cost  of  the  milk  and  gruel  per  week  would  be  about  two 
shillings  for  each  calf. 

s,   d, 

6  gallons  skim  milk  at  2fl^.  per  gallon  ..  ..      10 


Five  calves  would  cost  one  shilling  and  fivepence  per  day. 
Therefore  one  calf  would  cost  about  two  shillings  per  week.  One 
pound  of  linseed  contains  about  as  much  fat  as  one  gallon  of 
whole  milk,  therefore  the  composition  of  the  mixture  would  be 
almost  the  same  as  the  same  quantity  of  whole  and  skim  milk 
mixed  in  equal  quantities.     The  price  would  be  less  than  half. 

d. 
One  gallon  whole  milk    ..  ,,  ..  ..6 

One  gallon  skim  milk      ..  ..  ••  ..2 

8 

Giving  two  gallons  per  day,  or  fourteen  gallons  per  week, 
would  cost  four  shillings  and  eightpence,  whilst  the  first  mixture 
would  only  cost  two  shillings  per  week. 

Some  feeders  give  gruels  prepared  from  ground  linseed-cake 
and  maize  meal,  but  pure  linseed  is  to  be  preferred,  as  the  com- 
position of  the  mixture  approaches  much  nearer  the  composition 
of  the  natural  food.  The  linseed  supplies  to  a  great  extent  the 
fat  that  has  been  removed  for  butter-making.  It  contains  from 
three  to  four  times  as  much  fat  as  these  other  foods.  Again, 
linseed  cakes  are  often  adulterated  with  rape  seed,  etc.,  in  which 
case  they  have  a  peculiar  acrid  taste,  and  sometimes  cause  the 
calves  to  scour. 

It  may  be  found,  in  some  cases,  that  the  addition  of  this 
linseed  makes  the  food  of  too  laxative  a  nature  \  in  this  case  the 
gruel  should  be  made  for  a  short  time  with  two  pounds  each 
of  bean  meal  and  linseed,  and  gradually  got  back  to  three  pounds 
of  linseed  and  one  of  bean  meal  or  wheat  flour.  The  following 
table  will  show  approximately  how  much  a  calf  will  require  for 
the  first  month. 

First  day,  about  i^  pints  three  times  during  the  day,  and  i  quart  at  night. 

Second  day,    4  quarts  in  three  meals. 

Seventh  day,  5       ,,  ,, 

(Or  the  calf  may  be  kept  with  its  dam  for  the  first  week.) 

End  of  second  week,  6  quarts  in  three  meals. 

,,      third  week,  4  quarts  of  new  and  3  quarts  of  skim  milk. 

,,      fourth  week,  2       ,,  ,,  6 


47:^  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

After  a  month,  if  milk  is  scarce  its  place  may  be  supplied  by 
a  little  over  two  gallons  of  mixed  gruel  and  skim  milk  (as 
described)  per  each  calf  per  day,  to  be  lessened  after  ten,  and 
entirely  discontinued  at  fourteen,  weeks. 

A  calf  at  a  month  old  will  begin  to  eat  cake,  crushed  oats, 
hay,  and  sliced  roots  in  very  small  quantities. 

When  entirely  weaned  from  its  milk  and  gruel  it  should 
receive  about  one  pound  of  linseed  cake  or  crushed  oats  per  day, 
in  addition  to  hay  and  a  few  sliced  roots. 

Mr.  Bowick  on  "  Calf-rearing,"  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society,  vol.  xxii.,  p.  136,  gives  a  whole-milk  diet 
for  a  calf : — 

First  week  with  the  dam,  or  4  quarts  per  day. 
Second  to  fourth  week,  5  to  7  quarts  per  day. 
Fourth  to  sixth  week,  6  to  7  quarts  per  day. 

The  quantity  need  not  exceed  two  gallons  per  day  during  the 
ensuing  six  weeks,  after  which  time  the  calf  is  weaned. 

It  is  a  disputed  point  as  to  whether  the  calf  should  be  allowed 
to  suck  its  dam  or  taken  away  directly  after  it  is  born.  Strong 
arguments  may  be  raised  on  either  side,  but  the  generality 
of  farmers  appear  to  be  in  favour  of  taking  the  calf  away  as  soon 
as  it  is  dropped ;  our  own  experience,  however,  leads  us  to 
consider  the  practice  of  leaving  the  calf  and  dam  together  for 
a  few  days  the  better  plan.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  more  natural 
one  for  both  the  cow  and  the  calf. 

The  chief  objection  raised  against  this  practice  is,  that  the 
cow  is  not  supposed  to  milk  so  well  afterwards.  This,  to  a 
certain  extent,  may  be  true,  but,  under  proper  management,  as 
a  rule  there  will  be  no  appreciable  difference.  Whilst  the  calf 
is  with  the  mother  she  should  have  a  little  milk  taken  off  twice 
a  day;  by  this  means  she  is  kept  fairly  dry.  It  is  a  common 
practice  in  Devon  and  Cornwall  to  leave  the  cow  and  calf 
together  for  from  four  to  eight  days,  and  the  cows  usually  hold 
their  milk  up  to  within  eight  weeks  of  calving.  South  Devon 
cattle  are  known  to  be  good  milkers,  so  also  are  the  cross-bred 
Shorthorn  and  Alderney  cattle  of  Cornwall,  in  spite  of  this 
system,  which  has  been  practised  for  generations,  and  supposed 
by  some  to  be  so  deleterious  to  their  milking  qualities.  But 
allowing  that  it  is  a  slight  detriment  to  the  milk  production  of 
the  cow,  there  are  many  things  in  its  favour  that  will  more  than 
balance  this  fault. 

I.  The  mother  gets  the  medicine  that  nature  has  provided 
for  her  from  the  viscous  matter  covering  the  coat  of  the  young 
calf. 


LIVE  STOCK.  473 

2.  The  sucking  action  of  the  calf  is  more  natural  and  better  at 
this  critical  period,  than  milking  entirely  by  hand. 

3.  The  calf  gets  the  use  of  its  limbs  much  sooner  if  licked  by 
its  mother;  the  friction  of  her  rough  tongue  produces  a  far  better 
circulation,  greater  warmth,  and  a  much  drier  coat  than  can  be 
obtained  by  rubbing  with  a  wisp  of  straw. 

4.  The  calf  is  able  to  help  itself  wlien  it  requires  milk,  taking 
it  little  and  often,  so  that  it  gets  well  mixed  with  the  digestive 
secretions,  and  consequently  more  perfectly  digested. 

5.  Cows  are  far  less  liable  to  that  complaint  known  as 
"  dropping  after  calving,"  so  common  in  districts  where  the  calf 
is  at  once  removed  from  the  cow,  and  less  frequent  in  districts 
where  the  calf  is  left  a  few  days  with  the  cow. 

In  the  case  of  Jersey  cows  it  is  often  better  to  remove  the 
calf  at  once  from  the  ntother,  as  the  milk  appears  to  be  too  rich, 
and  causes  the  young  animal  to  scour ;  consequently  it  is  often 
found  better  to  mix  a  little  skim  milk  with  the  colostrum,  for  the 
calf,  after  the  first  day. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  stomach  of  the  calf  is  not 
fully  developed  in  the  young  state ;  this  should  be  taken  into 
consideration  in  giving  it  its  food.  The  newly  born  calf  has  only 
the  fourth  stomach  developed,  so,  instead  of  the  food  going  to  the 
paunch,  as  it  would  do  in  the  mature  animal,  it  passes  directly  to 
the  true  stomach,  which  is  not  very  capacious. 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  dairymaids  to  give  the  young  calf  as 
much  as  it  will  drink,  feeding  only  twice  daily,  instead  of  oftener 
with  less  at  a  time.  This  is  an  exceedingly  bad  practice,  as  the 
walls  of  the  stomach  get  distended  and  unable  to  carry  out  their 
functions  in  a  proper  manner.  The  consequence  is  that  the 
digestive  arrangements  are  upset,  and  the  food  improperly  digested, 
often  producing  either  costiveness  or  scour.  For  this  reason  it  is 
important  that  calves  should  be  fed  three  times  a  day  for  at  least 
three  weeks.  It  is  a  little  more  labour  than  feeding  twice,  but  the 
benefit  that  the  calf  derives  will  more  than  compensate  for  this. 
It  is  very  important  that  the  milk  should  always  be  given  at  the 
same  temperature.  It  is  a  common  thing  for  an  impatient  dairy- 
maid to  give  the  food  before  it  has  had  time  to  cool  sufficiently. 
Numerous  cases  of  scour  are  known  to  result  from  this  cause, 
and  the  calf  may  take  a  fortnight  before  it  returns  to  its  normal 
condition  again ;  therefore  all  the  food  that  it  gets  during  this 
period  is  consumed  at  a  dead  loss,  owing  to  the  carelessness  of 
the  feeder. 

The  best  temperature  to  give  the  milk  is  about  blood  heat. 
Some  people  prefer  to  give  it  a  little  warmer ;  it  may  be  just  as 
well,  providing  it  is  always  given  at  the  same  temperature. 


474  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

When  gruels  are  given  they  should  be  prepared  from  the  best 
forms  of  food,  so  that  it  may  contain  no  admixtures  which  are 
injurious  to  the  young  calf.  Food  adulterated  with  acrid  seeds 
are  sometimes  the  cause  of  scour.  When  such  is  the  case  it  is 
a  good  thing  to  beat  an  egg  up  in  the  milk,  together  with  the 
smashed  shell.  One  should  be  given  every  alternate  morning, 
until  two  or  three  are  given.  Besides  curing  the  scour,  the 
beneficial  effects  of  the  eggs  will  be  perceptible  in  the  glossy 
appearance  of  the  coat. 

It  may  be  well  here  to  make  a  few  remarks  concerning  the 
Preparation  of  the  Pood  for  Calves. 

Skim  milk  should  be  first  raised  to  nearly  boiling  point,  and 
allowed  to  cool  down  before  mixing  it  with  the  whole  milk.  The 
reason  for  this  heating  is  to  kill  any  germs  that  may  be  in  the  milk. 

Gruels  may  be  prepared  by  boiling,  or  by  pouring  boiling-hot 
water  on  to  the  meal,  stirring  it,  and  then  allowing  it  to  remain 
covered  to  steep  for  a  time,  after  which  it  is  well  stirred  again, 
and  when  cold  enough  mixed  with  the  skim  milk. 

Linseed  may  be  used  ground  or  whole ;  many  people  prefer 
the  whole,  as  it  remains  in  a  much  sweeter  condition  than  the 
ground,  if  kept  for  any  length  of  time.  It  should  be  boiled  until 
it  gets  into  a  thin  jelly-like  condition  before  being  mixed  with 
the  milk. 

Calves  that  are  inclined  to  take  their  food  too  quickly,  should 
be  muzzled,  or  given  a  little  lump  of  hay  to  suck  it  through. 

The  muzzles  usually  consist  of  a  small  bucket  of  leather  that 
just  fits  over  the  nose,  and  can  be  strapped  around  the  top  of  the 
head ;  a  few  holes  are  punched  or  cut  through  the  bottom,  through 
which  the  milk  is  admitted. 

There  should  always  be  a  little  of  the  sweetest  meadow  hay 
reserved  for  the  calves ;  it  should  be  free  from  dust. 

Cotton  cake  should  not  be  given  to  calves.  Linseed  cake, 
crushed  oats,  palm-nut  cake,  Bibby's  Calf  Meal,  and  Waterloo 
Mixed  Cake  are  all  suitable  foods. 

The  next  point  will  be  the  Summer  Management  of  Calves. 

Some  people  prefer  to  keep  their  calves  in  a  large,  loose,  well- 
ventilated  house  through  the  summer,  with  cut  fodder,  such  as 
grass,  clover,  vetches,  or  trifolium,  together  with  about  one  pound 
per  head  per  day  of  cake  or  meal.  This  method  entails  more 
labour  than  the  turning-out  system,  but  on  farms  which  afford  no 
shelter  from  rain,  or  shade  from  the  sun,  it  is  certainly  to  be 
recommended. 

When  calves  are  intended  to  be  grazed  through  the  summer, 
they  are  turned  out  in  May,  being  brought  in  at  night  for  a  short 
time  at  the  commencement. 


LIVE  STOCK.  475 

If  possible,  a  few  acres  of  seeds  should  be  reserved  for  the 
calves,  as  they  do  so  much  better  on  this  kind  of  grass  than  on 
permanent  pasture.  The  student  should  bear  in  mind  that  newly 
laid  grass  is  best  suited  to  young  cattle  and  sheep,  whilst  the 
older  pastures  are  more  fitted  for  fattening  beasts  and  dairy  cows. 
The  calves  should  continue  to  get  the  pound  of  meal  or  cake  per 
day  whilst  on  grass,  and  the  younger  ones  may  get  an  allowance 
of  sweet  skim  milk. 

When  calves  are  turned  out  on  grass  in  this  way  they  should 
be  setoned.  The  operation  is  very  simple  :  it  consists  of  placing 
a  little  tape  in  a  seton-needle,  and  passing  it  through  the  skin  of 
the  dewlap.  A  knot  must  be  tied  at  each  end  of  the  tape  to 
prevent  its  slipping  out.  This  causes  slight  irritation,  and  matter 
or  pus  is  thrown  out.  The  seton  should  be  pulled  through  every 
second  day  or  so,  to  prevent  the  place  healing.  The  tape  is 
usually  dipped  in  a  little  blister  oil  before  it  is  inserted.  This 
setoning  is  supposed  to  be  a  preventative  to  such  diseases  as 
anthrax,  quarter-ill,  etc.,  common  in  well-kept  young  stock. 

This  class  of  stock  should  always  be  provided  with  shelter 
from  both  rain  and  sun;  the  latter  often  gets  too  powerful  for 
them  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  and,  if  no  shelter  be  provided,  it 
acts  just  as  injuriously  on  these  young  animals  as  exposure  to  rain. 
In  warm  summer  days,  where  calves  are  provided  with  a  shady 
retreat  they  will  sometimes  retire  to  it  as  early  as  nine  in  the 
morning,  and  remain  there  until  three  or  four  in  the  afternoon. 
Besides  being  out  of  the  heat  of  the  sun,  they  also  escape  to  a 
large  extent  the  worry  of  flies. 

Calves  on  grass  during  summer,  under  six  or  seven  months 
old,  do  not  require  to  be  supplied  with  any  water,  unless  it  is  a 
very  dry  season.  This  is  a  point  perhaps  not  very  well  known  : 
but  where  the  experiment  has  been  tried,  some  of  the  calves 
having  free  access  to  water,  whilst  the  others  have  been  kept 
without  any,  in  all  cases  those  without  water  kept  in  the  best 
condition. 

The  bull  calves  not  intended  to  be  kept  for  bulls,  should  be 
castrated  when  from  three  to  six  weeks  old. 

The  bull  calves  that  are  intended  to  be  kept  as  bulls  should 
be  separated  from  the  heifer  calves  at  four  or  five  months  old. 

After  the  corn  is  harvested,  it  is  well  to  let  these  calves,  or 
"stirks,"  as  they  are  sometimes  named  at  this  age,  run  on  the 
young  seeds.  They  are  exceedingly  fond  of  this  young  nutritious 
grass,  and  they  also  find  heads  of  corn  amongst  the  stubble. 
Care  should  be  taken  in  putting  them  on  this  kind  of  food  at  first ; 
they  eat  so  ravenously  the  first  day  or  so,  that  they  are  liable  to 
get  blown  if  left  on  too  long.     They  should  only  be  allowed  on 


4/6  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

a  few  hours  at  a  time  for  the  first  four  or  five  days,  but  when 
accustomed  to  the  change  of  food,  they  may  be  kept  on  it 
without  danger. 

At  this  time  of  the  year  they  will  often  require  to  be  brought 
to  the  yards  by  night,  and  in  October  or  November  they  will 
usually  be  brought  in  on  winter  fare  altogether. 

As  some  of  these  calves  will  have  been  dropped  in  September 
and  others  as  late  as  May,  they  will  vary  very  much  in  age. 

Before  putting  them  in  their  winter  quarters,  they  should 
be  separated  according  to  size ;  if  the  large  and  small  ones  are 
kept  together,  the  larger  ones  will  take  the  best  of  the  food, 
consequently  the  smaller  ones  fare  badly. 

Winter  Management  of  Stock  rising  One. — If  the  steers  are 
to  be  forced  for  early  maturity  they  should  be  separated,  and 
given  better  keep  than  the  heifers ;  but  if  not  intended  for  the 
butcher  before  they  are  two  and  a  half  or  three  years  old,  steers 
and  heifers  may  be  allowed  to  run  together. 

After  they  have  been  separated  they  should  be  placed  in  open 
yards  with  sheds  to  retire  into,  or  in  good  roomy  well-ventilated 
houses.     These  houses  are  described  later  on. 

In  many  places  in  the  south  of  England  they  have  the  year- 
lings house  with  a  small  door  opening  into  a  sheltered  paddock, 
into  which  they  are  allowed  to  run  at  will.  This  keeps  these 
young  stirks  in  a  healthy  condition ;  they  come  out  in  spring  with 
a  good  coat,  which  is  often  wanting  in  yearlings  that  have  been 
kept  in  the  house  all  the  winter.  The  exercise  they  get  is  as 
good  for  them  as  the  grass  they  pick.  In  the  colder  climate  of 
the  north  this  practice  is  not  often  followed,  but  they  are  provided 
with  a  good  large  well-ventilated  house,  and  fed  much  in  the  same 
way  as  they  are  in  the  south. 

It  is  of  great  importance  that  young  cattle  of  this  age  should 
be  well  cared  for,  both  as  regards  food  and  shelter.  It  was  the 
practice  amongst  many  farmers  some  years  ago,  and  is  still  the 
practice  of  a  few,  to  winter  this  class  of  stock  very  badly,  simply 
allowing  them  to  run  on  bare  pastures  with  next  to  no  shelter, 
getting  straw  or  a  little  hay  of  poor  quality,  in  addition  to  the 
little  grass  they  picked.  In  other  cases  they  might  be  wintered 
in  yards,  on  straw  and  a  few  turnips.  No  doubt  the  practice  was 
supposed  to  be  economical,  but  in  reality  it  is  far  from  it. 

Young  cattle  wintered  under  such  circumstances  will  rarely 
thrive  through  the  winter;  in  fact,  they  will  often  lose  flesh,  and 
simply  appear  like  a  case  of  bones  covered  with  a  tight  hide  and 
a  hairy  coat.  If  a  few  of  them  happen  to  be  late  summer  calves, 
they  will  not  have  gained  sufficient  strength  to  withstand  this 
meagre  treatment,  and  consequently,  on  the  first  appearance  of 


LR^E   STOCK. 


477 


frost,  get  an  attack  of  scour,  and  not  unfrequently  die  from  it.  In 
such  a  case  the  vahie  of  the  calf  at  birth,  the  value  of  the  food  it 
has  consumed,  and  cost  of  attendance,  etc.,  has  been  entirely  lost. 

But  supposing  the  owner  is  lucky  enough  to  bring  them 
through  the  winter  without  any  loss,  how  much  better  are  these 
little  beasts  at  the  end  of  the  winter  than  they  were  at  the 
beginning?  They  will  probably  have  lost  some  of  their  flesh,  and 
perhaps  increased  a  little  in  their  bone,  but  their  constitution  will 
probably  be  weakened,  and  they  will  have  less  aptitude  to  grow  and 
fatten  than  they  would  under  better  treatment.  Many  people  would 
say  that  they  would  leave  no  return  for  the  food  consumed,  but  as 
this  class  of  stock  sell  much  better  in  the  spring  than  autumn, 
they  would  be  more  valuable  on  this  account,  and  would  therefore 
leave  a  small  return  for  their  food ;  although  perhaps  not  much 
heavier  than  they  were  at  the  beginning  of  winter. 

We  will  now  consider  the  feeding  of  these  animals  under 
good  management,  and  then  compare  the  results  from  a  purely 
economical  point  of  view. 

They  should  be  supplied  with  plenty  of  good  hay  and  oat 
straw,  a  few  sliced  roots,  and  from  one  to  two  pounds  per  day  of 
cake  and  crushed  oats  mixed.  At  the  beginning  of  the  winter 
they  will  get  more  straw  than  hay ;  but  the  hay  may  be  gradually 
increased,  and  straw  reduced.  The  straw  they  do  not  consume 
will  go  for  litter.  In  some  cases  this  class  of  stock  get  very  little 
hay,  but  receive  a  little  more  cake  or  meal  to  make  up  for  it. 

The  amount  of  roots  should  be  regulated  by  the  appearance 
of  the  faeces.  If  soft,  the  roots  should  be  reduced  ;  if  firm,  they 
may  be  increased. 

In  some  cases  these  cattle  get  their  roots  boiled  and  mixed 
with  meal  and  chaff;  it  makes  a  nice  food  in  cold  weather ;  but 
it  is  doubtful  if  the  benefit  derived  is  sufficient  to  cover  the 
expenses  of  boiling,  etc.,  excepting  under  very  favourable  circum- 
stances. 

Another  common  method  is  to  chaff  oat  sheaves,  and  mix 
with  pulped  roots.  In  this  case  they  receive  no  hay  or  meal,  but 
should  always  have  a  little  fresh  oat  straw  in  their  racks. 

The  amounts  of  hay,  straw,  and  roots  that  this  class  of  stock 
consume  vary  very  much,  as  the  stock  themselves  differ  con- 
siderably in  age  and  size.  For  the  sake  of  the  student,  it  might 
perhaps  be  as  well  to  give  approximately  the  amounts  they  would 
require. 

Roots,  from  25  to  35  lbs.  per  day. 

Hay  and  fresh  oat  straw,  from  7  to  lolbs.  per  day. 

Cake  and  meal,  from  i  to  2  lbs.  per  day. 

And  litter  enough  to  keep  them  dry. 


4/8  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

They  might  receive  their  food  as  follows  : — 

One  pound  of  cake  and  meal,  and  a  little  fresh  hay,  the  first 
thing  in  the  morning. 

About  eight  or  nine  o'clock,  half  their  daily  allowance  of  roots 
and  fresh  straw  put  in  their  racks. 

At  eleven  o'clock,  turned  out  to  drink,  and  would  then  return 
to  their  straw. 

At  four  o'clock,  the  remaining  half  of  their  roots,  and  as  much 
fresh  hay  as  they  would  eat  without  wasting.  In  the  case  of 
their  getting  two  pounds  of  cake  and  meal,  the  second  half  should 
be  given  mixed  with  their  roots  at  this  meal. 

About  five  or  six  o'clock  their  racks  should  be  filled  with  fresh 
straw  for  the  night. 

By  comparing  the  two  systems  of  keeping  these  young  cattle, 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  latter  and  more  liberal  will  prove  the  more 
economical.  When  young  cattle  are  kept  under  such  conditions 
as  those  first  described,  one  out  of  every  ten,  on  an  average, 
would  probably  go  down  in  the  winter,  in  consequence  of  being 
allowed  to  get  low  in  condition  through^  want  of  proper  shelter 
and  sufficient  nutritious  food. 

To  look  at  the  result  of  turning  out  in  the  spring  at  about 
thirteen  months  old ;  in  the  first  place,  there  will  be  ten  well-kept 
yearlings,  worth  about  ;£"7  lo^.  per  head;  in  the  second  case, 
nine  badly  kept,  worth  perhaps  about  ^^  per  head. 

The  well-kept  ones  would  have  had  an  allowance  of  cake 
since  about  a  month  old,  say,  on  an  average,  one  pound  a  head 
per  day ;  whilst  the  badly  kept  ones  would  have  had  none.  The 
first-mentioned  would  also  have  had  an  allowance  of  hay ;  whilst 
the  others  would  only  have  had  straw.  As  regards  roots,  we  will 
suppose  the  amount  consumed  per  head  to  be  alike  in  each  case. 

If  we  find  the  difference  in  the  cost  of  the  keep,  and  deduct 
it  from  the  difference  in  the  sale  value,  we  shall  get  the  balance 
in  favour  of  the  well-kept  stirks.  Supposing  the  well-kept  ones 
get  seven  pounds  of  cake  or  meal  per  head  per  week,  for  fifty-two 
weeks  it  would  amount  to  3^  cwts.  per  head,  or  ^2^  cwts.  for  the 
ten  during  fifty-two  weeks. 

For  twenty-eight  weeks  during  the  winter  we  will  suppose  the 
best  lot  to  have  consumed  six  pounds  of  hay  and  four  pounds  of 
straw  per  day  on  an  average ;  and  the  others,  ten  pounds  of  straw 
per  day  for  the  same  time :  reckoning  the  consuming  value  of 
the  hay  at  ;^3,  and  straw  30i'.  per  ton. 

Amount  of  hay  and  straw  consumed  by  first  lot  per  head — 
6  lbs.  hay  per  day  =  3  stones  per  week  =  io-|  cwts.  in  28 
weeks.  4  lbs.  straw  per  day  =  2  stones  per  week  =  7  cwts.  in  28 
weeks. 


LIVE   STOCK.  479 

Amount  of  straw  consumed  by  second  lot  per  head — lo  lbs. 
per  day  =  5  stones  per  week  =17^^  cwts.  in  28  weeks. 

Allowing  in  both  cases  28  lbs.  of  roots  per  day  each,  at  los. 
per  ton  :  amount  of  roots  consumed  per  head — 2 8  lbs.  per  day  = 
if  cwts.  per  week  =  2-|  tons  in  28  weeks. 

Cost  of  Food  in  First  Case. 

£   s.    d. 

52  weeks'  cake  and  meal  for  10  beasts  =  32.^  cwts.  ®  Sj.    ..  ..      1300 

28      „      hay  „    10      „      =    5ilons@^3    ..  ..      15  15     o 

28      „      straw  ,,    10      „      =    3I     „    ©30^ 550 

28      „      roots  „    10      „      =25      „    @  loj 12  10    o 

46  10    o 

Cost  of  Food  in  Second  Case. 

£    s.    d. 

28  weeks'  straw  for  9  beasts  =  7  tons  17^  cwts.  @  10s.  per  ton    ..      11   16     3 
28      ,,       roots   ,,   9      „      =  22i  tons  @  10^.  per  ton      ..  ..      ii     5     o 

23     I     3 

£   s.    d. 

Cost  of  first  lot  46  10    o 

Cost  of  second  lot  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..     23     i     3 

Difference  in  cost  of  keep         ..         ..  ..  ..     23    8    9 

Value  of  Both  Lots  in  Spring. 

£   s.    d. 

10  well-kept  stirks  @  ;^7  lOJ.  each     ..  ..  ..      75     o    o 

9  badly        ,,         ©  ;^5  each  45     o    o 

Difference  in  sale  value  ..  ..  ..  ..     30    o    o 

Deduct  extra  cost  from  extra  sale  value  to  find  balance  in 
favour  of  first  lot. 

£    s.    d. 
Difference  in  sale  value  .,         ..         ..         ..     30    o    o 

Difference  in  cost  of  keep         .,  .  ..  ..     23     8    9 

6  II     3 

Balance  in  favour  of  well-kept  beasts,  ;£6  i  is.  3^.,  besides  the 
extra  value  of  the  manure,  in  consequence  of  consuming  richer 
food.  The  better  kept  stock  would  probably  do  much  better 
than  the  others  in  the  future. 

Spring  and  Summer  Management  of  Yearlings.  —  These 
yearlings  will  vary  in  age  from  twelve  to  about  seventeen  months, 
according  to  whether  they  were  winter  or  spring  calves. 

They  are  usually  run  out  on  grass  at  the  end  of  April  or 
beginning  of  May.  The  time  depends  much  on  the  following 
circumstances :  the  amount  of  dry  food  and  roots  unconsumed, 


4^0  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

the  forwardness  of  the  grass,  and  on  the  state  of  the  weather. 
They  should  at  first  be  turned  out  by  day  only,  brought  in  by 
night,  and  given  a  little  hay  and  meal,  which  may  be  gradually 
reduced,  and  discontinued  as  soon  as  they  are  allowed  to  remain 
out  altogether.  This  class  of  stock  usually  get  the  run  of  the 
second  year's  grass,  or  seeds  that  are  not  intended  for  mowing. 
In  the  summer  they  are  often  put  on  the  aftermath.  They 
should,  if  possible,  be  kept  in  fields  that  are  naturally  watered  ; 
but  in  the  event  of  there  being  no  water  in  the  field,  they  should 
be  taken  to  some  at  least  twice  a  day. 

In  the  autumn,  when  the  nights  get  cold — about  October — 
these  animals  (now  rising  two)  should  be  brought  in  the  yards 
at  night,  and  supplied  with  roots  and  fresh  straw,  so  that  they 
may  gradually  become  accustomed  to  their  winter  fare. 

Some  farmers  would  bull  a  few  of  the  most  forward  of  these 
heifers  in  August ;  they  would  then  drop  their  calves  about  the 
following  May,  when  they  might  be  two  and  a  half  years  old ;  but 
it  is  more  usual  to  allow  them  to  pass  their  second  year  before 
bulling,  in  order  that  they  may  get  their  first  calf  at  three  years  old. 

The  oldest  of  these  steers  are  usually  fed  and  sold  fat  in  the 
spring,  at  about  two  years  and  a  half  old,  when  they  should 
make  from  forty-six  to  fifty-six  stones  dead  weight,  varying  with 
the  breed  of  beast  and  kind  of  feeding.  The  management  of 
feeding-cattle  will  be  considered  later  on. 

Winter  Management  of  Stock  rising  Two. — They  are  usually 
run  out  on  grass  by  day  until  Christmas,  and  sometimes  even 
later,  and  brought  in  by  night  on  straw  and  roots.  The  object 
is  to  keep  them  in  a  good,  healthy,  growing  condition ;  and  if  the 
straw  and  roots  will  not  do  it  alone  (some  straw  being  much  less 
valuable  for  feeding  purposes  than  other),  they  should  be  supplied 
with  a  small  allowance  of  cake  or  crushed  oats. 

When  not  allowed  on  the  pastures,  they  are  best  kept  in  open 
yards  with  sheds  to  retire  to  at  will.  They  would  consume  from 
fourteen  to  eighteen  pounds  of  straw  or  rough  hay,  and  from 
thirty-five  to  fifty  pounds  of  roots  per  day ;  some  liberal  feeders 
would  give  from  two  to  three  pounds  of  cake,  though  this 
class  of  stock,  not  meant  for  fattening,  usually  get  no  meal. 
They  should  have  bedding  sufficient  to  keep  them  dry.  In 
general  practice  they  are  usually  supplied  with  more  straw  than 
they  will  consume  ;  what  they  refuse  goes  for  bedding.  They 
should  be  allowed  to  drink  twice  a  day.  In  some  well-arranged 
buildings  they  have  water  always  in  front  of  them,  so  that  they 
may  drink  at  will.  The  flow  of  the  water  in  the  troughs  is 
regulated  by  ball  taps. 

We  will  consider  that  we  have  brought  these  cattle  through 


LIVE  STOCK.  481 

the  winter ;  we  now  come  to  the  Spring  and  Summer  Manage- 
ment of  these  Two-year-olds.  Most  of  them,  by  this  time,  will 
have  commenced  their  third  year.  If  the  grass  be  considered 
forward  enough  in  April,  they  may  be  turned  out  by  day,  and 
brought  in  the  yards  by  night ;  though,  if  grass  be  scarce,  and 
dry  fodder  plentiful,  it  is  better  to  keep  them  in  the  yards  until 
May,  so  that  the  grass  may  get  a  good  start  before  being  stocked. 

During  the  spring  the  heifers  will  show  signs  of  wanting  the 
bull.  When  in  this  condition,  they  are  said  to  be  bulling.  The 
symptoms  are  as  follows  :  they  get  in  a  very  restless  condition, 
and  bleat  a  great  deal ;  they  try  to  mount  other  cattle,  and  will 
stand  quiet  when  mounted  by  their  companions. 

If  desirable,  the  heifer  should  be  allowed  to  have  connection 
with  the  bull,  so  that  she  may  get  her  first  calf  when  she  will  be 
about  three  years  old.  As  before  mentioned,  in  some  herds  they 
are  allowed  to  calve  at  a  younger  age,  often  just  after  they  are 
two  years  old,  the  opinion  being  that  the  younger  a  heifer  is 
allowed  to  calve,  the  more  likely  she  will  be  to  develop  milking 
qualities.  Having  to  make  use  of  her  mammary  organs  at  such 
an  early  age,  she  will  have  far  less  chance  of  developing  into  a 
beef-producer.  Although,  from  a  dairyman's  point  of  view,  the 
system  is  good,  yet  many  objections  may  be  raised  against  it. 
At  this  age  the  heifer  will  not  have  developed  a  well-grown  frame ; 
and  instead  of  the  nourishment  from  her  food  going  to  build  it 
up,  it  will  be  required  for  the  development  of  the  foetus,  and, 
if  she  proves  to  be  a  deep  milker,  as  required,  there  will  be  no 
chance  of  obtaining  the  frame  that  would  be  obtained  if  allowed 
to  go  another  year  before  calving.  It  must  also  be  a  great  strain 
on  the  constitution  of  a  beast  to  have  to  maintain  a  calf  before 
she  is  well  developed  herself;  so  the  general  opinion  is,  all  things 
being  considered,  that  a  heifer  should  not  be  allowed  to  get  her 
first  calf  much  before  she  is  three  years  old. 

It  is  generally  advisable  to  bull  all  heifers  that  are  good 
enough,  the  rest  being  fed  for  the  butcher. 

The  bulling  heifers  and  steers  are  usually  separated  during 
the  summer;  and  run  on  grass  without  any  artificial  food, 
generally  being  kept  on  the  leas  or  poorer  class  of  pastures. 
If  the  pastures  are  not  watered,  they  should  be  driven  to  water 
twice  a  day. 

If  any  of  these  heifers,  not  good  enough  to  bull,  have  a 
tendency  to  lay  on  fat  rather  than  grow,  which  they  sometimes 
have,  it  will  often  be  advisable  to  remove  them  to  permanent 
pasture,  and  give  some  artificial  food,  so  as  to  get  them  off  fat 
by  the  end  of  the  summer.  They  might  get  some  cake  during 
the  last  two  months  of  their  fattening  period — from  three  to  four 

2  I 


482  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

pounds  per  head  per  day.  There  is  usually  a  ready  sale  for  this 
class  of  stock.  At  the  end  of  the  summer  they  would  be  from 
two  years  and  six  months  to  two  years  and  nine  months  old,  and 
would  probably  make  from  ^14  to  £iS  per  head.  Thinner 
beasts  might  be  purchased  to  fill  their  places  at  from  ;£io  to  ;^i2 
each. 

Wintering  Cattle  rising  Three  Years  Old.— They  may  be 
divided  into  two  lots,  viz.  calving  heifers,  and  fattening  cattle, 
the  latter  consisting  of  steers,  and  heifers  not  in  calf;  and  to 
these  will  be  added  a  few  of  the  most  forward  stock  rising  two 
years  old. 

We  will  first  consider  the  management  of  those  to  be  fattened. 
After  running  out  during  summer  they  should  be  in  a  fresh  con- 
dition. To  avoid  any  loss  of  flesh  they  are  brought  to  the  yards 
early  (say,  in  October),  before  the  keep  gets  too  bare  and  weather 
too  stormy.  They  will,  at  first,  be  brought  to  the  yards  by  night 
on  fresh  straw  and  turnips,  so  as  to  get  them  gradually 
accustomed  to  their  winter  food  ;  it  is  a  great  mistake  to  change 
the  food  of  cattle  too  suddenly.  They  will  soon  be  taken  off 
the  pastures  altogether,  when  they  are  placed  in  yards,  boxes,  or 
stalls,  as  the  case  may  be,  for  the  remainder  of  the  fattening 
season,  so  that  they  may  be  ready  for  the  butcher  at  about  three 
years  old.  Some  of  the  most  forward  of  these  beasts  will  usually 
be  pushed  on  and  made  fit  for  the  Christmas  market,  as 
really  good  beasts  at  this  season  often  fetch  high  prices.  They 
would  get  rather  better  food  than  those  to  be  kept  until  spring. 
They  would  be  started  on  hay  and  fresh  oat  straw,  roots,  and 
from  two  to  four  pounds  of  cake  and  meal  per  day.  The  straw 
might  be  gradually  dropped  and  supplemented  by  hay,  and  their 
cake  and  meal  increased  to  six  to  eight  pounds  per  day  during  the 
last  few  weeks  of  fattening. 

The  management  of  the  general  lot  to  be  sold  in  spring 
would  be  somewhat  less  liberal.  They  will  probably  at  first  get  as 
much  fresh  oat  straw  (barley  straw  in  districts  where  barley  is  much 
grown)  as  they  will  eat ;  from  forty  to  seventy  pounds  of  roots  per 
day — some  feeders  give  much  larger  quantities  of  roots  than 
others ;  and  about  two  pounds  of  cake  and  meal  per  day  to  each 
beast.  In  some  cases  the  meal  is  not  started  until  later  in  the 
fattening  period,  but  it  is  advisable  to  give  a  little  to  commence  with 
to  improve  the  ratio  of  the  food. 

Hay  will  gradually  take  the  place  of  the  straw,  getting  at  first 
perhaps  only  one  foddering  of  hay  a  day ;  and  soon  after  Christmas 
they  might  get  hay  by  day  and  straw  at  night.  The  straw  left 
unconsumed  would  be  thrown  back,  for  bedding,  in  the  morning. 

The  cake  and  meal  will  also  be  much  increased  as  the  fattening 


LIVE   STOCK.  483 

period  extends,  and  may  amount  to  six  to  eight  pounds  per  day 
during  the  last  few  weeks  of  finishing.  Some  cattle  will  have  a 
greater  tendency  to  lay  on  flesh  than  others,  and  will  therefore  be 
ready  to  sell  first.  In  dealing  with  a  large  lot  of  cattle  it  will 
be  seen  that  some  may  have  a  tendency  to  grow,  some  to  lay  on 
flesh,  and  some  may  be  much  larger  consumers  than  others.  They 
rarely  improve  uniformly,  although  they  may  be  bred  and  fed  alike. 

These  beasts  have  been  traced  from  calves  until  they  are 
ready  for  the  butcher  at  about  three  years  old,  when  they  should 
weigh  from  fifty-two  to  sixty  stones  (of  14  lbs.)  dead  weight, 
according  to  the  quantity  and  quality  of  food  consumed.  This 
amount  of  beef  at  Ss.  per  stone  (of  14  lbs.)  would  be — 52  stones  at 
Ss.  =  ;^2o  16^.  ;  60  stones  at  8s.  =  £24. 

We  must  now  return  to  the  Winter  Management  of  the  Calving 
Heifers.  They  may  be  left  out  on  grass  by  day  much  longer  than 
those  that  are  to  be  fattened,  but  should  be  brought  to  the  yards 
by  night.  They  will  get,  as  a  rule,  only  straw  and  roots  in  addition 
to  the  grass  they  pick  until  Christmas.  After  this  time  their  food 
may  be  improved  by  the  addition  of  a  little  hay,  or  cake  and  meal. 

This  class  of  stock  should  not  be  allowed  to  get  too  thin,  as 
they  have  a  calf  to  nourish  as  well  as  themselves.  They  should 
always  have  a  fair  amount  of  exercise.  Yards  with  sheds  to 
retire  into,  are  the  best  places  to  keep  them  in  during  the  winter 
when  not  out  at  grass,  so  that  they  may  get  plenty  of  fresh  air, 
and  be  kept  in  a  good  natural  healthy  condition  during  their 
period  of  gestation. 

As  the  time  of  calving  approaches,  their  food  should  be 
increased,  to  supply  plenty  of  nourishment  for  the  young  calf 
and  also  for  the  production  of  niilk. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  in  feeding  these  animals  at  this 
period.  They  should  not  have  any  dusty  hay,  as  it  sometimes 
causes  abortion.  Cotton  cake  should  not  be  given  to  a  cow  or 
heifer  for  a  month  or  six  weeks  before  calving,  as  it  acts  injuriously 
on  the  system  at  this  period,  and  is  also  exceedingly  bad  for 
the  foetus. 

It  is  most  important  that  a  heifer  should  not  meet  with  any 
accident  at  this  stage,  as  it  may  cause  abortion.  If  they  drop 
or  abort  their  first  calf  they  will  probably  be  subject  to  do  so 
throughout  their  life,  which  would  be  a  very  serious  thing.  If 
any  accident  occurs  with  a  heifer  to  cause  her  to  abort,  it  is  best 
not  to  put  her  to  the  bull  again,  unless  she  is  from  a  very 
valuable  stock  which  the  owner  particularly  wishes  to  breed 
from.  If  kept  for  this  reason,  she  should  not  be  allowed  to 
run  with  any  pregnant  animals  for  the  last  three  or  four  months 
of  her  gestation. 


484  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Many  farmers  keep  a  goat  or  a  donkey  grazing  amongst  their 
in-calf  heifers.  The  peculiar  smell  they  give  off  is  supposed  by 
some  to  be  a  preventative  against  abortion. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  not  safe  to  bring  heifers  in 
too  high  condition  before  calving ;  a  good  healthy  condition 
without  being  too  fat  is  best.  Fat  calving  heifers  are  far  more 
liable  to  accident  during  and  after  parturition  than  others.  They 
are  far  more  subject  to  colds  and  inflammation  of  the  reproductive 
organs  than  heifers  kept  in  a  natural  state. 

As  soon  as  a  heifer  shows  signs  of  approaching  parturition, 
such  as  the  dropping  of  the  pelvic  bones  and  vulva,  secretion  of 
milk  (shown  by  the  distention  of  udder  and  teats),  she  should  be 
removed  to  a  loose  box  and  made  comfortable  with  a  nice  bed, 
so  that  she  may  get  accustomed  to  her  new  abode  before  calving. 
She  should  be  closely  watched  without  being  disturbed  at  this 
period,  as  she  may  require  assistance  in  the  event  of  her  not 
being  able  to  expel  the  calf.  It  is  well  to  allow  her  to  bring  it 
away  without  assistance  if  possible,  but  if  the  water-bag,  feet,  or 
nose  are  showing,  and  she  appears  to  have  difficulty  in  expelling 
the  calf,  assistance  should  at  once  be  rendered. 

For  the  different  forms  of  presentation,  etc.,  the  reader  may 
refer  to  the  chapter  on  "Veterinary  Science." 

As  before  described  in  "  Calf-rearing,"  the  calf  is  sometimes 
removed  at  birth.  But  the  teats  of  a  heifer  become  much  softer 
and  better  for  milking  if  the  calf  is  allowed  to  suck  them. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  a  heifer  is  not  inclined  to  lick  her 
calf,  but  she  may  be  induced  to  do  so  by  sprinkling  some  salt  and 
meal  over  it.  After  being  licked,  the  calf  will  soon  be  able  to  rise, 
being  at  first  rather  clumsy  on  its  feet;  but,  in  spite  of  its 
awkwardness,  it  will  usually  very  soon  find  its  way  to  the  food  that 
nature  has  provided,  and,  after  pushing  about  the  teats  with  its 
nose  for  a  short  time,  will  manage  to  catch  one  between  its 
tongue  and  upper  lip,  and  will  soon  show  by  the  waggle  of  its 
tail  that  it  knows  what  is  good  for  itself.  In  some  cases,  however, 
things  may  not  go  so  swimmingly ;  the  calf  may  be  stupid  and 
require  assistance.  In  this  case  the  mother  should  be  made  to 
stand  quietly  whilst  the  calf  is  put  to  the  udder  and  induced  to 
take  the  teat.  It  is  sometimes  advisable  to  open  its  mouth  and 
milk  a  little  into  it,  as  the  taste  of  the  milk  will  often  make  it 
more  anxious  to  get  at  the  teat. 

Sometimes  the  mother,  through  nervousness,  or  perhaps  being 
too  fond  of  the  calf,  will  not  stand  for  it  to  suck,  although  the 
calf  may  be  trying  hard  to  do  so.  Directly  it  gets  at  the  udder 
she  turns  round  to  lick  it ;  consequently  it  never  gets  a  chance 
to  secure  the  teat,  unless  some  one  is  there  to  make  her  stand. 


LIVE  STOCK.  485 

Care  should  be  taken  to  make  the  calf  suck  from  all  four  teats, 
otherwise  the  mother  may  lose  a  quarter  (a  teat). 

A  little  milk  should  be  taken  off  twice  a  day,  by  hand,  for  the 
first  week  or  so.  This  leaves  plenty  of  room  for  the  milk 
secretion  to  take  place  freely,  and  also  prevents  hard  udder. 

If  the  heifer  is  not  required  for  dairy  purposes,  but  going 
to  be  turned  into  beef  after  her  first  calf,  instead  of  weaning  the 
calf  at  a  week  or  ten  days  old,  it  might  be  allowed  to  run  with  its 
mother  about  four  months,  and  then  weaned.  It  is  a  common 
practice  in  some  districts  to  let  a  heifer  have  one  calf  to  rear 
during  the  summer  on  grass,  and  then  she  may  be  fed  during  the 
next  winter  to  a  good  weight. 

It  might  be  well  to  notice  here  that,  if  a  cow  has  twins,  which 
is  a  common  occurrence,  and  one  be  a  bull,  the  other  a  heifer,  calf, 
they  should  be  fed,  as  neither  of  them  will  be  safe  for  breeding 
purposes.  If  they  are  both  of  one  sex  they  may  be  kept,  as 
their  generative  organs  in  this  case  will  be  properly  developed. 
They  are  known  as  free-martins  in  the  former  case. 

We  have  endeavoured  to  describe  in  detail  the  management 
of  cattle  on  a  mixed  farm,  containing  a  fair  proportion  of  arable 
to  pasture  land,  where  the  cattle  are  bred,  reared,  and  fed  on  the 
farm,  without  high-pressure  feeding.  The  stock  might  be  ordinary 
Shorthorns,  or  Shorthorns  crossed  with  other  breeds. 

In  order  to  summarize  what  has  been  said,  and  perhaps  make 
it  clearer  to  the  theoretical  student,  we  will  suppose  that  we  are 
tabulating  the  stock  on  a  mixed  farm  of  from  two  hundred  and 
eighty  to  three  hundred  acres,  where  from  fifteen  to  twenty  dairy 
cows  are  kept,  twenty  calves  reared,  and  about  twenty  head  of 
home-bred  stock  (consisting  of  fat  cows,  two-and-a-half  to  three- 
year-old  fat  steers,  and  heifers  that  have  calved  or  due  to  calve) 
are  sold  every  year. 

We  will  consider  the  number  and  kind  of  cattle  that  would  be 
likely  to  be  on  the  farm  in  October  : — 

4    9  months  old  and  over,  born  before  December. 

10    6  „  „  „  April. 

64  „  „  „  June. 

^v      1 J      J  /  To  be  sold  in  spring,  fat 

4  21  months  old  and  over  {         ^^  .    ^,r       ^     ^' 
^  t        or  m  call. 

10  18  ,,  „  (  To  be  wintered,  and  heifers 

616  ,,  ,,  \       bulled  in  spring. 

{Ten  of  these  might  be  fat- 
tening   cattle    and    six 
calving  heifers,  to  calve 
in  spring. 
Sixteen  of  these  would  probably  be  in  calf. 
Twenty  cows     ..    {    Four  might  be  dried  for  fattening.     Their  place  would 
be  supplied  in  spring  by  newly  calved  heifers. 


Twenty  stirks, 
rising  one. 

Twenty  yearlings, 
rising  two. 


486  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Besides  these  cattle,  there  would,  of  course,  be  horses,  sheep, 
and  pigs  on  the  farm. 

From  what  has  been  said,  a  good  general  idea  of  the  manage- 
ment of  cattle  should  be  obtained  j  but  there  are  other  systems 
in  vogue,  which  will  be  described. 

The  treatment  given  for  heifers  will  generally  be  suitable  to  all 
systems  of  farming,  varying  only  in  minor  points  with  different 
stock-owners,  farming  under  varying  circumstances. 

Early  Maturity. — The  management  of  male  stock  may,  how- 
ever, differ  very  much,  as  it  has  now  become  a  common  practice 
to  bring  cattle  out  fit  for  the  butcher  from  fourteen  to  twenty-four 
months  old.  In  order  to  do  this  the  cattle  should  be  well  bred, 
and  from  such  stock  as  the  Shorthorns  or  Aberdeen  Angus, 
which  have  a  particular  aptitude  to  come  early  to  maturity. 

This  practice  has  many  advantages,  but  still  it  is  not  alto- 
gether suitable  to  the  farmer  with  a  large  proportion  of  grass  land, 
of  a  second-class  quality,  suitable  for  keeping  growing  stock,  and 
thus  affording  them  a  cheap  run  through  the  summer  and  early 
part  of  the  winter.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  the  labour 
with  cattle  on  grass  would  be  next  to  nothing,  and  no  bedding  would 
be  required.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  for  the  farmer  with  a  large 
proportion  of  arable  to  pasture  land  it  is  no  doubt  an  excellent 
system,  for  the  following  reasons  :  (i)  The  grass  land  will  be 
reserved  simply  for  the  cows  and  heifers,  instead  of  having  the 
one-  and  two-year-old  steers  on  it  as  well,  as  is  the  case  when  they 
are  sold  at  three  years  old.  (2)  It  is  well  known  when  cattle  are 
well  kept  the  increase  in  weight  per  day  is  greater  during  the  first 
two  years  than  it  is  in  the  third.  If  this  be  doubted,  the  reader 
may  be  convinced  by  looking  at  the  yearly  records  of  the  fat 
stock  killed  from  the  Smithfield  Show  : — 

Steers  killed  from  Smithfield  Cattle  Show,  1889. 

Not  exceeding  Two  Years  Old, 

Days  old.  Live  Weight.  Daily  Gain. 

Hereford        ..  ..       639     ..  ..      1291  lbs 2-02  lbs. 

Aberdeen       ..  ..       709     ..  ..      1757   , 2*38  ,, 

Not  exceeding  Three  Years  Old. 

Devon  ..  ..      1000     ..  ..      1744  lbs.  ..  ..  174  lbs. 

Hereford        ..  ..      1079     ..  ..      2034   „  ..  ..  1*89   „ 

Aberdeen      ..  ..      1078     ..  ..     2073   ,,  ..  ..  1-92  „ 

(3)  The  amount  of  carbonaceous  matter  that  would  be  voided 
by  the  animal  during  the  third  year,  in  the  process  of  respiration 
and  oxidation  of  the  tissues,  is  saved.  (4)  The  animal  is  never 
allowed  to  lose  flesh,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  in  the  other  system. 
(5)  It  will  be  put  earlier  into  the  market,  and  therefore  make 
a  quicker  return  for  the  food  consumed. 


LIVE  STOCK.  487 

The  objections  are  :  (i)  They  require  more  attendance  and 
bedding  during  summer.  (2)  Their  food  must  be  of  a  more 
costly  character ;  only  a  limited  amount  of  straw  can  be  consumed 
by  this  class  of  stock  unless  it  is  steamed,  or  chaffed  and  mixed 
with  pulped  roots,  which  adds  greatly  to  the  expense.  The 
economy  of  this  feeding  will  greatly  depend  on  the  price  of 
artificial  feeding  stuffs,  as  they  are  used  in  considerable  quantities. 

The  bringing  up  the  calf  has  already  been  described  up 
to  the  age  of  three  months,  when,  as  a  general  rule,  they  are 
weaned  from  milk ;  but  when  calves  are  intended  to  be  sold  as 
beef  at  an  early  age,  it  is  usual  to  supply  them  with  a  little  skim 
milk  and  gruel  once  a  day,  until  they  are  nine  to  twelve  months 
old.  They  are  kept  in  covered  yards  during  the  first  summer, 
where  they  may  be  supplied  with  cut  grass,  clover,  vetches,  or 
trifolium,  besides  some  good  hay  and  about  two  to  three  pounds 
of  meal  and  cake  per  day.  If  they  get  no  skim  milk  with  gruel 
of  a  watery  nature,  they  will  require  some  water  twice  a  day,  or 
in  some  buildings  it  will  always  be  in  their  troughs  so  that  they 
may  drink  when  they  feel  inclined. 

In  the  winter  they  might  get  a  mixture  of  straw  chaff,  pulped 
or  sliced  roots,  meal  and  cake,  perhaps,  all  mixed  up  with 
a  little  treacle,  given  three  or  four  times  a  day,  besides  getting 
as  much  long  hay  as  they  could  eat ;  or  hay  and  a  little  straw, 
sliced  roots,  meal  and  cake  given  in  the  ordinary  way.  Their 
food  would  be  gradually  increased  as  they  got  larger.  At  the 
end  of  the  first  year  they  might  be  getting  four  or  five  pounds 
of  mixed  cake  and  meal  per  day,  which  might  gradually  be 
increased  to  six  or  seven  pounds  per  day  at  eighteen  to  twenty 
months  old,  and  they  would  be  fit  for  the  butcher  between  this 
age  and  two  years  old. 

We  will  suppose  that  we  had  a  calf  born  in  January,  1890, 
which  was  sold  fat  at  Christmas,  1891,  then  102  weeks  old.  If 
we  find  the  value  of  cake,  meal,  milk,  and  gruel  consumed,  and 
deduct  it  from  the  value  of  the  beef,  the  balance  will  be  return 
for  hay,  straw,  roots,  grass,  etc.,  consumed. 

Cost  of  Milk  and  Gruel  for  Forty  Weeks. 

First  week  . .       6  gallons  new  milk,  at  6d.     . .  . .     030 

Second  week       ..      10       ,,  ,,  ,,         ..  ..050 

Third  week         ..  {    7       >»      skim  milk,  at' W]  -  ..044 

Fourth  week       ..  j    3f     »       new  milk,  at  6j/. \  ..036 

\  lo|     ,,       skim  milk,  at  2^.  j  ■^ 

Eight  weeks'  skim  milk  and  gruel,  at  2s.  per  week  ..     o  16    o 

Twenty-eight  weeks,  half  quantity  of  milk  and  gruel,  at  is. 

per  week        . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  . .  . .     180 

Total  cost  for  40  weeks     ..  ..  ;^2  19  10 


4^8  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Amount  of  Cake  and  Meal  consumed.— First  year  begin  with 
7  lbs.  per  week,  and  finish  with  28  lbs.  The  animal  will  begin  to 
get  cake  and  meal  at  a  month  old,  therefore  it  gets  it  forty-eight 
weeks  during  the  first  year. 

Average  amount  per  week  "^  =  ^  ibg 

2  2 

24 
35  V8 
^  X  —  =  840  lbs.  consumed  first  year. 

I 

Second  year  begin  with  4  lbs.,  finish  with  7  lbs.  per  day,  for 
50  weeks. 

Average =  —  lbs.  per  day. 

77        tro 
Average  per  week  y  X  ^^  =  1925  lbs.  second  year. 

Total  consumed  in  102  weeks  =  2765  lbs.,  or  25  cwt. 

25  cwts.  cake  and  meal,  at  ']s.  per  cwt. 
Milk  and  grael  40  weeks        ..  ..  .. 


Supposing  the  beast  to  have  increased  at  the  rate  of  13  lbs., 
living  weight,  per  week,  from  day  of  birth,  and  the  carcase  weight 
to  have  been  62  per  cent,  of  living  weight,  then  13  lbs.  living 
weight  would  be  equal  to  about  8  lbs.  dead  weight. 

To  find  number  of  stones  dead  weight — 

4 

102  X  ^       408         „   ^  „ 

: =  —  =  58  stones,  4  lbs. 

W  7        ^ 

7 


58^  stones  at  7^.  9^.  per  stone 
Deduct  value  of  cake  and  milk 


£  s. 
22  II 
II  14 

d. 

8 
10 

;io  16 

10 

£  s. 
10  16 

d. 
10 

Return  for  fodder  (cut),  hay,  straw,  and  roots 

For  comparison  we  will  calculate  the  cost  of  a  beast  to  be 
fed  at  three  years  old,  and  compare  the  balance  left  in  return  for 
grass,  hay,  straw,  and  roots.  As  a  calf,  it  will  receive  milk  for 
twelve  weeks  only,  at  the  same  rate  as  the  last. 


LIVE  STOCK.  489 

£  s.    d. 
Cost  of  milk  for  12  weeks  i   11  10 

First  year  i  lb.  of  cake  per  day,  after  4  weeks  old  =  48  weeks,  7  lbs. 

per  week  =  3  cwt.    ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..      iio 

Second  year,  2  lbs.  per  day  during  winter  =  3  cwt I     i     o 

Third  year,   during  fattening,    started  with  2  lbs.  cake  per  day, 

finished  with  8  lbs. ;  average  quantity,  5  lbs.  per  day,  35  lbs. 

per  week  ;  35  lbs.  per  week  for  20  weeks  =  6 J  cwt.,  at  7^.      ..     239 

Total  cost  of  milk,  meal,  and  cake     ..  ••  ;^5  17     7 

This  beast  should  be  about  60  stones ;  say,  at  ']s.  9^.  per 
stone. 

£     s.    d. 

60  stones,  at  7J-.  9^.         23     5    o 

Deduct  cost  of  milk,  meal,  etc.  5^77 

£^1    7    5 

Return  for  3  years'  grass,  hay,  straw,  roots,  etc.,  ^17  Ts.  $d.  or  ;,^5  i$s.  g^d. 
per  year. 

The  returns  per  year  would  be  much  alike,  rather  in  favour 
of  the  three-year-old  beast.  No  doubt  on  an  average  the  three- 
vear-old  would  eat  more  of  these  ordinary  foods  per  year  than  the 
two-year-old,  but  it  would  be  of  a  coarser  quality.  The  dung  of 
the  two-year-old  would  be  better  in  quality,  but  it  would  require 
more  litter  and  a  great  deal  more  attendance  than  the  three-year- 
old.  We  may  conclude  from  the  example  that  each  system  has 
its  advantages,  and  we  must  not  condemn  a  man  who,  under 
certain  circumstances,  prefers  to  bring  his  beasts  out  at  three 
years  old,  instead  of  the  more  fashionable  and  earlier  age. 

Young  Bulls  for  Breeding  Purposes  are  fed  very  much  in  the 
same  way  as  the  steers  that  are  meant  to  be  sold  at  an  early  age, 
but  sometimes  they  are  allowed  to  suck  the  dam. 

The  System  of  Buying-in  Stock  to  consume  the  straw,  hay, 
roots,  etc.,  is  adopted  by  some  farmers,  especially  when  they  have 
a  large  proportion  of  arable  to  pasture  land.  In  this  case  they 
only  rear  very  few  of  their  own  stock,  usually  keeping  a  few  cows 
to  supply  milk  for  the  house,  etc. 

The  kind  of  stock  usually  bought  are  two-  to  three-year-old 
Irish  or  Scotch  heifers  and  steers,  also  draft  cows  from  dairy 
districts. 

On  account  of  the  continual  rise  and  fall  in  price  of  fat  and 
lean  stock,  the  system  must  be  considered  a  risky  one.  In  some 
years,  when  lean  stock  are  very  high,  and  the  price  of  fat  beef  goes 
back  by  the  time  the  beasts  are  ready  for  the  market,  the  farmer 
often  has  very  little  more  than  the  manure  for  the  food  they  have 
consumed ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  if  lean  cattle  are  bought  in 
at  a  reasonable  or  low  price,  and  beef  happens  to  be  high  when 


490 


ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 


they  are  sold  fat,  the  feeder  may  get  as  much  as  ;£'io  per  head 
for  perhaps  five  or  six  months'  keep. 

If  the  farmer  has  capital,  and  is  up  to  his  business,  by 
taking  one  year  with  another  he  will  make  this  system  pay  about 
as  well  as  any  other.  But  it  is  not  a  system  that  we  should 
recommend  a  young  man  to  start  with,  seeing  that  it  would 
require  a  man  of  business,  and  great  experience  both  in  buying 
and  selling. 

In  buying  this  class  of  stock,  a  farmer  would  do  exceedingly 
well  if,  after  paying  for  the  artificial  food  consumed,  they  left 
;£s  per  ton  for  hay,  /^i  los.  per  ton  for  straw,  8s.  per  ton  for 
roots  consumed,  and  dung  over  for  nothing. 

In  order  to  show  this  we  will  work  out  the  cost  of  a  fattening 
animal  for  twenty  weeks.  Supposing  it  to  be  bought  in  at 
;^i  loi-.  per  cwt.,  and  sold  out  at  ;^i  ijs.  per  cwt.,  living  weight 
=  to  about  ;^3  IS.  per  cwt.  dead  weight,  and  the  animal  to  have 
increased  at  the  rate  of  14  lbs.  living  weight  per  week. 

The  beast  might  be  9  cwt.  living  weight  when  put  up  to  feed, 
and  started  on  a  ration  such  as  follows  : — 


56  lbs.  of  roots 
22  lbs.  of  straw 

3  lbs.  of  cake  and  meal 

6  lbs.  of  litter 


per  day. 


The  straw  would  gradually  be  reduced  and  replaced  by  hay ;  the 
cake  and  meal  would  be  increased,  and,  at  the  finishing  period, 
the  animal  might  be  getting  a  ration  such  as  the  following  : — 
56  lbs.  of  roots  \ 

16  lbs.  of  hay  I 

4  lbs.  of  straw  I  per  day. 

7  lbs.  of  cakeand  meal  [ 
6  lbs.  of  litter  ) 

We  will  now  take  an  average  ration,  and  calculate  the  cost  at 
prices  named.     The  cost  will  be,  per  week  : — 

Per  Day.  Per  Week.  s.    d. 

56  lbs.  roots       ..  =    si  cwts.  at  8j.  per  ton  ..      15 

10  lbs.  hay         ..  =70    lbs.     ,,    60^.      „  ..      i   loj 

10  lbs.  straw      ..         =70    lbs.     ,,    30^.      „  ..     o  ii| 

5  lbs.  cake  and  meal  =  35    lbs.     „    70J.      „  ..24 

6  lbs.  litter      ..  =42    lbs.     „    30J.      ,,  ..     o    6f 

Attendance  and  interest  on  capital         .,  ..     o    7I 


To  beast,  9  cwts.,  at  30J.  13  10 
To  20  weeks  keep,  at  *]$.  ()d.  715 
To  balance  (in  favour)   . .       015 


£22 


7 


By     11^      cwts.      (living 

weight),  at  ^,^s. 
By  manure,  5  tons  fresh 

or  3  tons  rotted 


s.    d. 

5    6 

15    o 


;^22      O      6 


LIVE  STOCK.  491 

According  to  this  example,  the  hay,  straw,  and  roots  con- 
sumed would  be  sold  at  the  rate  of  ;^3,  ^i  105.,  and  8s.  per  ton 
respectively,  and  the  dung  would  be  left  for  nothing.  But  it 
must  be  remembered  such  returns  would  only  be  made  under 
very  favourable  circumstances.  In  this  example  the  cattle  were 
bought  in  at  7^.  per  cwt.,  living  weight,  less  than  they  were  sold  at. 
It  often  happens  that  the  buyer  (when  lean  cattle  are  scarce),  has 
to  give  as  much  per  hundredweight  living  as  he  makes  of  his  beasts 
when  they  are  fat.  In  such  a  case  a  beast  weighing  9  cwts.  would 
cost  ;^3  per  head  more,  which  would  mean  ;£"3  off  the  profit,  and 
consequently  less  than  ^^  per  ton  return  for  his  hay,  etc. 
Besides  the  question  of  price,  there  is  always  a  certain  amount  of 
risk  to  be  taken  into  account.  A  man  in  buying  a  large  lot  of 
beasts  will  often  get  some  that  do  badly,  and  would  not  increase 
14  lbs.  per  week.  Also,  he  might  occasionally  lose  one  from 
accident  or  disease.     This  would  reduce  the  profit  considerably. 

In  grazing  districts  cattle  are  often  bought  in  the  spring,  to 
be  fed  as  soon  as  there  is  a  good  bite  for  them. 

On  first-class  old  pasture  land  a  three-year-old  beast  may  be 
fed  on  an  acre  without  the  addition  of  artificial  foods,  and  will 
lay  on  from  13  to  15  lbs.  of  beef  in  a  week,  living  weight.  This 
would  be  equal  to  8  or  9  lbs.  of  beef,  dead  weight.  This  at  7//. 
per  lb.  would  be  equal  to  55-.  per  week.  The  pasture  might  be 
grazed  by  fattening  cattle  from  May  until  end  of  August,  and 
after  this  by  lean  stock,  and  perhaps  a  few  sheep  to  finish  with. 

Supposing  the  stock  to  be  bought  in  at  the  same  price  per 
hundredweight,  living  weight,  as  they  made  when  fat — they  should 
make  more  per  hundredweight  when  fat — the  return  for  such,  per 
acre,  might  be  as  follows  : — 

£  s.  d. 
16  weeks  grazing  fat  stock,  increasing  at  the  rate  of  14  lbs.,  living 

weight,  per  week,  at  5j.     . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  ..400 

10  weeks  grazing  lean  stock,  at  is.  per  week..  ..  ..  ..      100 

ID  weeks  grazing  sheep,  3  sheep  per  acre,  at  "^d.  per  week  ..  ..     076 

These  first-class  pastures  that  will  feed  a  beast  to  the  acre 
without  artificial  food  are  very  limited  in  area.  It  may  be  noticed 
that  the  grass  is  only  stocked  for  thirty-six  weeks.  This  is  in 
order  to  give  it  rest  after  Christmas,  so  that  a  good  bite  may 
be  secured  as  early  in  May  as  possible. 

For  grazing  on  second-class  pastures,  which  are  much  more 
common,  a  smaller  class  of  cattle  are  usually  purchased,  coming 
off  land  inferior,  or  at  any  rate  not  superior,  to  the  land  they  are 
to  be  grazed  on.     It  is  usual  on  this  class  of  land  to  give  an 


492  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

allowance  of  cake  as  soon  as  the  beasts  begin  to  lay  on  flesh,  so 
that  they  may  be  getting  cake  for  about  ten  weeks  before  they 
are  sold.  From  3  to  5  lbs.  per  head  is  the  usual  quantity  of  cake 
given,  starting  with  three  and  increasing  gradually  to  five  pounds 
per  day.  The  amount  of  pasture  required  per  beast  would  vary 
according  to  quality,  between  an  acre  and  an  acre  and  a  half, 
besides  the  cake.  If  the  beasts  put  on  about  a  stone  living 
weight  per  head,  per  week,  on  an  average,  it  would  be  equal  to 
about  five  shillings  per  week. 

If  the  cattle  were  put  on  in  May  and  sold  after  sixteen  weeks' 
grazing,  allowing  on  an  average  i^  acres  per  beast,  and  28  lbs. 
of  cake  per  week  for  10  weeks,  at  say  7^.  6d.  per  cwt.,  the  return 
for  an  acre  and  a  quarter  would  be  as  follows : — 

jC    S.     d, 

16  weeks  grazing  fat  stock,  at  5 J.  ..  ..  ..400 

Deduct  2 J  cwt.  cake,  at  75-.  (>d.  cwt.  ..  ..     o  18    9 

Return  for  grass  eaten  by  fat  beast   . .  . .  •  •     3     i     3 

10  weeks  grazing  lean  beast,  at  2J.        ..  ..  ..      100 

9  weeks  for  3  sheep,  at  3</.  per  week  per  sheep         .  .•     o    6    9 

Return  for  I J  acres  of  grass £\    ^     o 

The  return  per  acre  would  be  ;^3  loi".  5^.  The  land  might  be 
rented  at  from  £^2  to  £^2  loj-.  per  acre,  including  taxes,  and  would 
be  gradually  improved  by  the  consumption  of  cake  on  it.  The 
cake  used  would  be  chiefly  cotton  cake,  which  has  a  very  high 
manurial  value. 

It  must  be  clearly  understood  that  the  foregoing  figures  are 
only  meant  to  be  approximate,  and  will  change  with  the  markets. 
In  ordinary  practice,  lean  cattle  should  cost  several  shillings  less 
per  hundredweight  than  fat.  Under  such  circumstances  the 
returns  would  have  been  more  than  stated  in  the  examples  taken. 
Cattle  fed  on  pasture  with  cake,  etc.,  during  summer,  should 
return  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  shillings  per  head  per  month  to 
be  profitable. 

Cake  is  never  consumed  at  such  an  advantage  as  it  is  on 
pasture  land.  There  is  far  less  waste  of  the  manurial  consti- 
tuents, and  less  labour  than  when  it  is  given  to  box-  or  stall- 
fed  cattle.  Instead  of  the  liquid  manure  finding  its  way  to 
the  drains,  as  is  often  the  case  in  yards,  the  roots  of  the  grass 
give  it  very  little  chance  of  escape.  By  its  use  the  beasts  are 
brought  earlier  to  the  market,  and  are  made  riper  in  condition, 
consequently  they  will  fetch  a  higher  price  per  stone,  and  die 
better,  than  cattle  fed  on  grass  alone.  More  cattle  may  be  fed 
on  the  same  acreage  of  land ;  and  lastly,  but  not  least,  the  pasture 
itself  will    rapidly   improve   in   quality   and   quantity  from   the 


LIVE  STOCK.  493 

manurial  effects  of  the  use  of  cakes,  and  by  this  means  land  that 
will  carry  only  at  the  rate  of  three-quarters  of  a  beast  per  acre, 
may  soon  be  brought  by  the  liberal  use  of  cake,  to  carry  a  beast 
to  the  acre,  or  at  any  rate  a  very  perceptible  increased  quantity. 

It  is  desirable  that  all  the  pasture  should  not  be  stocked  at 
once,  so  that  the  cattle  may  be  occasionally  changed  for  a  week 
or  ten  days.  By  this  means  the  grass  will  prick  up,  become 
fresher,  and  be  more  relished  by  the  stock.  It  is  advisable  to 
keep  a  good  bite  in  a  field,  as  if  eaten  too  barely  in  a  dry  summer 
the  grass  is  less  inclined  to  grow  again. 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  cattle  to  show  a  preference  for  certain 
parts  of  the  pasture,  eating  these  closely  and  leaving  rough  patches. 
If  these  rough  places  are  cut  a  little  at  a  time  the  cattle  will  clear 
up  this  cut  grass,  after  it  has  been  allowed  to  wither  from  the 
effects  of  the  sun,  and  will  also  feed  on  the  young  grass  that 
appears  on  the  patches  afterwards.  The  rank  growths  are  often 
caused  by  the  dung  of  the  cattle  being  left  in  lumps.  In  order 
to  prevent  this,  a  boy  should  be  sent  on  the  pasture  about  once  a 
week  to  scatter  these  lumps ;  this  prevents  the  coarse  growths  to 
a  great  extent. 

The  third,  or  poorer  classes  of  pastures  are  usually  devoted 
to  rearing  cattle,  and  the  still  thinner  ones  to  grazing  sheep. 

The  Herefordshire  System  of  producing  Beef  is  practised  in 
Herefordshire  and  the  neighbouring  counties,  where  there  is  an 
extensive  area  of  grazing  land.  It  is  the  usual  practice  to  allow 
the  cow  to  calve  in  early  spring ;  the  cow  and  calf  are  kept  fairly 
cheaply  in  the  yards,  until  the  pastures  afford  a  good  bite,  when 
they  are  turned  out  for  the  summer.  During  the  first  few 
weeks  after  calving,  a  little  milk  is  taken  off  the  cow  by  hand. 
After  that,  the  calf  takes  all  that  the  mother  provides.  Both  the 
mother  and  the  calf  lay  on  flesh  very  rapidly,  being  excellent  beef- 
producers.  After  about  seven  or  eight  months  the  cow  dries, 
and  the  calf  is  removed  to  the  house,  where  it  receives  hay,  straw, 
a  few  roots,  and  a  little  cake. 

The  cows  live  on  the  pasture  until  late  in  the  year,  in  some 
cases  almost  all  the  winter,  with  the  addition  of  some  str^w  and 
a  few  roots.  They  are  provided  with  a  shed  for  shelter  at  night. 
Their  hardy  constitution  seems  to  make  them  quite  suited  to  this 
treatment,  and  they  keep  their  flesh  remarkably  well  with  very 
little  expense  through  the  winter.  In  the  more  exposed  situa- 
tions they  are  brought  to  the  houses  or  yards  for  the  winter,  where 
they  live  on  straw  and  roots  and  a  little  hay  as  calving  time 
approaches.     After  calving  their  food  is  a  little  improved. 

The  calves,  as  before  mentioned,  are  wintered  on  hay,  straw, 
roots,  and  a  little  cake  and  meal,  turned  out  the  next  summer  to 


494  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

graze,  when  they  sometimes  get  an  allowance  of  cake,  in  which 
case  they  are  sold  fat  at  the  end  of  the  summer,  about  eighteen 
months  old.  But  it  is  more  usual  to  graze  them  at  this  age 
without  cake,  keep  them  another  winter,  and  then  they  are  sold 
during  their  third  grazing  season,  at  about  two  and  a  half  years 
old,  when  they  make  large  beasts. 

The  practice  may  be  suited  to  certain  localities,  but  cannot 
be  recommended.  For  supposing  the  calf  at  eight  months  old 
be  worth  ;£g,  which  would  usually  be  a  high  price  for  such  a 
beast,  it  is  plain  that  it  would  be  the  whole  return  for  the  year's 
keep  of  the  cow,  and  the  grass  consumed  by  the  calf  up  to  this  age. 

We  will  compare  this  with  the  return  of  a  dairy  cow,  which 
under  very  favourable  circumstances  and  good  management  will 
return  in  some  cases  ;£"3o  per  year — and  under  ordinary  manage- 
ment, selling  the  milk  at  6^.  per  gallon,  ;^i6  per  year,  including 
value  of  the  calf,  this  would  only  be  an  average  return.  The  labour 
in  the  case  of  the  milking  cow  would  be  a  great  deal  more  than 
the  other  system ;  but  taking  everything  into  consideration,  there 
is  little  doubt,  as  regards  profit,  that  the  ordinary  system  of  dairy- 
ing could  give  points  to  the  Herefordshire  system  of  beef-producing 
under  very  favourable  circumstances. 

Under  such  management  as  the  system  described,  the  inferior 
milking  qualities  of  the  Hereford  cattle  are  not  to  be  wondered 
at.  Turning  the  cow  and  calf  out  lor  the  summer  together  is 
not  calculated  to  develop  the  milking  qualities  of  any  cow  :  if  the 
whole  of  the  milk  is  not  abstracted  from  the  udder,  the  flow 
rapidly  reduces,  this  being  the  case  under  these  circumstances. 
Then,  too,  the  calves  always  kept  in  this  fat  condition  must  lose 
their  milking  properties,  as  the  collection  of  fat  around  their 
mammary  organs  is  more  likely  to  induce  degeneration  than 
development  of  these  parts. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  aim  of  the  breeder  in  the 
future  must  be  to  develop  perfection,  as  near  as  possible,  in  both 
directions ;  neither  the  milking  nor  the  beef-producing  qualities 
must  be  left  out  of  sight,  for  both  are  essential.  Although  these 
two  points  are,  to  a  certain  extent,  adverse  to  each  other,  yet  we 
know  tliat  they  may  with  judicious  selection  both  be  developed 
in  the  same  animal,  for  we  have  good  examples  in  many  of  our 
Shorthorn  herds.  Not  only  are  these  excellent  beef-producers, 
but  it  is  a  common  thing  to  see  them  take  off  the  first  honours  at 
a  dairy  show,  being  perhaps  our  best-all-round  cow  ;  and  there  is 
no  reason  why  other  breeds,  in  the  course  of  time,  should  not  be 
brought  to  somewhat  the  same  degree  of  perfection,  under  the 
same  judicious  selection  and  management. 

Although  Hereford  cows  are  on  the  whole  poor  milkers,  it  is 


LIVE   STOCK.  495 

not  always  the  case ;  for  we  know  of  a  few  pedigree  cows  of  this 
breed  that  have  given  fourteen  pounds  of  butter  per  week  each> 
for  several  weeks  after  calving  :  but  these,  of  course,  have  been 
exceptional  cases. 

Management  of  Cattle  on  Clay  Land. 

Clay  land,  as  a  rule,  is  not  suited  to  the  cultivation  of  roots,  but 
generally  grows  heavy  straw  crops.  The  proportion  of  roots  to 
straw  will  therefore  be  very  small  as  compared  with  that  of  an 
ordinary  loam  or  light-land  farm.  The  question  suggests  itself: 
how  may  the  farmer  best  manage  to  turn  this  large  amount  of  dry 
food  and  small  proportion  of  roots  into  beef  and  manure  ?  Cattle 
will  not  consume,  or  thrive  on,  an  excess  of  this  dry  food 
in  its  ordinary  condition  without  a  mixture  of  a  fair  proportion  of 
watery  food  ;  so,  in  some  way,  it  must  be  made  more  palatable  for 
them. 

Different  stock-owners  have  different  ways  of  obtaining  this 
object.  The  first  and  foremost  thing  is  for  them  to  look  well  after 
the  roots  they  have  at  their  disposal,  and  make  them  go  as  far  as 
possible.  This  is  usually  done  by  pulping  them  and  then  mixing 
in  small  quantities  with  straw  chaff  and  meal  :  slight  fermenta- 
tion is  caused,  and  the  chaff  made  less  rough  and  more  palatable. 

This  plan  is  carried  out  very  extensively  in  Cambridgeshire, 
where  they  use  very  powerful  chaff-cutters,  which  will  chaff  as  fast 
as  an  ordinary  portable  machine  will  thrash.  Their  practice  is  to 
chaff  a  certain  amount  of  straw  in  early  summer,  mix  it  with 
green  rye,  tares,  trifolium,  etc.,  and  store  it  in  barns  where  it  is  well 
trodden  down,  and  is  used  in  the  following  winter.  In  the 
autumn,  after-math  is  used  for  mixing  with  this  chaffed  straw,  and, 
in  winter,  pulped  roots  are  employed. 

Fermentation  sets  in,  and  causes  the  chaff  to  expand  and 
become  quite  pulpy.  In  some  cases,  if  packed  too  tightly,  the 
expansion  may  be  enough  to  start  the  walls.  Many  people  con- 
sider that  the  longer  it  is  allowed  to  ferment,  in  reason,  the  better 
it  is ;  whilst  others  prefer  to  use  it  during  the  first  stages  of  fer- 
mentation, or  about  twenty-four  hours  after  it  has  been  mixed. 
When  the  chaff  is  very  dry  it  is  often  advisable  to  add  a  little 
water. 

Another  method  is  to  •  mix  the  chaff  and  pulped  roots  in  a 
tank  or  trough,  and  to  this  mixture  add  soup  or  thin  gruel,  made 
from  boiling  the  allowance  of  ground  cake  and  meal  that  the 
beasts  will  get ;  this  is  poured  boiling  hot  on  to  the  chaff,  pressure 
is  put  on,  and  the  whole  is  covered  over.  The  consequence  is  that 
the  chaff  absorbs  all  this  liquid,  and  becomes  very  palatable. 


496  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

When  steam  power  is  much  used  on  a  large  farm,  the  exhaust 
steam  is  utilized  by  applying  it  to  a  mixture  of  chaff,  pulped  roots, 
cake  and  meal  all  mixed  together  in  an  iron  appliance  for  this 
purpose.  The  food  thus  becomes  steamed  or  cooked,  and  is 
made  very  attractive  at  little  expense. 

Another  very  common  way  of  preparing  food,  both  on  clay 
farms,  and  on  others  in  spring,  when  the  supply  of  roots  happens 
to  run  short,  is  to  mix  the  food  before  mentioned  in  a  tank  or 
trough,  add  water  and  treacle,  and  allow  to  stand  for  about  twelve 
hours. 

When  any  of  these  mixtures  are  used,  it  is  well  to  add  a  little 
salt  before  giving  it  to  the  cattle,  unless  they  are  already  supplied 
with  rock  salt. 

Any  of  these  plans  are  useful  for  making  badly  saved  hay  or 
straw  tasty,  which  in  their  ordinary  condition  might  be  refused  by 
fattening  cattle. 

The  value  of  pulping,  steaming,  or  cooking  in  the  ways 
described  is  very  great  in  seasons  of  drought,  which  cause  a 
failure  in  the  root  crop,  or  in  wet  harvests  when  the  quality 
of  hay  and  straw  falls  below  par.  Also  straw  may  be  much 
more  economically  used  and  made  to  go  further,  by  this  means 
more  of  the  land  may  be  grazed  and  the  expense  of  hay-making 
saved.  The  cost  of  preparing  these  foods  will  vary  very  much 
with  different  circumstances,  being  much  less  when  done  on 
a  large  scale ;  and  costing  very  little  when  the  exhaust  steam 
of  an  engine  is  used.  When  only  a  small  number  of  stock  are 
kept,  the  extra  expense  of  labour  will  scarcely  be  returned  in 
beef.  If  the  steam  has  to  be  generated  for  the  purpose  of  cooking 
the  food  alone,  for  a  small  number  of  cattle,  it  would  be 
more  advisable  to  stick  to  the  chaffing,  pulping,  and  fermentation 
system  with  the  addition  of  a  Httle  salt. 

In  all  cases  where  these  cooked  foods  are  used,  long  hay  or 
straw  should  be  given  with  the  chop,  so  as  to  produce  a  good  flow 
of  saliva,  and  help  digestion  generally.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
fattening  season  the  supply  of  uncooked  food  should  be  increased, 
to  give  the  animal  a  firmer  touch. 

Duties  of  the  Byreman  or  Stockman. 

The  health  and  well-doing  of  cattle  is  greatly  dependent  on 
the  man  who  looks  after  them.  If  a  farmer  once  gets  a  good 
stockman,  he  should  do  his  best  to  retain  his  services.  A  man 
who  has  been  on  the  farm  for  some  time  will  generally  take  far 
more  interest  in  his  work  than  fresh  hands.  He  gets  perfectly 
familiar  with  the  different  individual  beasts,  which  is   a  most 


LIVE  STOCK.  497 

important  point.  As  various  beasts  often  require  slightly  different 
treatment,  even  though  they  belong  to  the  same  herd,  a  man  who 
is  interested  in  the  stock  he  is  feeding,  will  generally  be  quick 
in  detecting  their  different  requirements.  For  instance,  if  he  sees 
signs  of  looseness  in  an  animal,  he  will  be  careful  to  reduce  the 
supply  of  roots,  to  prevent  the  approaching  scour.  A  careful 
eye  on  such  little  things  may  easily  turn  the  balance  from  unsuc- 
cessful to  profitable  feeding.  Another  point  is,  he  knows  exactly 
the  requirements  of  his  master,  and  will  carry  out  his  orders  to 
the  best  of  his  ability. 

A  stockman  should  be  an  early  riser,  as  it  is  most  important 
that  cattle  should  be  fed  early  in  the  morning.  From  5  to  5. 30  is 
usually  considered  a  very  good  time  for  cattle  to  get  their  first 
feed. 

They  should  be  fed  with  great  regularity.  When  they  are 
regularly  fed,  after  consuming  their  food  they  lie  down  to  chew 
their  cud,  lying  quietly  until  the  next  meal.  If  not  regularly  fed, 
they  will  not  lie  much,  but  stand  restlessly.  If  the  byreman  is 
late  in  the  morning,  when  he  arrives  he  will  find  them  all  up  in  a 
restless  condition.  Cattle  never  thrive  well  under  such  cir- 
cumstances. 

On  entering  a  byre  in  winter  time,  it  is  a  good  sign  to  find  all 
the  cattle  lying  quietly,  and  requiring  some  amount  of  stirring  to 
make  them  rise.  They  should  be  disturbed  as  little  as  possible  by 
strangers  between  meals. 

Cattle  should  be  kept  clean.  Their  feeding-troughs  should 
always  be  cleaned  out  before  feeding.  They  should  be  provided 
with  a  comfortable  bed ;  and,  if  in  a  byre,  they  are  better  for 
being  mucked  out  twice  a  day,  although,  in  many  districts,  it  is 
only  customary  to  remove  the  manure  every  morning. 

Cattle  that  are  kept  in  stalls  are  sometimes  groomed  once 
a  day.  They  keep  much  cleaner  and  feed  faster  when  it  is  done  ; 
but  the  practice  of  grooming  is  the  exception  rather  than  the 
rule.  When  cattle  are  kept  loose  in  boxes  or  covered  yards,  they 
do  without  grooming,  as  they  are  more  at  liberty,  and  get  a  better 
chance  to  lick  themselves.  The  parts  they  cannot  reach  may  be 
licked  by  the  companion  standing  in  the  same  box.  Their  long 
rough  tongues  serve  as  very  good  brushes. 

The  byreman  should  be  careful  to  give  only  wholesome  food. 
For  instance,  such  food  as  dusty  hay  should  only  be  given  when 
mixed,  and  cooked  or  steamed,  with  other  foods.  Frosted  roots 
should  be  placed  in  cold  water,  to  take  out  the  frost,  before  being 
given  to  the  cattle,  and  should  then  only  be  used  in  small 
quantities.  Cotton  cake  should  only  be  given  in  small  quantities 
to  young  stock ;  calves  under  eight  months  old  should  get  none, 

2  K 


498  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

as  it  has  been  proved  to  be  an  unsuitable  food  for  them.  On 
several  occasions  calves  have  been  known  to  die  from  getting  a 
too  liberal  supply  of  cotton  cake. 

In  order  to  get  cattle  in  a  high  condition,  byremen  will  often 
give  far  too  much  concentrated  food,  which  in  many  cases  causes 
derangement  of  the  digestive  organs ;  and,  unless  these  foods  are 
used  in  moderation,  the  farmer  will  not,  as  a  rule,  produce  his 
meat  at  a  profit.  For  these  reasons  he  should  be  sure  that  such 
foods  are  not  given  in  excess. 

Cattle  should  be  supplied  with  fresh  clean  water  regularly. 

If  any  beast  appears  to  be  ailing  from  any  cause,  the  cattle- 
man should  at  once  report  it  to  his  master,  so  that  he  may  attend 
to  it,  or  send  for  professional  assistance  if  required. 

With  suitable  buildings  and  a  mixed  stock,  some  kept  in 
stalls,  some  in  yards,  and  some  in  boxes,  a  man  and  a  boy  will 
look  after  from  sixty  to  seventy  head  of  cattle.  They  would  be 
expected  to  clean  and  slice  the  roots,  and  mix  the  food  them- 
selves ;  but  would  have  the  chaffing  and  corn-crushing  done  for 
them. 

If  all  the  cattle  were  well-grown,  they  would  not  be  able  to 
attend  to  so  many  ;  or,  if  most  were  stall-fed,  it  would  give  more 
work,  as  the  byre  would  have  to  be  mucked  out,  whilst  the  manure 
is  allowed  to  accumulate  in  yards  and  boxes. 

Special  Remarks  on  Feeding  Cattle. 

In  choosing  a  food  for  cattle  the  following  points  should  be 
considered  : — (i)  The  price  of  the  food.  (2)  Its  nature,  as  to 
whether  it  contains  any  injurious  substances  which  may  have  a 
bad  effect  on  the  stock.  (3)  Its  digestibility  by  the  stock  for 
which  it  is  required.  (4)  After  the  food  has  satisfied  the  ex- 
aminer in  these  respects,  its  albuminoid  ratio  and  standard 
digestible  composition  should  be  considered ;  that  is  to  say,  the 
amount  of  dry  matter,  digestible  amount  of  albuminoids,  carbo- 
hydrates, and  fats  it  contains  should  be  taken  into  consideration. 
The  ash  constituents  should  be  present  in  large  amounts  in  the 
food  of  young  stock,  to  supply  the  bony  and  muscular  tissues 
with  the  necessary  amount  of  phosphates,  lime,  etc.,  but  need 
not  be  present  in  such  large  quantities  in  the  case  of  feeding 
beasts  during  the  last  period  of  fattening. 

The  price  of  the  food  must  be  first  considered,  because  it 
may  be  at  a  price  which  would  be  impossible  to  repay  by  the 
production  of  meat.  In  this  case  a  cheaper  food  should  supply 
its  place.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  many  foods  have 
^   direct  and  also  an  indirect  value.      The  direct  value  is  the 


LIVE  STOCK.  499 

value  of  the  meat  it  will  produce  on  its  own  merits,  and  also  the 
manure  value  of  the  food  after  consumption.  The  indirect  value 
refers  to  the  good  effect  it  may  have  in  helping  to  digest,  or 
make  more  palatable  the  remainder  of  the  food  given  in  con- 
junction with  it.  This  is,  in  many  cases,  a  most  important  point, 
and  should  not  be  lost  sight  of. 

Some  foods  have  a  good  analysis,  but  contain  injurious  acrid 
substances,  which  may  have  a  very  bad  effect  on  stock,  and  should 
be  avoided.  Such  foods  as  mustard  and  rape  cake  may  be  taken 
as  examples,  although  rape  cake  may  be  used  to  advantage  some- 
times, in  small  quantities,  if  boiled  or  steamed  before  given  to  the 
stock. 

Digestibility. — Some  foods  are  much  more  digestible  than 
others ;  the  most  digestible  are  usually  the  best  to  use.  The 
digestibility  will  vary  with  the  constituents  a  food  contains,  or  with 
the  mode  of  manufacture.  Some  decorticated  cotton  cakes,  for 
instance,  when  badly  manufactured,  contain  hard,  dark  lumps, 
almost  as  solid  as  stone.  Such  cakes  should  be  avoided,  or  used 
with  caution,  as  they  can  only  be  partially  digested,  and  will  most 
likely  have  an  injurious  effect  on  the  alimentary  canal.  The  best 
cotton  cakes  are  unsuited  for  young  stock,  but  prove  excellent 
food  for  older  stock  grazing  on  pastures,  or  for  mixing  with  other 
foods  for  milch  cows. 

In  making  up  a  ration  for  stock,  it  is  necessary  to  consider 
the  composition  of  the  foods  used  before  a  well-balanced  ration 
can  be  arranged ;  so,  to  do  this,  we  have  to  refer  to  tables  such 
as  those  given  by  Warington  and  Lloyd  (see  next  page). 

Providing  a  ration  contains  the  necessary  amounts  of  dry 
matter,  albuminoids,  carbohydrates,  and  fats  in  proper  propor- 
tions, the  more  mixed  it  is  the  better,  granting,  of  course,  that 
these  mixtures  are  of  good  quahty  and  contain  no  injurious  sub- 
stances. 

The  first  thing  a  practical  farmer  has  to  consider  is  the 
nature  of  the  bulk  of  the  food  he  has  at  his  disposal ;  that  is  to 
say,  whether  it  is  high  or  low  in  albuminoids.  If  low,  foods  rich 
in  these  constituents  must  be  added. 

For  instance,  if  the  bulk  of  food  consists  of  oat  straw  and 
turnips,  it  would  be  low  in  albuminoid  matter,  and  too  rich  in 
carbohydrates ;  so,  to  balance  this,  such  foods  as  cotton  cake 
should  be  added,  to  bring  up  the  standard  of  albuminoids. 

Before  going  any  further,  it  might  be  well  to  explain  in  a 
practical  manner  what  is  meant  by  the  albuminoid  ratio.  We 
will  take  the  albuminoid  ratio  of  a  swede  as  an  example. 

It  contains  water,  sugar,  starch,  digestible  fibre,  fat,  a  small 
amount  of  nitrogenous  matter,  and  ash. 


500 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


Composition  of  Principal  Feeding  Stuffs. 


Dry 
Matter. 

Percentage  Digestible. 

Albumi- 

Carbo- 

Fat. 

Barley  meal 

noids. 

hydrates. 

83-5 

80 

58-9 

17 

Barley  straw  . . 

Si'6 

i'3 

40-6 

o'5 

Bean  meal     . . 

82-4 

23-0 

50-2 

1*4 

Brewer's  grains 

22'2 

3;9 

IO-8 

0-8 

Cabbage 

12-0 

8-2 

0-4 

Clover,  red  (silage)  . . 

21-6 

2*2 

ii'i 

oO 

Clover,  red  (hay) 

787 

7-0 

38-1 

1-2 

Cotton  cake  . . 

82-3 

17-5 

14-9 

5*5 

Cotton  cake  decorticated     .. 

8i-2 

3I-0 

i8-3 

12-3 

Hay  (meadow) 

79-5 

^'i 

41-0 

i-o 

Linseed  cakes 

79-0 

24-8 

27-5 

8-9 

Linseed  meal  (extracted)     .. 

84-0 

277 

347 

3*2 

Maize  meal    . . 

87-0 

9-1 

67-1 

4-2 

Mangels 

II-2 

I'l 

10 -o 

0*1 

Oat  straw 

817 

1-4 

40'i 

07 

Pea  meal 

85-1 

20*9 

55-4 

2-8 

Rape  cake      . . 

8i-6 

25-3 

23-8 

77 

Rice  meal 

79*5 

8-6 

47-2 

8-8 

Swedes           

I2'0 

0-8 

io*6 

o-i 

Turnips  (white) 

7-3 

I'l 

6t 

O'l 

Wheat  bran   . . 

8o-5 

12-6 

427 

2-6 

Wheat  straw             

8i-i 

0-8 

35-6 

0-4 

Wheat            

83-6 

117 

64-3 

I '2 

Barley            

83-1 

8-0 

58-9 

17 

Oats 

827 

90 

43*3 

47 

Rye 

837 

9-9 

65-4 

1-6 

Maize 

83-5 

8-4 

60 -6 

4-8 

Beans 

82-0 

23-0 

50-2 

I  "4 

Rye  bran 

83-0 

12-2 

46-2 

3-6 

Middlings 

83-0 

10-8 

54'o 

2-9 

Starch,  Sugar,  Digestible  Fibre. — These  are  true  carbohy- 
drates, and  are  supposed  to  be  the  heat  and  fat  producers,  heat 
being  necessary  to  supply  the  energy  of  the  animal  body. 

Fats  and  Oils. — These  are  of  the  same  use  as  carbohydrates, 
but  have  the  power  of  producing  a  much  greater  amount  of  heat 
when  oxidized  within  the  tissues. 

The  heat  or  energy  produced  is  generally  considered  to  be 
about  two  and  a  half  times  as  much  as  that  produced  by  the 
same  weight  of  starch  or  sugar.  The  amount  above  that  required 
for  the  purpose  of  producing  heat  is  converted  into  fatty  tissue. 


Water 

893 

Nitrogenous  matter 

15 

Albuminoids 

7 

Fat 

2    = 

:  Carbohydrates 

5 

Soluble  carbohydrates 

73  \ 
11/ 

>i         )i 

73 

Fibre  (digestible)     . . 

>i         i> 

II 

Ash 

6 

LIVE  STOCK.  501 

The  Nitrogenous  Matter  is  made  up  of  albuminoids  (flesh- 
formers)  and  amides.  All  the  nitrogenous  matter  was  at  one 
time  reckoned  as  albuminoids,  but  chemists  have  found  this  to 
be  incorrect,  as  a  part  of  it  usually  exists  in  the  form  of  amides. 
These  amides  cannot  take  the  place  of  albuminoids,  but  may  be 
utilized  as  heat-producers — so  their  presence  tends  to  make  the 
ration  low  in  albuminoids. 

In  calculating  the  albuminoid  ratio  of  a  food,  it  is  necessary 
to  bring  the  fats  and  oils  to  the  standard  of  carbo-hydrates 
(starches  and  sugars)  by  multiplying  by  2*5,  or  more  accurately  by 
2*3,  then  the  ratio  of  the  food  will  be  as  the  amount  of  albu- 
minoids is  to  the  amount  of  carbohydrates,  the  carbohydrates 
including  the  starch,  sugar,  digestible  fibre^  plus  the  fats  or  oils 
multiplied  by  2*5. 

Example  :  1000  lbs.  of  swedes  contain  about — 


89 


2  of  fat  =  2  X  2'5  =  5  carbohydrates. 

Total  =  7  of  albuminoids  to  89  carbohydrates. 

.'.  ratio  is  as  I  is  to  127. 

It  would  in  reality  be  a  little  lower  than  this,  on  account  of 
the  presence  of  amides  not  reckoned,  as  it  is  only  usual  to  deal 
with  the  carbohydrates,  fats,  and  albuminoids. 

Cattle  that  remain  at  complete  rest,  simply  living  without 
gaining  or  losing  flesh,  are  supposed  to  require  a  ration  with  an 
albuminoid  ratio  of  one  to  twelve ;  so,  in  a  case  of  this  kind,  the 
swedes  might  suit  the  purpose  without  waste.  In  the  case  of 
animals  putting  on  flesh  rapidly,  they  require  a  ration  with  a  ratio 
of  one  to  six  or  eight.  If  food  were  supplied  in  the  form  of 
swedes,  in  order  to  get  the  requisite  amount  of  albuminoids  about 
half  the  carbohydrates  would  be  wasted.  By  mixing  foods  the 
waste  may  be  avoided,  providing  we  make  the  ratio  of  the  mixed 
food  to  suit  the  requirements  of  the  animal. 

To  do  this  we  must  add  to  the  swedes  a  food  which  is  rich  in 
albuminoids,  to  balance  the  excess  of  carbohydrates ;  they  will  then 
be  together  the  required  ratio,  and  in  this  case  no  waste  will  occur. 

The  economy  in  mixing  foods  judiciously  may  be  pointed  out, 
perhaps,  more  plainly  in  another  way,  by  taking  the  standard  of 
food  required  according  to  the  German  tables.  According  to 
these  tables  a  fattening  beast,  a  thousand  pounds  living  weight,, 
requires  the  following  quantities  of  albuminoids,  carbohydrates. 


502 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


and  fats:  first  period,  2*5  lbs.  albuminoids,  15  lbs.  carbohydrates, 
0-5  lbs.  fats. 

Grass  is  the  natural  food  of  beasts,  and  a  sample  of  good 
grass  would  contain  the  constituents  in  these  proportions,  and 
from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  ten  pounds  of  good  grass 
will  supply  these  quantities  stated. 

In  order  to  get  the  required  amount  of  albuminoids  from 

swedes  alone,  viz.  2-5  lbs.,  -:r-357  lbs.  of  swedes  would  have  to 

be  supplied,  as  100  lbs.  only  supplies  07  lbs.  This  amount  of 
swedes  (357  lbs.)  would  also  supply  the  required  amount  of  fat. 
But  357  lbs.  of  swedes  would  supply  8-4x3*57  =  30  lbs.  of  carbo- 
hydrates, and  as  only  15  lbs.  are  required,  there  would  be  a  loss 
of  15  lbs.  of  carbohydrates  daily. 

By  adding  10  lbs.  of  decorticated  cotton  cake  to  these  357  lbs. 
of  swedes  the  ration  will  be  much  improved,  and  the  waste  of 
carbohydrates  will  be  saved. 


Albuminoids. 

Carbohydrates. 

Fats. 

Lb9. 

357  swedes        

10  decorticated  cotton  cake  .. 

2-5 
3-0 

30 
2 

07 
I  "2 

5-5 

32 

.■9      i 

1*9  fat  =  1*9  X  2-5  =  475  carbohydrates. 

=  5*5  of  albuminoids  to  3675  of  carbohydrates. 
.*.  ratio  =  I  :  6'6. 

The  above  shows  how  a  ration  may  be  improved  by  the 
addition  of  concentrated  food.  The  food  in  question  would  be 
suitable  for  sheep ;  but  cattle  are  required  to  consume  hay  and 
straw  as  well  as  roots,  and,  in  order  to  prevent  the  waste  of  carbo- 
hydrates, concentrated  foods,  high  in  albuminoids,  have  to  be 
added.  We  will  suppose  we  are  feeding  with  swedes,  hay,  and 
straw  in  the  following  proportions  : — 


Lbs. 

600  swedes 

100  hay 

100  oat  straw    .. 

Dry  Matter. 

Albuminoids. 

Carbohydrates. 

Fats. 

72-0 

79 '5 
817 

4-8 
5*4 
I '4 

63-6 

41 -o 

40-1 

1-2 
10 
07 

233-2 

11-6 

1447 

2-9 

29  fat  =:  7'2S  carbohydrates. 


LIVE  STOCK. 


503 


Therefore  the  total  =  ii'6  albuminoids  to  152  carbohydrates, 
or  ratio  is  as  i  :  13.     This  is  much  too  low,  i  :  7  being  required. 

We  will  see  now  how  the  ration  would  be  improved  by  the 
addition  of  20  lbs.  of  oats  and  40  lbs.  of  decorticated  cotton  cake. 


Lbs. 

600  swedes 

100  hay 

100  oat  straw  .. 
40  decort.  cotton 
20  crushed  oats 

Dry  Matter. 

Albuminoids. 

Carbohydrates. 

Fats. 

72-0 

79*5 
817 
32-4 
i6-s 

4-8 
5'4 
I '4 

63-6 
41-0 
40- 1 

11 

1-2 

i-o 

07 

4-96 

09 

282-1        j         25-8 

1 

i6o"5 

87 

Ratio  25-8  to  182-25. 
albuminoid  ratio  =  i 


7. 


The  ratio  of  the  above  food  would  be  just  as  required  by 
adding  the  40  lbs.  of  cake  and  20  lbs.  of  crushed  oats ;  and  the 
above  amount  of  food  would  be  sufficient  for  about  ten  beasts  for 
one  day. 

If  oat  straw  were  taken  as  an  example  of  an  unsuitable  albu- 
minoid ratio,  it  would  show  it  even  more  plainly  than  the  swedes. 
Supposing  a  beast  had  to  eat  enough  oat  straw  to  get  fat,  and 
to  do  so  it  required  to  get  2*5  lbs.  of  albuminoids  per  day,  it 
would  have  to  consume  1 80  lbs.  of  straw  daily  to  get  this  amount 
of  albuminoids,  and  would  get  72  lbs.  of  carbohydrates  and  1*2 
lbs.  of  fat,  =  to  3  lbs.  more  carbohydrates. 

Therefore  the  ratio  would  be  2-5  to  75  ;  this  would  mean  a 
waste  of  60  lbs.  of  carbohydrates  per  day.  But  we  know  quite 
well  that  a  beast  would  not  get  fat  on  oat  straw  alone,  neither 
could  it  consume  or  digest  180  lbs.  per  day  if  it  tried. 

We  will  now  see  how  much  it  would  require  to  consume  in 
order  to  exist,  without  putting  on  flesh  or  losing  weight.  Accord- 
ing to  the  tables  it  would  require  sufficient  to  supply  07  albu- 
minoids, 8  lbs.  carbohydrates,  0*15  of  fats. 


Albuminoids.     Carbohydrates. 
100  lbs.  of  oat  straw  contain  i'4  40 


Fats. 
07 


To  supply  07  of  albuminoids  50  lbs.  of  oat  straw  would  be 
needed;  this  amount  would  supply  12  lbs.  of  carbohydrates  and 
o'2  lbs.  of  fat  more  than  required,  therefore  wasted. 

Suppose  we  replace  half  the  straw  bv  45  lbs.  of  roots,  and  see 
what  we  get 


504 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


Lbs. 

25  straw 

45  roots           .. 

Albuminoids. 

Carbohydrates. 

Fats. 

0-35 
0-36 

lO'O 

4'5 

0-I7 
0-04 

071 

I4'5 

0'2I 

By  replacing  part  of  the  straw  by  swedes  the  ration  is  much 
improved,  as  it  saves  half  the  waste  of  carbohydrates. 

We  will  suppose  in  the  above  case  that  oat  straw  is  selling  at 
35.f.  per  ton  and  swedes  at  Ss,  4^.  Then  50  lbs.  of  oat  straw  in 
the  first  case  would  cost — 


=  9-40?; 


5^x35x12  _  2100 
224)^^  224 

1st  ration  :  50  lbs.  of  straw  daily,  costs  9*4^. 


2nd  ration  :  25  lbs.  of  oat  straw,  at  35J.  od.  per  ton 
45  lbs.  of  swedes       at    Ss.  ^d.   ,,     „ 


d, 

47 

2-0 
67 


By  supplying  the  45  lbs.  of  roots  instead  of  25  lbs.  of  oat 
straw  there  will  be  a  saving  of  27^.  per  day  on  the  maintenance 
diet  of  one  beast. 

We  will  calculate  in  the  same  way  the  amount  that  may  be 
saved  in  the  case  of  a  fattening  beast.  Supposing  it  obtained  the 
required  amount  of  the  different  constituents  from  straw,  it  would 
consume  180  lbs. 

9      5      3 

"mx^ix^^  _  13s  _  ^^sj 
i^i^H^        4     ^^' 

4 

The  daily  ration  in  this  case  would  cost  S3^d. ;  but  by  supply- 
ing a  certain  amount  of  roots  in  the  place  of  some  of  the  straw 
the  cost  will  be  much  reduced. 

We  will  supply  the  place  of  120  lbs.  of  straw  by  200  lbs.  of 
roots. 


Lbs. 
60  straw 
200  roots 

Albuminoids. 

Carbohydrates. 

Fats. 

084 

r6o 

24 
21 

0-42 
020 

2-44 

45 

0'62 

LIVE  STOCK. 


505 


To  get  the  requisite  amount  of  albuminoids  it  takes  the  above 
ration  ;  but  there  is  a  great  waste  in  carbohydrates,  and  costs — 

d. 
60  lbs.  of  straw,    at  35 j.  o^.  per  ton       ..         \\\ 
200  lbs.  of  swedes,  at   8j.  4^^.  ,,     „        ..  9 

20J 

So  it  appears,  by  supplying  the  roots  in  the  place  of  some  of 
the  straw,  a  gain  of  13^^.  per  day  is  made. 

By  reducing  the  swedes  and  straw,  and  adding  a  little  cotton 
cake,  the  cost  may  still  be  reduced,  and  the  animal  will  be 
supplied  with  the  necessary  constituents. 


Lbs. 

75  swedes 
20  straw 
5  cotton  cake 

Albuminoids. 

Carbohydrates. 

Fats. 

0-6 

0-28 
1-55 

7-8 
8-0 
0-95 

0-07S 

0-I4 

0-6 

2-43 

1675 

0-815 

75  lbs.  swedes,  at    %s.  4^.  per  ton 

20  lbs.  straw,  ,,  35J.  oaf.    ,,     ,, 

5  lbs.  cotton  cake,    „  8oj.  cxa?.   „     „ 


Saved  by  addition  of  cotton  cake,  per  day,  8|</. 

The  above  ration  would  be  improved  by  using  a  greater 
variety  of  foods,  but  for  our  purpose  of  showing  the  economy  of  a 
well-balanced  ration  it  does  quite  well,  and  works  out  very  near  to 
the  required  amounts;  viz.  2*5  albuminoids,  15  carbohydrates,  o'5 
of  fat. 

It  should  be  clearly  understood  that  the  examples  taken  are 
only  meant  to  be  theoretical.  In  practice  it  would  be  impossible 
for  a  beast  to  consume  some  of  the  amounts  given.  It  would 
also  greatly  depend  on  the  quality  of  the  food  as  to  whether  the 
animal  made  any  progress  or  not. 

From  the  foregoing  remarks  and  calculations,  the  importance 
of  thoroughly  understanding  the  albuminoid  ratio  and  how  to  put 
it  into  practice  in  making  up  a  ration  may  be  easily  seen.  It  has 
been  plainly  shown  that  a  great  deal  of  money  may  be  saved  in 
feeding  a  number  of  cattle,  by  selecting  proper  foods,  and  mixing 
them  in  proper  proportions,  so  as  to  make  a  well-balanced 
ration. 

Amount  of  Water  in  a  Food.-— It  is  usually  considered  that  a 


506  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

beast  requires  about  four  times  as  much  water  in  its  food  as  dry 
matter,  and  a  sheep  twice  as  much ;  consequently,  all  they  receive 
above  this  amount  causes  a  needless  waste  of  energy  in  heating  this 
extra  amount  up  to  the  temperature  of  the  body,  about  ioo°  F. 
To  produce  this  extra  amount  of  heat  the  oxidation  of  a  certain 
amount  of  carbon  within  the  tissues  will  be  required,  and  the  food 
supplying  it  will  be  wasted. 

To  take  an  example  to  explain  the  above,  we  will  suppose 
sheep  to  be  feeding  on  roots  containing  90  per  cent,  of  water. 
So,  then,  a  sheep  in  consuming  one  hundred  pounds  of  roots 
would  consume  only  ten  pounds  of  dry  matter  to  ninety  pounds 
of  water.  If  the  theory  be  correct  that  it  requires  only  twice  as 
much  water  as  dry  matter,  it  would  need  only  twenty  pounds, 
and,  consequently,  will  have  consumed  seventy  pounds  of  water 
more  than  necessary.  It  would  require  about  2450  units  of 
heat  to  raise  this  amount  of  water  to  the  temperature  of  the 
body ;  this  would  need  the  combustion  of  as  much  carbon  as 
would  be  in  eight  pounds  of  roots,  consequently  there  would  be  a 
waste  of  8  per  cent,  of  the  roots  in  heating  the  extra  amount 
of  water. 

It  is  rather  doubtful  as  to  whether  this  theory  is  to  be  taken 
as  being  strictly  correct ;  it  will,  of  course,  depend  on  the  tempe- 
rature that  the  cattle  or  sheep  are  subjected  to.  For  instance, 
grass  contains  about  80  per  cent,  of  water,  20  per  cent,  of 
dry  matter,  just  four  times  as  much  water  as  dry  matter,  or  twice 
the  quantity  theory  states  to  be  required  by  sheep ;  and  yet  sheep 
do  well  on  it,  and  in  warm  weather  will  drink  as  well.  Cattle 
on  grass  require  to  be  supplied  with  water;  it  would  therefore 
appear  that  they  require  more  than  four  times  as  much  water  as 
dry  matter :  and  although  sheep  require  less  water  in  proportion 
than  cattle,  they  probably  require  three  or  four  times  as  much 
water  as  dry  matter  ;  otherwise,  when  kept  entirely  on  roots  which 
contain  nine  times  as  much  water  as  dry  matter,  the  result  would 
not  be  so  satisfactory  as  it  usually  is. 

But  leaving  the  exact  quantity  of  water  they  require  in  propor- 
tion to  dry  matter  out  of  the  question,  the  example  worked  out 
serves  to  show  that  there  must  necessarily  be  a  very  considerable 
amount  of  waste  of  carbohydrates,  occasioned  by  using  a  food 
containing  an  unnecessary  amount  of  water.  In  feeding,  this 
factor  must  always  be  taken  into  consideration. 

In  addition  to  the  waste  of  carbohydrates,  there  are  other 
reasons  why  the  amount  of  water  should  not  be  too  high.  In 
winter  time,  when  the  temperature  is  very  low,  these  succulent 
foods  containing  high  percentages  of  water  are  affected  by  the 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere  more  readily  than  drier  foods,  such 


LIVE  STOCK.  507 

as  hay  or  straw,  so  therefore  fall  below  them  in  temperature. 
Sheep  or  cattle  will  consume  them  more  readily  than  drier  foods ; 
in  fact,  cattle  will  often  take  six  times  the  weight  of  roots  as  they 
will  of  hay  and  straw,  and  consequently  would  have  all  this  weight 
of  cold  food  in  their  stomachs  at  once.  In  consequence  of  the 
hay  or  straw  being  digested  much  slower  it  gets  heated  by  the 
process  of  mastication,  and  rises  in  temperature  by  the  time  it 
reaches  the  stomach. 

If  an  animal  has  to  live  on  cold  watery  roots  during  winter,  it 
may  reasonably  be  expected  that  they  may  act  prejudicially,  and 
cause  derangements  in  the  digestive  system.  In  extreme  cases 
such  feeding  may  result  in  disease,  more  or  less  fatal,  such  as 
hoven,  braxy,  inflammation,  colic,  scour,  stoppage  of  the  water, 
etc.,  all  these  being  common  ailments  amongst  sheep  or  cattle 
receiving  large  quantities  of  roots. 

Mixing  Food. — Providing  all  foods  given  are  sound  and  they 
are  given  in  quantities  so  as  to  make  a  well-balanced  ration,  the 
more  mixed  they  are  the  better,  as  cattle  eat  them  with  more 
relish ;  they  also  get  a  better  chance  of  being  digested  than  when 
a  fewer  number  of  foods,  are  given  in  larger  proportions.  It  is  a 
good  thing  to  change  the  food  occasionally,  but  this  should  only 
be  done  very  gradually,  as  too  sudden  a  change  often  causes 
indigestion,  which  may  cause  the  animal  to  lose  flesh. 

In  spring  time,  when  such  foods  as  green  rye,  vetches,  clover, 
or  trifolium  are  obtainable,  they  should  be  given  only  in  small 
quantities  at  first,  chaffed  or  mixed  with  straw  or  hay,  until  the 
animals  get  well  accustomed  to  their  new  diet. 

Vetches  are  very  succulent,  and  are  eaten  in  a  fresh  condition 
very  ravenously  by  cattle.  In  the  event  of  their  being  allowed  to 
have  too  much,  they  will  be  very  likely  to  suffer  from  blown  or 
hoven. 

Foods  of  this  kind  should  always  be  'cut  some  hours  before 
they  are  given  to  the  cattle.  Those  cut  in  the  morning  should  be 
given  at  night,  and  those  cut  at  night  given  the  next  morning. 

Brewers'  Grains  contain  a  high  percentage  of  water,  and  are 
good  for  producing  a  large  flow  of  milk.  They  should  be  kept 
well  pressed  together,  with  an  occasional  sprinkling  of  salt,  and 
well  covered  to  prevent  their  coming  in  contact  with  the  atmosphere 
— otherwise  they  will  soon  become  sour,  and  be  injurious  to  stock. 

Cakes. — All  cakes  should  be  kept  in  a  dry  place.  Linseed 
and  such-like  cakes  should  be  packed  in  layers  at  right  angles  to 
each  other,  to  admit  the  air  between ;  this  prevents  them  from 
becoming  mouldy.  Mouldy  cakes  should  not  be  used  for  feeding ; 
they  are  often  very  dangerous,  sometimes  causing  blood-poisoning 
and  such  diseases  as  anthrax. 


508  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Decorticated  Cotton  Cake  is  a  good  food  for  mixing  with 
others  for  cattle  in  winter,  and  about  the  best  concentrated  food 
to  give  to  cattle  on  grass.  It  neutralizes  the  purgative  action  of 
the  grass ;  it  is  very  high  in  albuminoids,  and  contains  a  higher 
manurial  value  than  any  other  food.  It  is  also  an  excellent  food 
to  mix  in  a  ration  for  a  milking  cow,  but  it  should  not  be  given 
too  near  her  calving  period,  either  before  or  after.  Neither  should 
it  be  given  to  stock  under  one  year  old,  unless  in  very  small 
quantities  mixed  with  other  foods  of  a  more  carbonaceous  nature. 
The  reason  for  this  food  being  so  unsuited  to  young  stock 
seems  rather  difficult  to  explain,  but  it  has  lately  been  considered 
that  its  highly  nitrogenous  nature  acts  prejudicially  on  the 
liver. 

Many  of  these  cakes,  when  badly  manufactured,  contain  hard 
indigestible  lumps,  and  should  be  used  with  caution. 

Undecorticated  Cotton  Cake  is  less  valuable  than  the  decorti- 
cated, and  can  only  be  recommended  for  cattle  out  at  grass, 
though  it  is  often  used  for  mixing  with  other  foods  for  cattle  in 
the  winter.  Taking  its  feeding  and  manurial  value  together,  it  is 
worth  from  565.  to  60s.  per  ton  less  than  decorticated  cake. 

Linseed  Cake  is  a  good  food  for  calves  and  all  feeding  stock, 
but  it  is  not  suited  to  milking  cows,  as  it  imparts  a  bad 
flavour  to  the  milk. 

Palm-nut  and  Cocoa-nut  Cakes  are  good  for  milking-cows. 

Rape  Cake  is  considered  by  some  people  a  good  food  for 
milking  cows  ;  it  imparts  a  nice  flavour  to  the  butter,  but  should 
be  used  with  caution,  as  it  often  contains  impurities  and  acrid 
juices.  Its  use  may  be  made  safe  by  boiling  or  steaming  it,  as 
this  seems  to  have  the  effect  of  destroying  the  injurious  action  of 
the  juices.     Rape  cake  is  sometimes  used  as  a  manure. 

Bean  Meal  is  a  food  very  high  in  albuminoids,  and  is  much 
valued  by  the  Scotch  dairy  farmers,  as  a  food  for  cows.  It  is  also 
very  suitable  for  mixing  with  other  foods  for  fattening  cattle.  It 
has  the  effect  of  making  the  flesh  hard,  so  therefore  should  not  be 
used  too  heavily  towards  the  last  period  of  fattening.  Beans  are 
particularly  good  for  giving  to  male  animals  during  copulation. 

Maize  is  a  food  rich  in  carbonaceous  matter,  and  good  for 
mixing  with  other  foods  for  fattening  stock ;  but  it  produces  meat 
of  a  yellow  oily  character,  so  therefore  should  not  be  used  too 
heavily  in  the  finishing  period.  Owing  to  its  being  so  low  in 
lime  and  ash  constituents,  it  is  not  a  suitable  food  for  young 
stock.  It  was  found  at  Rothamstead  that  a  mixture  of  a  little 
superphosphate,  to  supply  the  ash  constituents,  improved  the 
feeding  properties  when  given  to  pigs. 

Bran   is  a  nitrogenous  food,  and  good  for  the  purpose   of 


LIVE  STOCK.  509 

mixing  with  other  foods.  It  is  particularly  good  for  milking-cows, 
and  makes  good  mashes  for  all  kinds  of  stock. 

Oats  are  used  for  all  kinds  of  stock,  more  particularly  for 
horses. 

Barley  is  not  so  generally  used  for  feeding  purposes  as  oats, 
but  makes  the  best  food  for  pigs.  It  may  be  given  either  ground, 
boiled,  or  grittled. 

Coamings  consist  of  the  little  rootlets  taken  off  from  malted 
barley.  They  make  a  good  food  for  stock — best  known  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  distilleries. 

Treacle  is  often  used  for  feeding  purposes,  mixed  with  chaff  and 
mashes.  It  imparts  a  nice  flavour  to  the  food,  and  cattle  eat  it 
very  readily ;  it  is  also  valuable  for  the  amount  of  soluble  carbo- 
hydrates it  contains. 

Fenu^eek  is  also  used  to  flavour  foods,  and  is  supposed  to  be 
very  good  for  horses. 

Salt  should  generally  be  within  the  reach  of  all  animals 
(except  those  that  are  far  advanced  in  pregnancy).  It  keeps 
them  in  good  health,  and  also  improves  the  appetite. 

On  the  Modes  of  Housing  Cattle. 

When  cattle  are  exposed  to  cold  wind  and  rain  they  will  not 
put  on  flesh  as  rapidly,  with  the  same  food,  as  if  they  are  comfort- 
ably housed. 

Cattle  in  exposed  positions  during  winter  require  a  liberal 
allowance  of  good  food  to  increase  their  flesh  at  all ;  it  is  far 
more  common  to  see  them  lose  weight,  and  thus  the  food  they 
consume  is  lost. 

The  economical  reasons  for  good  shelter  may  be  summed  up 
as  follows : — Firstly,  the  cattle,  instead  of  being  restive,  are  com- 
fortable and  lie  contentedly,  which  is  conducive  to  laying  on  flesh. 
Secondly,  less  food  is  required  to  keep  up  the  heat  of  the  animal 
body  than  when  exposed  to  low  temperatures.  About  60°  F. 
is  the  best  temperature  for  cattle-houses  during  winter.  The 
normal  temperature  of  the  animal  body  is  about  100°  F.,  so  that 
enough  food  has  to  be  consumed  to  raise  the  body  40°  F. 
higher  than  the  house.  But  if  the  beast  be  exposed  to 
a  temperature  of,  say,  40°  R,  it  will  require  half  as  much  food 
again  to  supply  the  heat  of  the  body ;  as  cattle  lying  out  are 
often  exposed  to  lower  temperatures  than  this,  they  will  require 
proportionately  more  food  for  the  production  of  heat. 

From  the  above  remarks  it  might  appear  economical  to  house 
cattle  at  a  higher  temperature  than  60°  F.  to  economize  the 
heat-producing  foods ;  but  this  is  not  the  case,  as  when  animals 


510  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE 

are  kept  in  houses  where  the  temperature  is  too  high,  they  become 
very  uneasy  and  restless  on  this  account.  A  higher  temperature 
is  also  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  animals.  So,  all  things  con- 
sidered, about  60°  F.  is  the  temperature  that  gives  the  most 
satisfactory  results. 

Cattle  used  for  breeding  purposes  should  never  be  kept  at 
higher  temperatures,  although  they  sometimes  are,  the  result  being, 
in  many  cases  amongst  our  highly  bred  stock,  degeneration  of  the 
development  of  the  lungs.  To  prevent  this,  young  breeding 
animals  should  have  access  to  plenty  of  fresh  air  and  a  fair 
amount  of  exercise. 

Yards  and  Covered  Sheds  usually  consist  of  one  long-roofed 
building  walled  at  the  back  and  ends ;  the  ends  are  extended  to 
form  the  yard.  The  whole  building  is  separated  by  walls  parallel 
to  the  ends,  to  form  the  series  of  sheds  and  yards ;  instead  of 
masonry,  these  partitions  are  sometimes  erected  from  old  railway 
sleepers. 

With  the  exception  of  pillars  of  granite,  masonry,  or  wood  for 
the  support  of  the  roof,  the  front  is  perfectly  open  to  the  yards. 
There  should  be  a  gate  to  each  yard  large  enough  to  admit  a  cart, 
for  clearing  out  the  dung.  On  account  of  the  accumulation  of 
dung  in  the  yards,  the  gate  should  be  made  to  open  outwards. 

The  water  and  root  troughs  are  usually  placed  by  the  sides  of 
the  walls  in  the  yards,  whilst  the  cake  troughs  and  hay  and  straw 
racks  are  placed  in  the  sheds,  though  the  yard  troughs  are  often 
used  for  both  roots  and  cake. 

These  yards  and  sheds  are  very  useful  in  sheltered  positions, 
especially  for  young  growing  stock — or  feeding-cattle  of  a  hardy 
nature.  As  several  beasts  are  turned  into  these  yards  together, 
polled  animals  are  most  desirable  when  this  system  of  sheltering 
is  pursued. 

In  this  system  plenty  of  Htter  is  required,  so  it  can  only  be 
recommended  in  districts  where  straw  is  plentiful. 

These  yards  and  sheds  are  made  of  various  sizes,  according  to 
the  number  of  cattle  they  are  meant  to  hold ;  the  yard  is  usually 
two  or  three  times  the  size  of  the  shed. 

The  roof  should  be  well  spouted  to  prevent  too  much  water 
falling  on  the  manure. 

Hammels  consist  of  a  long  building,  subdivided  into  boxes 
with  a  little  yard  outside  each  box,  forming  a  row  the  whole 
length  of  the  building.  The  system  of  buildings  differs  from  the 
last  described,  in  that  there  is  a  wall  in  front  instead  of  pillars,  and 
that  the  compartments  and  yards  are  much  smaller,  being  generally 
calculated  to  hold  two  animals,  and  never  more  than  three  or 
four. 


LIVE  STOCK.  511 

The  doorway  should  be  built  fairly  high,  to  allow  for  accumula- 
tion of  manure.  The  coignes  should  be  rounded,  as  cattle  are  then 
less  liable  to  injury  whilst  passing  from  the  shed  to  the  yard,  or 
vice  versd. 

The  racks  should  be  movable,  so  that  they  may  be  raised  as 
the  manure  accumulates. 

In  this  system  the  beasts  get  fresh  air  and  a  little  exercise  when 
they  please,  with  the  box  to  retire  to  when  they  prefer  to  do  so. 

A  suitable  size  for  two  or  three  beasts  would  be  about  16  feet 
by  12  feet  for  the  shed,  and  the  yard  a  little  larger.  The  roof 
should  be  spouted. 

Covered  Yards. — This  system  resembles  the  first  in  that  several 
beasts  may  be  turned  loosely  in  together,  polled  animals  being  the 
most  suitable.  This  system  is  practised  extensively  in  some  parts 
of  Scotland,  where  polled  cattle  are  kept. 

The  covered  yards  are  situated  near  the  byres,  and  the  partially 
made  dung  is  in  some  cases  removed  from  the  byres  to  the  yards, 
to  be  made  into  better  quality  manure. 

The  advantages  that  this  system  has  over  the  first  mentioned 
are  that  less  litter  is  required,  and  the  manure  is  preserved  from 
the  washing  rain,  and  is  consequently  much  more  valuable. 
Although  the  buildings  cost  more  to  erect,  it  is  considered  that 
the  saving  of  litter  and  extra  quality  of  the  manure  will  com- 
pensate for  the  extra  outlay. 

These  yards  are  made  of  various  dimensions,  but  as  a  rule 
about  eighty  square  feet  is  allowed  for  each  beast. 

Boxes  differ  from  covered  yards  in  that  they  are  much  smaller, 
generally  being  built  for  the  accommodation  of  one  or  two 
animals,  with  a  hay-rack  and  feeding-trough  inside.  It  is  usual 
to  have  a  hole  in  the  wall  with  a  shutter  for  the  purpose  of  putting 
the  food  into  the  rack  or  trough  without  entering  the  box,  except- 
ing for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  the  trough  or  bedding  the  beasts. 
They  have  all  the  advantages  of  the  covered  yards  as  regards 
manure  and  fitter ;  and  as  they  only  contain  one  or  two  beasts,  it 
enables  the  farmer  to  separate  the  more  brutal  animals  from  the 
weaker  ones,  which  in  the  large  covered  yard  system  have  often 
to  run  together,  in  which  case  the  stronger  beasts  drive  the  weaker 
ones  from  the  best  of  the  food  until  they  have  first  satisfied  their 
own  appetites. 

The  floor  of  the  boxes  is  often  sunk  below  the  level  of  the 
outside  to  prevent  any  of  the  liquid  manure  draining  off;  it 
is  consequently  absorbed  by  the  litter.  As  the  animals  are  not 
tied  they  have  the  advantage  of  getting  a  little  exercise.  The 
solid  and  liquid  manure  and  litter  get  well  mixed  up  together, 
and  may  be  carted  off  at  intervals  when  required. 


512  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

The  usual  area  allowed  per  beast  in  a  box  may  be  taken  at 
about  ninety  square  feet. 

Stalls,  byres,  shippons,  and  cattle-houses  may  be  taken  as  all 
meaning  the  same,  simply  being  different  names  given  in  different 
localities  to  the  same  class  of  cattle-buildings  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  mature  stock  during  winter. 

The  byre  is  usually  a  long  building  containing  two  rows  of 
stalls,  with  a  passage  between  running  its  full  length. 

The  stalls  are  divided  by  a  low  wooden  partition,  so  as  to 
allow  room  for  two  beasts  to  stand  side  by  side  in  each.  Along 
the  head  of  the  stall  one  long  or  two  short  troughs  are  placed  in 
front  of  the  animal,  and  occasionally  a  hay-rack ;  it  is  more 
common  to  have  no  rack,  the  hay  or  straw  being  thrown  between 
or  on  the  troughs.  To  a  strong  upright  post  on  either  side  of  the 
stall  there  is  a  long  staple  fixed  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  a 
chain,  which  slides  freely  up  and  down,  and  by  which  the  beast 
is  chained  round  the  neck  to  the  stall.  The  chain  is  either 
fastened  by  a  crook  and  link,  or  a  dog  and  ring. 

The  stalls  are  arranged  on  a  slightly  raised  platform,  which 
slopes  very  gently  towards  the  gutter  at  the  back  of  the  stall. 
The  gutter  should  not  be  more  than  about  six  inches  deep, 
though  they  sometimes  are  much  more.  Cows  heavy  in  calf  are 
liable  to  slip  suddenly  from  the  stall  to  the  gutter,  and  may  injure 
themselves  when  the  curb  of  the  gutter  is  too  high. 

Double  byres  are  arranged  as  follows.  The  fronts  of  the 
stalls  face  each  other,  with  a  feeding  passage  between,  on  which 
rails  are  laid  the  whole  length  of  the  building.  A  feeding-truck 
runs  on  these  rails  from  a  house  or  compartment  at  one  end  of 
the  byre,  in  which  the  food  is  prepared  for  the  stock.  This 
arrangement  for  feeding  is  very  convenient.  Some  people  object 
to  this  system,  on  account  of  the  dung  not  falling  in  one  passage, 
and  having,  consequently,  to  be  put  in  two  dung-pits;  but  this 
inconvenience  may  be  avoided  by  having  small  doors  through 
which  the  dung  may  be  removed  at  the  end  of  the  byre  opposite 
the  food-mixing  house. 

The  byres  more  commonly  met  with  are  arranged  rather 
differently.  The  heads  of  each  row  of  stalls  face  the  walls  on 
either  side  of  the  building,  and  the  cows'  tails  face  the  passage 
between.  In  this  case  all  the  dung  falls  into  one  passage,  and  is 
better  for  cleaning  out  than  the  other  system,  but  the  feeding 
arrangements  are  not  nearly  so  convenient,  as  the  cattle-man  has 
to  walk  up  between  the  two  beasts  to  feed  them. 

The  dimensions  of  such  a  building  may  be  as  follows :  Width 
of  passage  from  curb  to  curb,  about  seven  feet ;  length  of  stall, 
about  seven  feet — about  fifteen  inches  of  this  would  be  taken  up 


LIVE   STOCK.  513 

by  the  feeding-trough,  which  is  raised  a  little  above  the  level  of 
the  stall ; — width  of  the  stalls,  about  seven  feet. 

The  passage  is  raised  in  the  middle,  and  slopes  each  side 
towards  the  gutter.  The  heel  post  of  the  partition  separating  the 
stalls  is  usually  about  two  and  a  half  feet  from  the  curb. 

Another  plan  of  building,  seen  on  small  holdings  more  par- 
ticularly, is  to  have  a  single  row  of  stalls,  with  a  feeding-passage 
in  front.  The  stalls  are  of  about  the  same  dimensions  as  those 
described,  and  the  passage  behind  is  usually  about  four  feet. 

Less  litter  and  less  space  are  required  per  beast  in  the  stall 
system  than  in  the  box,  but  the  labour  of  cleaning  out  the  dung 
once  or  twice  a  day  is  much  more  than  in  the  box  system,  where 
it  is  allowed  to  accumulate  and  absorb  the  liquid  manure,  and 
may  only  be  cleaned  out  when  it  is  required  to  go  straight  to  the 
land.  This  saves  the  labour  of  putting  it  into  a  midden  to  rot, 
and  unless  there  is  a  covered  manure-pit,  the  quality  of  the  byre 
manure  is  inferior  to  that  made  in  the  boxes.  It  is  exposed  to 
all  the  rain  that  falls  on  the  midden,  which  dissolves  and  washes 
away  much  of  the  soluble  and  valuable  constituents. 

It  is  convenient  if  all  these  buildings  can  be  supplied  with 
fresh  water  from  a  cistern,  by  means  of  pipes  and  taps,  so  that 
water  may  always  be  in  front  of  the  animals.  In  this  case  the 
troughs  should  have  a  plug  at  the  bottom,  to  clean  out  the  water 
if  required. 

Troughs  are  made  of  earthenware,  stone,  cement,  slates,  and 
sometimes  iron,  but  the  first  mentioned  are  easiest  to  keep  clean. 

Cattle  houses  should  always  be  well  ventilated,  but  draughts 
are  to  be  avoided. 


C. — The  Breeds  of  Sheep  found  on  the  British  Isles. 

These  breeds  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  three  classes, 
viz.  Longwools,  Shortwools,  and  Mountain  or  Upland  Breeds. 

The  Longwools  consist  of  the  Leicesters,  Border  Leicesters, 
Lincolns,  Cotswolds,  Romney  Marsh,  Devon  Longwools,  South 
Hams. 

The  Shortwools  include  the  South  Downs,  Shropshire  Downs, 
Hampshire  Downs,  Oxford  Downs,  Suffolk  Downs. 

Mountain  and  Upland  Breeds  consist  of  Cheviots,  Blackfaced 
Scotch,  Herdwicks,  Lonks,  Exmoor,  Welsh  Mountain. 

Other  Breeds— Dorset  Horns,  Dartmoor,  and  Ryeland. 

The  Leicesters  some  years  ago  were  considered  our  most 
important  breed.  The  original  type  was  a  large,  coarse-boned, 
rather  ungainly  animal,  generally  spoken  of  as  "  Old  Leicesters." 
Robert  Bakewell,  of  Dishley,   spent  a  great  deal  of  time   and 

2  L 


514  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

care  in  improving  this  breed  of  sheep,  with  great  success  ;  since 
about  the  year  1760  this  improved  breed  took  the  name  of 
the  *'  New  Leicesters."  Pure  Leicesters  of  the  present  day  vary 
a  little  in  type,  some  being  much  larger  than  others,  and  varying 
with  the  different  ideas  of  perfection  brought  out  by  continual 
selection  by  their  numerous  breeders.  They  may  be  described 
generally  as  a  fairly  long-wooUed,  white  breed,  with  a  broad, 
straight,  and  flat  back,  generally  much  wider  in  the  middle  than 
at  the  shoulders  or  rump,  with  a  short  neck,  tapering  towards  the 
head.  The  head  is  well  set  on,  long  thin  ears  set  widely  apart, 
with  a  full  eye  and  pleasant  countenance.  The  rump  is  rather 
narrow,  but  a  good  height  above  the  tail ;  a  deep  full  chest,  stand- 
ing near  the  ground.  The  skin  is  thin  and  supple ;  the  wool  is 
fine  and  fairly  long,  but  many  of  this  breed  lose  wool  from  their 
neck,  belly,  and  back  at  an  early  age.     They  are  often  poor  nurses. 

They  have  a  great  aptitude  to  fatten,  and  come  early  to 
maturity.  Notwithstanding  their  small  percentage  of  offal  to 
carcase  weight,  they  have  long  since  gone  out  of  date  as  butchers' 
sheep,  for  they  carry  too  large  a  proportion  of  fat  to  lean  meat 

No  other  breed  of  sheep  has  been  used  with  such  success 
for  crossing  and  improving  other  breeds  as  the  Leicesters.  In 
fact,  the  Leicester  blood  has  been  introduced  some  time  or  other 
into  almost  all  other  breeds,  with  the  desired  effect  of  improving 
them.  To  some  it  has  imparted  constitution,  and  to  others 
aptitude  to  fatten  and  to  come  early  to  maturity. 

The  dead  weight  of  an  ordinary  Leicester  may  be  taken  from 
twenty  to  twenty-four  pounds  per  quarter,  and  the  fleece  from 
eight  to  nine  pounds. 

The  Blue  Leicester,  or  Wensleydale^  is  a  large  variety  of 
Leicester  found  chiefly  on  the  Yorkshire  wolds.  They  have  a 
bluish  skin  and  darker  appearance  than  ordinary  Leicesters. 
They  are  larger,  longer  in  neck,  coarser  in  their  bone  and  wool, 
with  less  aptitude  for  laying  on  fat  and  coming  early  to  maturity, 
and  do  not  possess  the  excellent  symmetry  of  the  ordinary 
Leicester. 

The  rams  are  much  used  and  liked  by  the  Scotchman  for 
crossing  with  their  Blackfaced  mountain  breed.  They  like  them 
as  dark  as  they  can  be  bred,  as  the  darker  they  are  the  larger  will 
be  the  percentage  of  blackfaced  lambs  dropped.  This  is  a 
matter  of  importance,  as  butchers  always  prefer  the  black  faces 
to  the  white. 

The  Border  Leicesters  have  for  many  years  been  quite  a 
separate  breed  from  the  ordinary  Leicester,  although  they  were 
originally  got  from  Bakewell's  stock.  In  the  year  1767,  Messrs. 
George  and  Matthew  Culley,  who  had  been  pupils  of  Bakewell, 


LIVE  STOCK.  515 

left  him,  and  went  to  the  Border,  taking  with  them  a  flock  of 
Dishley  Leicesters.  They  were  soon  afterwards  followed  by 
Mr.  Robert  Thompson,  another  of  Bakewell's  pupils,  who  also 
established  a  Dishley  flock  at  Lilburn,  and  then  at  Chillingham 
Barns.  The  merits  of  the  sheep  soon  became  recognized,  and 
other  flocks  were  started. 

The  change  of  soil  and  climate  naturally  altered  the  charac- 
teristic points  of  the  Dishley  Leicesters,  and  this,  combined  with 
selection  and  breeding  for  /^<^^V. 

breeds,  though  of  the  same  r'W''  «        ■:   •     ■ 

origin,    became    wider     and  Fig.  82.— Border  Leicester  ram ;  property  of 

more  distinct.  J-  "^^^^"^y-^"'  ^^^-  Hawkrigg.  Wigton. 

Some  writers  consider  that  the  Leicesters  taken  to  the 
Border  were  crossed  with  the  Cheviot  breed,  and  their  whiter 
colour  than  the  Dishley  sheep  was  the  result  of  this  cross.  This, 
however,  is  unlikely,  for  the  following  reasons — firstly,  the  Dishley 
breed  at  that  time  was  whiter  than  the  Cheviot — it  was  quite 
common  fifty  or  sixty  years  ago  to  see  Cheviots  with  brownish 
faces  and  legs ; — secondly,  this  cross  would  tend  to  lessen  their 
size,  whilst  they  are  larger  than  the  original  breed ;  thirdly,  the 
Cheviot  has  a  deep  and  round  belly,  whilst  the  Border  Leicester 
is  even  more  drawn  up  and  less  inclined  to  have  a  round  belly 
than  the  Dishley  Leicesters. 

They  are  big  stately  sheep,  with  good  length,  and  clean  white 
faces  and  legs.  A  well-bred  one  should  possess  the  following 
points  :  The  head  of  fair  size  and  profile  slightly  aquiline,  tapering 
to  the  muzzle  with  fairly  wide  nostrils ;  a  full  bright  eye  ;  ears  of 
fair  size  and  well  set ;  neck  strong  and  tapering  towards  the  head, 
which  stands  up  higher  than  that  of  the  ordinary  Leicester ;  the 
chest  broad,  deep,  and  descending  perpendicularly  from  the  neck, 
but  appearing  to  come  even  forward  in  the  undipped  sheep ;  the 
shoulders  broad  but  not  coarse ;  from  the  front  of  the  withers  to 
the  rump  should  describe  a  perfectly  straight  line;  the  rump  is 
well  developed ;  the  ribs  well  sprung  from  back-bone,  giving  a 
broad  back ;  the  belly  straight  and  fairly  flat,  significant  of  small 


5l6  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

offal ;  the  legs  straight  with  fair  amount  of  bone,  clean  and  fine; 
no  signs  of  wool  should  be  seen  on  the  head,  or  on  the  legs  below 
the  knees  or  hocks  ;  the  head,  ears  and  legs  should  be  of  a  uniform 
white  colour;  on  both  arms  and  thighs  the  flesh  is  well  let  down 
to  the  knees  and  hocks ;  the  body  is  more  distinguished  by  its 
width  than  depth,  showing  a  tendency  to  carry  its  mutton  high. 
They  should  be  well  covered  with  wool  of  medium  texture  and 
open  **  pirl "  towards  the  ends  ;  but  they  often  fail  in  this  respect, 
some  having  a  tendency  to  lose  their  belly  wool. 

Average  dead  weight  when  fat,  twenty-three  to  twenty-six 
pounds  per  quarter ;  average  weight  of  fleece  about  ten  pounds. 

The  rams  of  this  breed  are  sold  in  great  numbers  in  the 
South  of  Scotland  every  year,  where  they  fetch  very  high  prices. 
They  are  used  for  crossing  with  the  Cheviot  and  Blackface 
ewes ;  they  make  very  valuable  crosses  with  either,  which  are 
much  esteemed  by  the  North  of  England  and  Lowland  Scotch 
■farmers.  Many  thousands  of  these  cross-bred  lambs  are  brought 
across  the  border  every  year,  and  folded  on  roots  during  the 
winter,  from  which  they  are  sold  fat. 

The  Lincolns  may  be  described  as  the  finest  of  all  the  long- 
woolled  breeds;  although  they  are  perhaps  no  larger  than  the 
Cotswold,  they  are  superior  as  regards  both  quality  of  flesh  and 
wool. 

The  old-established  breed  of  more  than  a  century  ago  was 
larger,  and  much  coarser,  with  less  aptitude  to  fatten,  than  the 
breed  of  the  present  day.  The  rams  had  deeply  wrinkled  faces, 
traces  of  which  may  often  be  seen  amongst  the  old  rams  of  the 
breed  now  existing.  In  Bakewell's  time  there  was  a  great  rivalry 
between  the  Leicester  and  the  Lincoln  breeders,  consequently 
Leicesters  were  kept  out  of  Lincolnshire  as  much  as  possible. 
As  time  went  on,  the  merits  of  the  Leicesters  became  so  apparent 
with  some  farmers  as  to  overcome  their  prejudice,  and  by  this 
means  the  Leicesters  began  to  expel  the  Lincolns  from  the  poorer 
class  of  soil  in  their  own  county,  until  it  was  only  on  the  stronger 
and  better  classes  of  land  that  the  Lincolns  remained.  The 
Lincoln  breeder,  though  perhaps  unwillingly,  was  obliged  to 
acknowledge  that  a  little  of  the  Leicester  blood  might  be  intro- 
duced into  their  breed  with  advantage,  and  those  breeders  who 
used  it  did  so  with  great  advantage  to  their  flocks.  The  result 
was  a  slightly  diminished  size  and  amount  of  wool,  improved 
symmetry,  better  quality  flesh,  with  a  greater  aptitude  to  fatten, 
and  at  the  same  time  sheep  better  suited  to  the  poorer  pastures 
than  the  Old  Lincolns. 

After  the  Leicester  blood  was  introduced,  the  Lincolns 
rapidly  improved,  lost  their  coarseness,  and  acquired  the  good 


LIVE  STOCK. 


517 


■pill'li'ii" 


Sl8  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

points  of  the  Leicesters,  and  were  superior  to  them  m  size.  The 
result  of  this  change  was  seen,  not  only  in  Lincolnshire,  but 
also  in  the  neighbouring  counties,  where  the  Lincolns  turned 
the  tables  on  the  Leicesters  and  became  the  favourites,  except- 
ing on  some  of  the  poorer  classes  of  land  which  were  not 
calculated  to  carry  such  a  large  breed  with  a  heavy  fleece.  Since 
then  the  Lincolns  have  been  the  prevailing  breed  in  their  own 
county,  and  also  on  the  better  class  of  land  of  the  neighbouring 
counties.  Since  about  the  year  1850,  this  breed  has  come  into 
great  repute.  Great  numbers  have  been  exported  at  very  high 
prices.  At  the  Windsor  Show  (1889),  three  Lincolns  were  sold 
for  five  hundred  guineas. 

Description. — A  large  whitefaced  breed  with  a  small  tuft  of  wool 
on  their  head — sometimes  with  a  few  black  spots  on  their  ears  and 
face ;  thick  strong  neck,  broad  shoulders  and  good  back ; 
occasionally  they  have  a  tendency  to  be  high  in  the  withers  and 
slack  behind  the  shoulder,  but  with  good  breeding  this  disappears  ; 
they  possess  strong  bone,  and  their  wool  surpasses  that  of  all 
other  British  sheep  in  quantity,  besides  being  of  excellent  quality. 

Their  mutton  is  very  superior,  having  a  good  proportion  01 
lean  to  fat  meat,  but  usually  too  large  for  most  markets.  They 
are,  like  the  Border  Leicesters,  very  much  used  for  crossing  and 
improving  the  size  of  other  breeds. 

Their  average  dead  weight  is  from  twenty  to  thirty  pounds 
per  quarter.  Some  rams  of  this  breed  are  said  to  have  weighed 
over  ninety  pounds  per  quarter,  dead  weight. 

When  kept  on  good  land  their  fleeces  will  average  twelve  to 
fourteen  pounds  each.  They  make  excellent  mothers,  and  are 
fairly  prolific,  but  not  suited  to  poor  land. 

A  peculiarity  about  this  breed  is,  that  they  occasionally  throw 
black  lambs ;  these  are  seldom  seen  in  a  breeder's  flock,  as  they 
are  usually  killed  by  the  shepherd. 

The  Cotswolds  are  a  breed  of  sheep  that  have  for  vast  periods 
been  natives  of  the  Cotswold  Hills  in  Gloucestershire.  They 
are  remarkable  for  combining  a  massive  frame  with  a  con- 
stitution adapted  to  upland  grazing  on  short  pasture. 

They  have  generally  white  faces,  but  occasionally  mottled 
or  grey,  with  legs  of  the  same  colour.  The  original  breed 
was  extremely  large,  but  at  the  same  time  exceedingly  coarse  ; 
early  in  the  century  they  were  much  improved,  it  is  generally 
supposed  by  the  help  of  the  New  Leicester  blood.  They  are 
quite  as  large  as  the  Lincolns,  but  coarser  in  their  flesh  and  wool, 
and  better  adapted  to  poorer  pastures. 

The  Cotswold  has  a  very  large  frame  with  well-sprung  ribs, 
flat  back,   and    fleshy  rump,  which    often  extends   beyond   the 


LIVE  STOCK.  519 

perpendicular  line  of  tail ;  good  legs  of  mutton ;  chest  broad 
and  prominent.  The  neck  is  rather  long  and  arched  upwards, 
with  a  large  head,  prominent  eyes,  and  a  slightly  Roman  profile. 
The  crown  of  the  head  is  well  woolled ;  the  rams  have  a  lock 
hanging  down  between  their  eyes,  which  gives  them  a  rakish  and 
attractive  appearance. 

These  sheep  are  not  favourites  with  the  butcher,  as  their  meat 
is  coarse  and  the  fat  is  not  laid  on  uniformly  with  the  lean. 
They  have  heavy  curly  fleeces,  but  the  wool  is  by  no  means  of 
first  quality. 

The  average  dead  weight  of  the  mature  sheep  varies  from 
twenty-six  to  thirty  pounds  per  quarter.  Rams  of  this  breed 
have  been  known  to  come  to  enormous  weights,  over  eighty 
pounds  per  quarter.  The  average  weight  of  the  fleece  may  be 
taken  at  ten  to  eleven  pounds. 

The  Cotswolds  are  very  much  used  for  crossing  with  other 
breeds,  to  improve  their  size  and  give  good  constitutions.  The 
one  objection  against  them  for  this  purpose  is,  that  they  too  often 
throw  lambs  with  large  heads,  consequently  small  ewes  experience 
difficulty  in  lambing.  Large  numbers  of  these  rams  are  exported 
yearly  to  America,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  other  parts  of 
the  world. 

The  Romney  Marsh,  or  Kentish,  breed,  like  most  other  long- 
wooUed  sheep,  have  been  improved  from  the  original  type  by  a 
few  dashes  of  Leicester  blood ;  but  of  late  years  their  breeders 
have  simply  relied  on  careful  selection  for  their  improvement, 
remembering  the  fact  that  "  Like  begets  like."  By  breeding  from 
the  fittest,  they  now  possess  a  symmetrical  and  valuable  breed, 
which  are  able  to  withstand  the  exposure  and  extremes  of 
temperature  peculiar  to  their  district,  better  than  any  other 
breed.  The  ewes  in  winter  live  where  many  breeds  would 
starve,  on  exposed  grass  lands,  where  they  are  not  only  exposed 
to  bitter  blasts  from  the  English  Channel,  but  have  to  scrape 
away  deep  snow  with  their  feet  in  order  to  get  at  the  herbage 
beneath.  In  this  they  rival  the  Scotch  Mountain  breeds.  They 
are  a  white-faced,  large-framed,  heavy- woolled  breed,  but  inferior 
to  the  Lincoln  both  in  weight  of  meat  and  wool.  They  are 
favourites  with  the  butcher.  Their  wool  is  of  good  quality,  and 
exceedingly  saleable. 

The  tegs  off"  turnips  weigh  from  seventeen  to  twenty  pounds 
per  quarter,  dead  weight :  two  shear  wethers,  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  pounds  per  quarter. 

Fleeces  from  the  ewes  and  hoggs  weigh  on  an  average  about 
seven  to  eight  pounds;  from  two-shear  wethers,  about  ten 
pounds. 


S20  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Devon  Longwools,  chiefly  found  in  the  West  of  England,  are 
a  large  white  breed,  established  about  sixty  years  ago,  by  cross- 
ing the  old  native  Bampton  breed  with  the  new  Leicester ;  and 
probably  the  Cotswold  blood  was  also  brought  into  service. 
They  very  much  resemble  the  Leicesters,  and  in  Cornwall  are 
sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  *'  Long-woolled  Leicesters."  They 
differ  from  the  Leicesters  in  having  longer  and  larger  faces  and 
ears,  with  a  thick  tuft  of  wool,  or  "  cob,"  in  the  front  of  the  head  ; 
their  frame  is  larger  and  higher,  but  their  ribs  are  not  generally 
quite  so  well  sprung,  which  makes  them  appear  to  have  flatter  and 
deeper  sides.  They  carry  a  much  larger  fleece,  of  an  open 
character.  They  are  a  grand-looking  breed,  well  suited  to  the 
better  classes  of  land  of  Devon,  Somerset,  and  Cornwall.  They 
are  fast  growers ;  hoggs  from  fourteen  to  fifteen  months  old  off 
turnips,  as  a  rule,  scale  from  twenty-two  to  twenty-five  pounds 
per  quarter,  dead  weight. 

It  is  usual  in  the  west  of  England  to  cHp  the  lambs,  which 
cut  as  a  rule  about  three  pounds  of  wool  each,  whilst  the  mixed 
fleeces  of  hoggs  and  ewes  average  about  nine  to  ten  pounds. 

The  ewes,  as  a  rule,  lamb  in  the  beginning  of  February,  and 
are  fairly  prolific. 

The  South  Hams  are  also  a  Devonshire  breed,  but  are  more 
like  the  Romney  Marsh  sheep  than  the  Devon  Longwools.  The 
breed  was  established  by  crossing  the  old  Bampton  sheep  with 
Cotswold  and  Lincoln  rams. 

They  are  a  large-boned,  stout-framed  sheep,  carrying  a  thick 
and  heavy  fleece,  with  a  little  coarse  wool  extending  below  the 
hocks  on  the  sides  of  the  hind  legs,  and  a  tuft  of  dark-coloured 
wool,  or  "  top  knot,"  on  their  forehead.  The  face  is  of  a  darkish 
•  white  colour,  of  fair  length ;  the  skin  should  be  very  black  on  the 
muzzles ;  ears  dark  inside,  with  black  spots  outside ;  neck  stout, 
and  fair  length ;  good  back  and  strong  hind  quarters ;  the 
legs  should  be  white.  Some  strains  have  a  tendency  to 
throw  sheep  with  white  muzzles  and  ears  ;  these  sheep  are  some- 
times very  large,  but  usually  plain  behind  the  shoulder,  and 
altogether  rather  bad  specimens  of  the  breed.  In  a  breeding 
flock  these  points  must  be  carefully  avoided.  Some  occasionally 
have  brownish  hair  on  their  legs  and  faces ;  although  these  sheep 
are  often  very  hardy,  and  make  fine  animals,  they  must  be 
avoided  in  a  breeding  flock,  as  they  are  not  characteristic  of  the 
breed.  This  brown  hair  indicates  that  the  ancestors,  at  some  time, 
have  been  crossed  with  Dartmoor  blood. 

Some  breeders  in  trying  to  produce  very  large  rams  with 
heavy  fleeces,  often  do  so,  but  at  the  expense  of  the  general 
form  J   these    sheep    are   often  deficient   behind    the    shoulder, 


LIVE   STOCK.  521 

and  not  the  thick,  well-proportioned  specimens  which  are  typical 
of  good  breeding. 

The  average  weight  of  a  good  flock  of  fat  ewes  would  be 
about  twenty-five  pounds  per  quarter;  hoggs,  about  ten  to 
twelve  months  old,  eighteen  to  twenty  pounds  per  quarter. 
Lambs  are  often  sold,  fat,  at  about  twelve  pounds  per  quarter. 
This  breed  has  greatly  extended  its  area  of  late  years,  especially 
in  Cornwall.  Formerly  on  the  good  land  scarcely  any  sheep  but 
the  Leicesters  were  to  be  seen,  but  now  a  pure-bred  Leicester 
is  almost  a  novelty.  On  many  of  the  good  farms,  the  Leicesters 
would  keep  fat  at  all  times  of  the  year,  but  the  butchers  com- 
plained of  the  proportion  of  fat  to  lean  meat,  and  when  South 
Hams  were  to  be  had,  Leicesters  were  often  left  unsold;  the 
consequence  was,  South  Ham  blood  became  in  great  demand. 
Many  pure-bred  flocks  were  started,  and  the  rams  were  almost 
universally  used  to  cross  with  Leicester  ewes ;  and  farmers,  who 
then  owned  Leicester  flocks,  have  since  gone  on  using  South 
Ham  rams ;  consequently,  after  a  few  generations,  very  little  of 
the  Leicester  blood  can  be  distinguished.  The  cross  with  the 
Leicester  has  proved  a  very  excellent  one.  These  sheep  have 
good  constitutions.  The  ewes  are  excellent  nurses,  and  fairly 
prolific.  It  is  usual  in  South  Ham  flocks  to  find  about  50  per 
cent,  of  the  ewes  with  twins. 

The  South  Downs  can  boast  of  a  longer  pedigree  than  any  of 
our  British  breeds — it  is  said  that  their  descent  can  be  traced 
farther  back  than  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror, — and  for 
this  reason  they  are  known  in  the  shepherd  world  as  the 
*'  aristocrats."  They  have  done  for  the  short  wools  very  much  what 
the  Leicesters  have  for  the  long  wools,  as  all  the  Down  breeds 
have  been  improved  by  the  addition  of  the  South  Down  blood. 
The  importance  of  this  breed  has  been  more  on  account  of  the 
good  service  they  have  done  in  refining  and  improving  coarser 
breeds,  than  anything  else. 

The  original  South  Downs,  found  on  the  chalk  hills  of  Sussex, 
were  much  smaller  than  the  breed  we  now  possess,  with  grey  or 
speckled  faces  and  legs,  instead  of  the  more  uniform  brown  that 
now  prevails.  It  is  questionable  if  the  mutton  was  not  even  of  a 
finer  flavour  than  it  is  at  present,  and  still  it  fetches  the  best 
prices  obtainable  in  the  London  market. 

About  the  end  of  last  century,  the  South  Downs  were  very 
much  improved  by  John  EUman,  a  noted  and  careful  breeder ; 
and  since  then  it  is  probable  that  Leicester  or  some  other  blood 
has  been  used  to  give  them  greater  size. 

Description  of  a  South  Down. — Face  and  legs,  uniform  colour, 
but  varying   on  different   classes  of   soil,   being  dark  brown  on 


522 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


good  soils,  and  usually  lighter  or  fawn-colour  on  the  thin  chalk 
hills.  The  head  is  rather  short  and  small,  with  wool  on  their  fore- 
head and  between  the  ears,  which  are  set  rather  widely  apart ; 
they  should  be  perfectly  free  from  horns.  The  eye  is  full,  but  the 
frontal  bones  (above  the  eye)  should  not  be  prominent;  being 
small  sheep,  they  would  form  obstructions  in  lambing.  The 
neck  should  be  straight  on  the  top  (not  ewe-necked),  fair  length, 
and  thin  where  it  joins  the  head,  getting  wider  at  the  shoulder. 


Fig.  84.— South  Down  ram,  "  Royal  Newcastle"  ;  property  of  Mr.  Edwin  EIHs. 

The  breast  is  an  important  point  with  judges  and  graziers.  It 
should  be  wide,  deep,  and  projecting  well  forward  between  the 
fore  legs.  A  sheep  with  a  good  chest  is  usually  a  good  weigher, 
thriver,  and  possessor  of  a  good  constitution.  The  shoulders 
should  be  level  with  the  back,  and  not  wide  at  the  withers ;  when 
sheep  of  this  breed  have  wide  shoulders  they  generally  fail  behind 
them,  and  measure  badly  round  the  girth;  this  gives  them  an 
awkward  appearance.  The  back  should  be  flat,  and  the  ribs 
should  project  horizontally  from  the  spine,  but  inclined  backwards, 
and  be  well  ribbed  back  to  the  hips,  which  are  wide.  The  rump 
should  be  long  and  broad ;  the  tail  set  on  high,  very  little  below  the 
level  of  the  backbone.  The  hind  legs  should  be  wide  apart,  and, 
if  anything,  turning  outwards  (not  cow-hocked);  the  fore  legs 
should  be  straight,  not  knock-kneed.  The  body,  including  belly, 
is  well  covered  with  short,  fine,  and  close  wool. 

The  ewes  are  prolific,  and  good  nurses.     The  breed  is  hardy, 


LIVE  STOCK.  523 

and  fatten  quickly  when  well  fed.  They  are  particularly  well 
adapted  for  grazing  on  lofty  downs. 

The  average  dead  weight  might  be  taken  at  from  fifteen  to 
eighteen  pounds  per  quarter,  varying  very  much  with  the  quality 
of  land  they  are  kept  on. 

Hill  sheep  shear  about  three  and  a  half  pounds  per  fleece, 
whilst  five  pounds  may  be  taken  as  an  average  lowland  fleece. 

Shropshire  Downs  originated,  in  the  first  place,  from  the 
native  breed  which  had  horns.  Mr.  Samuel  Meire  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  founder  of  the  race.  He  purchased  some  of 
Mr.  Ellman's  South  Down  rams,  and  crossed  with  the  native 
ewes  ;  this  had  its  desired  effect  in  removing  the  horns.  The  cross 
was  well  suited  to  the  downs,  but  not  adapted  to  the  small  fields 
of  the  lower  lands ;  so,  in  order  to  get  something  more  quiet  and 
contented,  the  Leicester  blood  was  added.  This  proved  a  great 
success,  and  since  then  the  breed  has  been  kept  pure  and  true 
to  type  by  selection  alone. 

These  sheep  somewhat  resemble  the  South  Downs,  but  are 
larger,  head  much  more  covered  with  wool,  and  legs  of  a  darkei 
colour.  Face  and  legs  black,  head  fairly  wide,  and  very  thickly 
covered  with  wool ;  good  backs,  with  deep  legs  of  mutton.  They 
are  well  covered  with  a  closely  set  fleece  of  fine  wool,  which 
handles  somewhat  like  a  sponge. 

The  wool  of  an  ordinary  flock  might  average  six  pounds  per 
fleece. 

Shearlings  commonly  weigh  eighteen  to  twenty  pounds  per 
quarter ;  whilst  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  two-shear  rams  forty 
pounds  per  quarter,  dead  weight. 

The  ewes  are  exceedingly  prolific,  and  make  excellent  nurses, 
and  are  well  suited  for  bringing  on  fat  lambs  for  the  butcher. 
These  fat  lambs  often  make  greater  weights  than  those  of  the 
same  age  from  long-woolled  and  larger  breeds,  yet,  kept  side 
by  side  after  being  weaned,  the  long-woolled  breeds  leave  them 
far  behind  at  ten  or  twelve  months  old,  thus  pointing  to  the  fact 
that  they  are  not  so  well  adapted  for  early  maturity.  When 
kept  on  poor  land,  Shropshires  will  thrive  where  long-woolled  breeds 
could  only  exist.  They  are  very  hardy,  and  able  to  endure  a 
great  deal  of  wet.  Their  mutton  is  of  excellent  flavour,  having 
the  fat  and  lean  well  mixed ;  like  the  South  Downs,  they  are 
great  favourites  with  butchers. 

Hampshire  Downs  have  come  into  great  prominence  of  late 
years,  being  suited  to  all  purposes,  and  make  especially  good 
weights  at  an  early  age ;  they  are  found  chiefly  in  the  South  of 
England. 

This    breed  was   originated  by   crossing  the   old   Wiltshire 


524 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


horned,  and  Berkshire  knot  with  the  South  Down.  Although 
this  cross  was  made  at  the  beginning  of  the  century,  yet  it  was 
not  until  about  1846  that  breeders  assumed  a  uniform  type 
amongst  these  sheep,  which  are  now  quite  distinct  from  any  other 
Down  breeds.  They  have  black  faces  and  legs,  a  Roman 
profile,  and  a  sourness  of  countenance  which  points  to  their 
origin ;  they  are  larger  than  the  Shropshire,  and  less  woolly  about 


W^&wSMmmm 


Fig,  85.— Hampshire  Down. 

the  head,  the  ears  are  often  inclined  to  droop;  they  are  wide 
across  the  top  of  the  shoulders,  but  often  fail  immediately  behind ; 
they  have  less  wool  than  the  Shropshires,  and  it  is  not  so  valuable 
per  pound.  As  these  sheep  undergo  such  very  varied  treatment, 
some  being  very  highly  kept,  their  fleeces  vary  very  much,  but 
five  to  six  pounds  may  be  taken  as  an  average. 

The  hoggs,  fed  on  roots,  make  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four 
pounds  per  quarter,  and  show  shearlings  get  to  very  great  weights. 

The  Suffolk  Downs  have  of  late  years  come  into  great  repute 


LIVE  STOCK. 


525 


in  their  own  and  neighbouring  counties.  Their  breeders  started 
a  flock-book  in  1887,  with  the  usual  result  of  improvement, 
especially  as  regards  uniformity  of  type. 

They  are  in  appearance  very  like  the  Hampshire  Downs, 
with  black  faces  and  legs,  but  generally  less  wool  on  their  heads ; 
they  are  not  quite  so  large  nor  so  popular  as  the  Hampshires. 


Fig    86.— Suffolk  Down  ram,  '' Bismark  4th." 

They  originated  from  a  cross  between  the  old  Norfolk  breed  and 
the  South  Downs.  The  old  Norfolks  had  horns,  and  are  described 
as  being  a  very  restless  breed,  and  therefore  not  much  inclined  to 
lay  on  fat ;  their  mutton,  however,  was  of  excellent  character.  The 
result  of  the  cross  with  the  South  Down  was  very  satisfactory, 
the  progeny  being  black-faced  and  hornless,  with  the  constitution 
of  the  old  Norfolk,  with  a  greater  aptitude  to  fatten  and  come 
early  to  maturity.  They  are  well  adapted  to  grazing  spacious 
downs,  and  also  do  well  and  make  good  returns  for  more 
generous  feeding. 

The  Oxford  Downs  are  a  fine  breed  of  sheep,  carrying  heavier 
fleeces  than  any  other  of  the  Down  breeds.  The  points  aimed 
at  when  this  breed  was  founded  were,  to  get  a  class  of  sheep  that 
should  combine  the  weight  of  a  Long-wool  with  the  quality  of 
a  Down.  The  breed  was  obtained  by  crossing  Hampshire  Down 
ewes  with   grey-faced   Cotswold   rams,   and   also  a  little   South 


526 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


Down  blood  was  used.  By  constant  selection  of  the  most  likely- 
animals  a  most  successful  result  was  attained ;  from  this  selection, 
without  any  further  admixture  of  other  blood,  we  have  an 
exceedingly  uniform  type  throughout  the  whole  breed.  They 
possess  good  constitutions  and  large  frames. 

They  may  be   described   as   follows  : — Faces  and   legs  dark 
colour,  not  grey  or  spotted ;  the  poll  should  be  well  covered  with 


Fig.  87.— Oxford  Down  ram,  "Progress"  {719)  ;  bred  by  John  Treadwell,  Aylesbury. 

wool  and  a  topknot  on  the  forehead;  eyes  should  be  bold  and 
prominent ;  a  heavy  fleece  of  thickly  set  wool,  and  not  too  curly  j 
a  well-formed  barrel  on  short  dark  legs,  and  good  firm  mutton 
of  superior  quality. 

The  hoggs  are  often  sold  fat  at  twelve  months  old,  weighing 
from  twenty  to  twenty-four  pounds  per  quarter  when  well  fed. 

An  average  flock  fleece  might  be  taken  at  seven  pounds, 
but  shearling  rams  often  clip  double  that  weight. 

These  sheep  are  particularly  adapted  for  close  stocking,  and 
feeding  between  hurdles.  It  is  the  prevailing  breed  in  its  own 
and  neighbouring  counties.  Many  of  the  rams  are  sold  for 
crossing  with  other  breeds. 

The  ewes  are  good  mothers,  and  drop  a  large  proportion 
of  twins. 


LIVE   STOCK. 


527 


Upland  and  Mountain  Breeds. 

The  Cheviots  have  long  inhabited  the  mountain  pastures  of 
the  South  of  Scotland,  where  they  are  to  be  seen  in  great  numbers. 
They,  like  other  breeds,  have  been  much  improved  from  the 
original  type,  which  has  been  described  as  a  small  ill-framed  animal 
with  brownish-white  head  and  legs,  with  a  very  hardy  constitu- 
tion. They  were  much  improved  by  Mr.  Robson,  of  Belford,  who 
crossed  them  with,  some  say  Lincolns,  others,  Leicester  rams; 
probably  the   latter  was   the   breed   used.     They   have  usually 


Fig. 


-Cheviot  ram. 


a  very  white  appearance  ;  but  occasionally  grey  or  dun  faces 
are  found  in  the  purest  flocks,  and  are  looked  upon  as  an  indication 
of  superior  hardiness.  The  ewes  are  hornless,  but  the  rams  often 
have  horns. 

The  head  is  erect,  long,  and  clean,  and  should  be  perfectly 
free  from  wool,  the  eye  very  prominent,  dark,  and  lively;  the 


528  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

ears  are  long,  open,  and  well  covered  with  hair.  The  head 
altogether  has  a  very  characteristic  appearance,  and  if  a  sheep 
possesses  any  cheviot  blood  it  is  not  hard  to  recognize.  The  legs 
are  moderately  long,  clean,  and  fine.  The  body  is  fairly  long 
and  heavier  behind  than  in  the  fore  quarters.  The  rump  is  full, 
and  tail  neatly  set,  rarely  cut,  reaching  to  the  hocks  and  well 
covered  with  wool;  as  these  sheep  are  generally  grazing  on 
exposed  ground,  the  tails  are  left  long  as  a  protection  for  the  udder 
and  belly  from  cold  winds. 

The  neck  and  chest  should  be  full;  the  wool  on  the  neck 
stands  in  an  erect  position  behind  the  head.  The  pelt  is  thin 
and  well  covered  with  wool,  which  is  fine  and  free  from  hair. 

Fleeces  from  an  average  flock  would  weigh  from  four  to  four 
and  a  half  pounds.  The  fineness  of  the  wool  much  depends  on 
the  nature  of  the  pasture  the  sheep  have  been  kept  on ;  the  finest 
wool  comes  from  dry  sweet  pastures. 

Ewes,  when  fat,  weigh  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  pounds  per 
quarter,  whilst  three-year-old  wethers  finished  on  turnips  reach 
from  eighteen  to  twenty  pounds  per  quarter. 

The  ewes  are  very  prolific,  and  good  nurses.  These  sheep 
are  only  excelled  by  the  Blackfaced  Mountain  and  Herdwick 
breeds  for  hardiness.  They  are  largely  used  for  crossing  with 
Border  Leicester,  Lincoln,  Oxford  Down,  and  other  rams.  These 
crossbred  lambs  are  very  much  liked  by  the  Northern  farmers, 
who  buy  great  numbers  of  them  to  feed  on  their  roots.  They 
are  larger  than  the  ordinary  Cheviot,  and  come  earlier  to  maturity. 
The  Border  Leicesters  are  the  rams  that  are  most  commonly  used, 
the  first  cross  being  "  half-breds."  These  ewe  lambs  are  often 
kept  and  mated  with  a  Cheviot  ram,  the  produce  being  known 
as  "  three  parts  bred  Cheviots."  The  mutton  from  these  cross- 
breds  is  fine  flavoured,  but  not  quite  equal  to  the  pure  Cheviots. 

The  Scotch  Blackfaces,  Heath,  or  Mountain  Sheep. 

These  are  found  in  great  numbers  on  the  exposed  Highlands 
of  Scotland,  being  hardier  than  any  other  breed.  They  are  fond 
of  getting  at  the  mountain  tops,  where  the  herbage  is  of  the 
coarsest  character.  If  a  sheep  farmer  from  the  south  of  England 
were  to  visit  the  West  Highlands  he  would  be  puzzled  to  see 
what  these  tiny  sheep  found  to  live  upon  on  these  hill-tops,  and 
would  certainly  be  inclined  to  doubt  that  they  could  ever  exist 
through  the  severe  winters,  when  the  hills  are  covered  with  snow 
for  weeks  together.  Often  their  only  chance  of  getting  food  is 
by  scraping  away  the  snow  with  their  feet,  until  they  approach 
the  scanty  herbage  below.  The  young  sheep,  as  a  rule,  are 
supplied  with  hay;  but  many  of  the  older  ones  have  to  scrape 
and  find  their  own  living. 


LIVE   STOCK.  529 

Both  ewes  and  rams  have  horns.  The  horns  of  the  ram  are 
spirally  twisted  and  large,  getting  larger  with  more  spiral  twists 
with  age;  the  horns  of  the  ewe  are  rather  flat  and  arched,  but 
not  spirally  twisted.  The  faces  and  legs  are  black  or  black  and 
white  (dappled).  The  face  is  long,  clean,  and  glossy ;  the  muzzle 
free   from  wool ;   a  Roman  profile  is  preferred.     Eyes  full  and 


Fig.  89. — Scotch  Blackface  ram,  "Aaron  ;"  bred  by  James  Archibald,  Overshiels. 


bright.  The  neck  usually  low  and  a  litde  long ;  back  short ;  sides 
flat  and  deep.  Hind  quarters  heavier  than  fore.  Tail  usually 
uncut,  as  it  rarely  comes  below  the  hocks  in  the  natural  way.  The 
wool  is  long,  open,  and  wavy,  almost  reaching  the  ground;  it 
should  be  free  from  black  spots,  and  hard,  wiry,  white  hair ;  the 
quality  is  coarse  and  generally  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
carpets.     The  fleece  usually  weighs  from  three  to  four  pounds. 

In  former  years  Blackfaces  were  regarded  as  slow  growers  and 
fatteners,  and  the  wethers  were  rarely  fattened  till  they  were 
three  years  old ;  but  of  late  years  the  quality  of  average  Black- 
faced  stocks  has  been  so  much  improved,  and  early  maturity  so 
much  developed  in  the  hardy  mountain  breed,  that  they  are  now 
fully  matured  at  eighteen  months  old,  and  vast  numbers  are  sold 
fat  by  the  time  they  are  ten  months  old. 

The  ewes  are  good  nurses  when  they  can  obtain  a  reasonable 

2  M 


530  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

supply  of  food ;  but  in  bad  seasons,  when  food  has  been  particularly 
bare,  shepherds  have  sometimes  to  kill  the  lambs  to  save  the 
mothers.  Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  food  in  the  spring  of  the 
year,  these  sheep  are  not  allowed  to  lamb  until  very  late  in  the 
season. 

The  quahty  of  the  mutton  from  this  breed  is  excellent. 

These  Blackfaces  are  sometimes  crossed  with  Leicesters  for 
the  lower  lands. 

The  Herdwicks  are  supposed  to  have  originated  from  some 
sheep  cast  on  shore  from  a  ship  that  was  wrecked  on  the 
Cumberland  Coast,  belonging  to  the  Spanish  Armada.  They 
soon  became  very  popular  with  the  hill  farmers.  Consequently 
these  sheep  spread  from  one  hill  to  another  until  they  were  to  be 
found  on  the  hills  of  Cumberland,  Westmoreland,  and  Lancashire, 
and  are  still  to  be  found  there.  Some  Cumberland  farmers,  who 
have  changed  their  quarters  to  North  Wales,  have  taken  some 
Herd  wick  sheep  with  them,  with  very  satisfactory  results.  They 
find  them  hardier  than  the  Welsh;  when  the  two  breeds  are 
kept  together  on  the  same  hill  the  Herdwicks  will  usually  be 
found  on  the  loftier  positions.  They  are  often  crossed  with 
Leicesters,  and  these  cross-bred  lambs  are  sold  to  the  lowland 
farmers,  who  feed  them  for  the  butcher,  as  hoggs.  The  breed 
may  be  described  thus :  the  faces  and  legs  of  the  lambs  are 
almost  black,  but  get  much  lighter  with  age ;  by  the  time  they 
are  two  years  old  they  get  a  steel-grey  colour,  being  lighter 
coloured  towards  the  nose  than  forehead.  Any  brown  tinge 
is  supposed  to  indicate  a  less  degree  of  hardiness,  whilst 
a  black  tinge  is  not  objected  to.  The  head  should  be 
long  and  bold;  ears  white  and  sharp,  and  should  stand  well 
up  —  any  tendency  to  droop  shows  a  want  of  spirit,  which 
is  required  by  hill  sheep.  The  eye  bright,  and  forehead  has 
a  tuft  on  it.  They  should  be  wide  between  the  fore  legs,  with 
a  deep  chest  coming  well  forward,  as  the  fore  quarter  is  chiefly 
relied  upon  both  for  constitution  and  scales.  The  body  is  well 
ribbed  up — but  they  are  usually  slack  behind  the  shoulder.  The 
hind  legs  are  straight;  the  mutton  reaches  well  down  to  the 
hocks.  The  knees  and  feet  should  be  large,  feet  white,  bone 
fine.  The  tail  is  thick,  and  should  reach  the  hocks ;  bottom 
half  of  the  tail  often  black.  The  ewes  are  not  horned,  but  the 
rams  usually  are ;  the  horns  should  curl  once  or  twice,  turning 
out  and  forward,  clear  of  the  side  of  the  head.  The  mutton 
is  fine  in  texture  and  flavour.  The  wool  is  of  short  staple, 
coarse,  and  open,  but  slightly  better  than  that  of  the  Scotch 
Blackface. 

The  average  dead  weight  of  a  three-  or  four-year-old  wether 


LIVE   STOCK.  531 

varies  from  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds  per  quarter  when  finished  on 
the  fells ;  on  roots  they  may  make  twenty  pounds,  and  show  sheep 
sometimes  attain  twenty-five  pounds  per  quarter. 

The  fleece  averages  from  three  and  a  half  to  four  pounds. 

The  Lonks  are  found  on  the  fells  of  Lancashire,  Yorkshire, 
and  some  parts  of  Derbyshire.  They  are  not  altogether  uniform 
in  colour,  some  being  much  whiter  than  others.  Whiteness  is 
considered  a  sign  of  softness.  The  most  approved  colour  for 
face  and  legs  is  black  and  white  streaks.  They  have  long  bodies, 
but  are  usually  wanting  behind  the  shoulder  and  narrow  on  the 
loin. 

The  lambs  shoot  their  horns  with  the  new  year,  those  of  the 
wether  never  go  beyond  one  curl.  Breeders  think  a  great  deal  of 
the  horn,  and  consider  it  a  measure  of  constitution.  The  horns  are 
usually  finer  than  those  of  the  Blackface.  The  sheep  are  larger 
than  the  Blackfaces  or  Herdwicks,  tut  not  so  hardy  or  suited  to 
such  great  elevations.     The  ewes  are  good  milkers. 

For  cunning  the  Lonks  are  said  to  be  unrivalled.  They  are 
exceedingly  fond  of  trespassing,  and  are  great  rangers.  In  taking 
a  fence  or  wall  they  will  equal  a  dog ;  nothing  less  than  a  strong, 
high  wire  fence  seems  to  be  sufficient  to  keep  them  within  bounds. 
The  wool  is  superior  to  the  Blackface,  and  averages  four  and 
a  half  to  five  pounds  per  fleece,  whilst  an  artificially  fed  wether  may 
clip  seven  to  eight  pounds.  Three-year-old  wethers  make  eighteen 
pounds  per  quarter ;  show  sheep  may  make  nearly  double  that 
weight. 

The  Welsh  Mountain  Sheep  are  very  small  and  hardy,  but  not 
very  uniform  in  appearance.  The  mutton  is  excellent,  and  usually 
considered  more  delicate  than  from  any  other  breed. 

They  are  usually  white-faced,  but  some  are  brown,  some 
grey,  and  others  speckled.  The  head  is  small,  but  carried  high 
on  a  long  neck.  The  rams  have  horns,  but  it  is  only  rarely  that 
they  are  seen  on  the  ewes.  The  poll  is  generally  clean,  but  the 
rams  sometimes  have  a  tuft  on  the  forehead.  The  general  frame 
is  by  no  means  a  picture;  they  have  a  high  rump  and  low 
shoulders,  flat  sides,  very  small  behind  the  shoulder,  and  narrow 
chests.  The  ewes  rarely  produce  twins,  but  they  are  good  nurses. 
They  are  sometimes  crossed  with  Down  rams,  on  the  low  land, 
to  produce  fat  lambs. 

The  average  weight  of  the  ewes  is  about  seven  to  eight  pounds 
per  quarter;  three-year-old  wethers,  nine  to  ten  pounds  per 
quarter,  dead  weight. 

The  wool  is  not  of  good  quality,  being  very  much  coarser 
from  some  districts  than  others.  The  average  weight  of  the  fleece 
is  from  three  to  four  pounds. 


532  ADVANCED   AGRTCULTURE. 

The  Exmoor  Sheep  are  to  be  found  on  the  hills  of  North 
Devon  and  West  Somerset.  Some  are  also  found  in  South  Devon. 
Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  remove  them  from  their 
native  hills  by  the  introduction  of  Cheviots  and  Blackfaces ;  but, 
in  all  cases,  the  Exmoors  proved  more  adapted  for  their  native 
hills  :  consequently,  the  northern  strangers  went  to  the  butcher, 
and  the  natives  again  returned  to  their  hills  and  pastures. 

These  sheep  have  very  strong  constitutions,  and  can  endure 
great  cold  and  privation  during  snow-storms.  It  is  a  common 
thing  on  the  hills  to  have  them  buried  in  the  drifts  of  snow  for 
several  days  together,  which  they  appear  to  stand  wonderfully 
well. 

They  have  white  faces  and  legs,  horns  curving  downwards 
and  outwards,  high  necks,  good  loins,  round  ribs,  a  barrel-shaped 
carcase  on  short  legs,  woolled  well  up  to  the  cheeks,  and  closely 
set  fleece. 

They  vary  much  in  weight,  as  many  flocks  are  kept  on  fairly 
good  land,  while  others  have  very  meagre  fare  on  the  exposed 
hills.  The  average  of  the  best  flocks  might  be  taken  as  sixteen 
to  eighteen  pounds  per  quarter,  whilst  there  are  many  that  would 
not  be  more  than  thirteen  or  fourteen  pounds  per  quarter,  dead 
weight. 

The  lambs  are  usually  shorn,  and  clip  from  one  and  a  half  to 
two  pounds. 

The  fleeces  from  an  average  flock  (washed)  will  weigh  about 
five  pounds.  The  light-fleshed  sheep  produce  least  wool,  but 
have  a  greater  tendency  to  lay  on  fat. 

The  Dorset  Horns,  Dartmoors,  and  Ryelands  could  not 
correctly  be  classified  under  any  of  the  three  heads  already  de- 
scribed. 

The  Dorset  Horns  are  a  very  old  breed.  They  have  been 
driven  out  of  their  own  county,  to  a  great  extent,  by  the  South 
Downs  on  the  Chalk  hill,  and  by  the  Shropshires  on  the  Oolite. 
But  still  some  Dorsetshire  farmers  stick  to  their  native  breed.  In 
some  parts  of  Somerset  they  exist  in  considerable  numbers,  and 
most  of  the  principal  breeders  are  Somersetshire  men. 

For  the  production  of  early  fat  lambs  they  are  unrivalled.  With 
proper  management  they  may  be  made  to  breed  at  all  times  of 
the  year,  and  they  have  often  been  known  to  drop  two  crops  of 
lambs  in  one  year.  It  is  by  no  means  uncommon  to  find  Dorset 
lambs  in  the  London  and  other  large  markets  at  Christmas  and 
the  early  part  of  the  year.  In  order  to  get  fat  lambs  for  this 
season,  the  ewes  are  tupped  in  April,  generally  by  a  South  Down 
ram.     They  are  used  in  small  numbers,  in  many  districts  in  the 


LIVE  STOCK.  533 

south  of  England,  for  the  purpose  of  producing  these  early  fat 
lambs,  which  are  sometimes  house-fed.  After  the  lambs  are  sold 
the  ewes  are  usually  fed  and  sold  fat,  commonly  making  twenty 
pounds  per  quarter. 

They  have  white  faces  and  legs  ;  the  nose  and  hoofs  are  also 
white ;  thin  horns  inclined  to  bend  backwards,  but  curl  well  clear 
of  the  head.  They  have  a  tuft  of  wool  on  their  forehead ;  the 
frame  is  neat,  carrying  a  short,  thick-wooUed  fleece,  weighing  four 
to  six  pounds,  and  lambs  clip  from  two  to  three  pounds.  They 
drop  a  large  proportion  of  twins,  and  are  exceedingly  good 
nurses. 

The  Dartmoors  are  a  very  hardy  and  useful  breed  of  sheep, 
found,  as  their  name  would  suggest,  in  South  Devon  and  North 
Cornwall.  They  are  remarkably  well-adapted  to  the  poorer 
classes  of  soils,  and  do  well  on  the  higher  elevations  of  the  dis- 
tricts in  which  they  are  bred.  Their  numbers  are  less  than  they 
were  at  one  time,  owing  to  the  increasing  popularity  of  the  South 
Hams,  which;  breed  has  in  most  cases  taken  their  place  on  the 
better  classes  of  soils.  But  on  farms  near  the  Moors,  the  Dart- 
moors  are  still,  and  are  likely  to  remain,  the  favourite  breed. 

These  sheep  are  thickly  made,  and  carry  very  good  fleeces  ; 
although  the  wool  is  usually  a  little  coarse  in  character.  Their 
faces  and  legs  are  uniform  in  colour,  being  as  a  rule  either  white  or 
tawny,  and  sometimes  speckled. 

Ryeland  Breed  is  a  native  of  Herefordshire  and  South  Wales. 
They  are  a  very  ancient  breed,  but  the  extent  they  now  occupy 
is  exceedingly  limited.  The  flocks  that  now  exist  are  scattered 
amongst  the  following  counties — Herefordshire,  Monmouthshire, 
Gloucestershire,  Shropshire,  and  Warwickshire.  They  are  well- 
formed  sheep,  with  white  faces  and  legs ;  a  tuft  of  wool  on  their 
forehead ;  short  legs ;  good  loins ;  with  exceptionally  fine,  close 
wool,  covering  the  whole  of  the  body.  The  fleeces  weigh  six  to 
seven  pounds. 

The  average  dead-weight  is  about  eighteen  to  twenty  pounds 
per  quarter,  some  making  much  greater  weights. 

The  mutton  is  particularly  good. 

Management  of  Sheep. 

In  order  to  describe  the  management  of  sheep  in  a  clear  and 
practical  manner,  we  will  suppose  that  we  are  the  happy  possessors 
of  a  good  general  flock,  on  a  mixed  arable  and  pasture  farm,  of 
not  too  clayey  a  nature,  suitable  for  carrying  sheep  the  whole 
year  round. 

By  describing  what  would  be  likely  to  take  place  with  such  a 


534  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

flock  during  the  year,  we  shall  have  full  opportunity  of  touching 
on  every  point  of  management.  We  will  suppose  the  year  to 
commence  at  the  beginning  of  August,  it  will  then  finish  at  the 
end  of  the  following  July. 

The  whole  flock  in  August  will  be  made  up  of  three  different 
lots,  viz.  (i)  the  old  ewes  that  have  been  weaned  from  their 
lambs;  (2)  the  shearling  ewes,  which  have  been  kept  to  select 
from,  to  fill  the  place  of  the  "drawn  ewes"  from  the  flocks; 
(3)  the  lambs  that  have  been  dropped  that  year.  We  are  sup- 
posing, in  this  case,  that  the  wethers  are  all  sold,  either  as  "  hoggs" 
in  the  spring,  or  as  "  shearlings  "  during  the  summer. 

For  the  benefit  of  the  student  it  would,  perhaps,  be  well  to 
refer  to  the  different  names  given  to  sheep  of  different  ages,  etc. 

The  young  sheep,  from  time  of  weaning  until  shorn  at  one 
year,  or  usually  a  little  over  one  year  old,  receive  the  names  of 
"  tegs,"  "hoggs,"  and  "hoggets."  In  some  districts  the  "hoggs" 
simply  refer  to  the  males,  and  *' hoggets"  the  females;  in  others, 
both  these  terms  are  used  collectively. 

The  males,  when  left  entire,  are  "tup  tegs,"  "ram  lambs," 
or  "  hogg  rams,"  until  one  year  old,  when  they  become  one-,  two-, 
three-,  or  four-shear  tups,  or  rams,  according  to  their  age. 

The  castrated  males  are  "wether  hoggs,"  "wedder  hoggs," 
"wether  tegs,"  and  "he  tegs,"  and  may  become  one-,  two-,  or 
three-shear  wethers. 

The  females  are  "gimmer  lambs"  until  weaned,  they  then 
become  "  gimmer  hoggs,"  "  ewe  hoggs,"  or  "  ewe  tegs ; "  and,  in 
some  districts,  the  term  "  hoggets  "  refers  to  these  gimmer  hoggs. 
After  the  first  shearing  they  are  called  "shearling  ewes,"  "gim- 
mers,"  "  theaves,"  or  "  two-teeth  "  ewes ;  whilst  in  the  flock,  two-, 
three-,  or  four-year-old  ewes ;  and,  when  drafted,  "  draft "  or 
"culled"  ewes ;  if,  after  being  put  with  the  ram,  they  prove  not 
to  be  in  lamb,  a  "  barren  "  ewe. 

Management  of  the  Ewe  Flock. 

Drafting;. — In  August  or  beginning  of  September  the  old  ewe 
flock  should  undergo  very  careful  inspection.  Those  that  appear 
in  any  way  unfit  to  be  retained  another  year  in  the  flock  should 
be  drawn  out,  "  culled,"  or  drafted. 

The  common  reasons  for  drafting  or  culling  ewes  are  the 
presence  of  ulcerated  udders,  large  teats,  or  malformations  of 
any  kind ;  under  size ;  loss  of  wool  on  belly,  back,  or  neck ;  any 
that  have  been  much  subject  to  the  attack  of  fly ;  any  with  bad 
teeth,  as  they  will  have  difficulty  in  feeding,  and  will  therefore 
be  unable  to  keep  in  good  condition  or  provide  for  their  lambs. 


LIVE  STOCK.  535 

If  they  have  any  signs  of  constitutional  weakness,  they  should  be 
culled.  Swelling  under  the  jaw  is  a  symptom  of  liver-fluke,  and 
any  ewe  in  such  a  state  should  be  fed  as  soon  as  possible,  other- 
,  wise  she  may  pine  away.  Aged  ewes  should  be  culled ;  they  are 
usually  indicated  by  bad  teeth. 

It  is  usually  a  mistake  to  keep  a  ewe  in  the  flock  too  long. 
A  ewe  that  is  retained  with  bad  teeth  will  probably  be  very  thin  by 
the  time  the  lamb  is  weaned ;  the  teeth  will  have  got  much  worse 
by  that  time,  and  the  ewe's  constitution  will  be  much  weakened  : 
consequently,  it  will  be  difficult  to  get  her  fat.  She  will  therefore 
make  much  less  money  than  she  would  have  done  if  she  had  been 
fattened  the  year  before,  whilst  a  younger  ewe  would  have  been 
just  as  valuable  in  the  flock. 

The  usual  ages  for  drafting  ewes  are  three  or  four  years  old, 
after  they  have  had  two  or  three  crops  of  lambs,  as  the  case 
may  be ;  entering  the  flock  as  shearlings,  and  getting  their  first 
lamb  at  two  years  old.  If  any  four-year-old  ewe  is  particularly 
good,  with  a  sound  set  of  teeth,  she  might  be  kept  another  year. 
In  a  breeding  flock,  where  the  object  is  to  breed  good  rams, 
ewes  of  particular  merit  are  sometimes  kept  until  much  older. 

Some  breeders  tup  their  gimmer  hoggs,  in  which  case  they 
lamb  at  one  year  old.  Ewes  lambing  at  this  age  are  supposed  to 
make  better  nurses  at  two  years  old,  than  when  allowed  to  run 
another  year.  Early  breeding  tends  to  develop  milking  qualities, 
but  it  retards  the  growth  and  interferes  with  the  development  of 
the  frame;  for  this  latter  reason  many  breeders  condemn  the 
practice.  When  this  system  of  early  breeding  is  practised,  the 
ewes  should  be  very  liberally  treated,  both  before  and  after 
lambing. 

Flock-masters  are  rather  divided  in  opinion  as  to  whether 
drafting  at  three  or  four  years  old  is  the  better  plan.  We  are 
inclined  to  consider  the  four-year-old  system  the  better. 

In  drafting  at  three  years  old,  the  ewes  only  get  two  crops  of 
lambs,  consequently  half  the  flock  has  to  be  drafted  every  year ; 
whilst  in  drafting  at  four  years  old  only  one-third  are  drafted: 
consequently  fewer  gimmers  have  to  be  kept  to  supply  the  place 
of  the  draft  ewes.  To  balance  this,  it  would  be  only  fair  to  say 
that  the  draft  ewes  at  three  years  old  would  make  more  money 
than  those  drafted  at  four.  There  still  remains  a  point  in  favour 
of  the  four-year  draft  system;  that  is,  the  four-year-old  ewes 
produce  more  doubles  and  make  better  nurses  than  the  two- 
year-olds,  and  usually  cause  less  trouble  in  the  lambing  fold.  As 
less  gimmers,  in  this  case,  are  required  to  supply  the  place  of  the 
drafts,  a  choicer  lot  may  be  selected. 

We  will  suppose  that  we  are  in  the  habit  of  keeping  a  flock  of 


53<5  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

two  hundred  ewes,  culling  at  four  years  old,  and  making  the 
number  good  by  bringing  in  shearling  ewes  (two-teeth)  every 
year.  Our  flock  of  old  ewes,  which  had  been  originally  two 
hundred,  would,  by  the  month  of  August,  probably  be  reduced  to 
about  194,  owing  to  deaths  in  the  flock,  or,  perhaps,  some  having 
proved  barren.  Out  of  these  194  there  would  probably  be 
seventy  condemned  and  drafted.  Most  of  these  would  be  four 
years  old,  and  should  be  branded  with  a  distinct  mark  over  the 
shoulder,  in  order  to  distinguish  that  they  were  culled  ewes,  in 
the  case  of  their  mixing  with  the  flock  again.  After  these  seventy 
had  been  drawn,  the  flock  would  be  reduced  to  124.  So  it  would 
then  be  necessary  to  select  seventy-six  of  the  best  shearling  ewes, 
and  enter  them  in  the  flock,  so  as  to  make  the  required  number 
— two  hundred. 

The  Culled  or  Draft  Ewes,  together  with  any  shearlings  not 
selected  for  the  flock,  should  undergo  another  selection.  Any 
that  were  fit  for  breeding  should  be  sold  for  that  purpose. 
These  would  probably  be  purchased  by  a  farmer  keeping  a  flying 
stock  (described  later  on).  Those  not  fit  for  this  purpose  would 
have  to  be  fattened  for  the  butcher  as  quickly  as  possible,  before 
food  got  too  scarce.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  rape  ready  to 
put  them  on  immediately  they  are  drawn,  as  sheep  feed  faster  on 
rape  than  on  any  other  keep. 

How  to  know  the  Age  of  a  Sheep. — Any  young  farmer  or 
agricultural  student  should  be  able  to  recognize  the  age  of  a 
sheep  by  examining  its  teeth.  Perhaps  the  best  way  of  obtaining 
this  knowledge  is  to  visit  the  shearing-houses  ;  he  will  then 
have  full  opportunity  of  seeing  sheep  of  all  ages.  Those  that  are 
being  clipped  for  the  first  time  will  be  from  fourteen  to  sixteen 
months  old,  and  will  then  be  getting  two  broad  teeth  on  their 
lower  jaw,  with  three  smaller  ones,  or  the  remains  of  three 
smaller  ones,  on  each  side — these  being  the  temporary,  or  milk- 
teeth.  When  kept  much  on  roots  these  milk-teeth  often  get 
broken.  About  twenty  to  twenty-two  months  old — about  Christ- 
mas— they  will  have  four  broad  teeth.  At  two  years  and  three 
months  old — about  second  shearing — they  should  have  six  broad 
teeth.  At  three  years  old  they  get  eight  broad  teeth,  and  are  then 
"  full-mouthed." 

Different  breeds  of  sheep,  and  sheep  under  different  manage- 
ment, will  often  vary  a  little  as  regards  their  teeth.  In  some 
cases  they  are  much  more  forward  than  others ;  but  in  all  cases 
(except  mountain  breeds)  the  indications  of  age  given  should 
answer  for  August  and  September,  the  usual  time  for  drafting 
ewes  and  purchasing  rams. 

Flushing  the  Ewes. — Before  the  rams  are  turned  with  the 


LIVE  STOCK.  537 

ewes,  they  should  be  put  on  good  keep  in  order  to  bring  them 
into  a  thriving  condition  during  the  tupping  season.  When  ewes 
are  thriving,  they  take  the  ram  much  better  than  if  they  are  in 
low  condition ;  they  also  produce  a  greater  amount  of  twins. 
They  are  often  flushed  on  clover  aftermath,  and  sometimes  on 
mustard  or  rape.  It  is  a  bad  plan  to  overflush  ewes,  as  they 
usually  suffer  more  from  loss  of  flesh  during  winter.  The  best 
plan  is  to  get  them  fleshy,  and  then  keep  them  thriving  whilst 
with  the  ram. 

The  Selection  of  a  Ram. — In  selecting  a  ram  the  following 
points  are  to  be  desired.  It  should  be  a  young  animal  and  a 
typical  specimen  of  its  breed,  possessing  a  good  constitution,  a 
strong,  thick,  muscular  neck  ;  a  level,  broad  back ;  a  well-formed 
rump  and  thick  dock ;  a  deep  and  broad  chest ;  well-sprung  ribs ; 
good  legs  of  mutton;  strong  fleece,  varying  in  abundance  with 
the  different  breeds;  small,  neat,  masculine  head,  with  a  good 
countenance;  strong  feet,  and  active  movements.  Such  would 
be  the  kind  of  sheep  likely  to  do  good  service  in  any  flock. 

It  is  not  desirable  to  get  a  ram  with  too  large  a  head,  as  this 
point  may  be  transmitted  to  the  offspring,  and  thus  cause  a  great 
deal  of  difficulty  in  yeaning. 

The  feet  should  always  be  well  examined,  to  see  that  there  are 
no  traces  of  foot-rot.  Any  lameness  should  be  looked  at  with 
suspicion. 

Spirit  and  activity  are  essential  points,  as  slow  and  sluggish 
rams  are  often  bad  lamb-getters. 

The  usual  time  for  putting  the  rams  with  the  ewes  is  in 
September  and  October  on  lowland  farms;  but  as  late  as 
November  and  December  on  hill  farms. 

In  the  south  of  England,  where  plenty  of  keep  can  be  provided 
in  spring,  the  ewes  generally  get  the  rams  at  the  end  of  August 
or  the  beginning  of  September,  so  as  to  lamb  early  in  P'ebruary. 
But  in  the  north,  March  and  April  are  more  common  months 
for  lambing ;  whilst  on  the  hills  they  often  lamb  as  late  as  May 
and  even  June,  in  order  that  the  ewes  may  be  able  to  find  some 
keep  to  provide  for  their  lambs. 

Dorset  Horns  are  often  tupped  in  May  and  June,  for  the 
purpose  of  producing  winter  lambs. 

The  period  of  gestation  in  a  ewe  varies  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
two  weeks. 

The  number  of  ewes  allotted  to  each  ram  is  usually  between 
forty  and  sixty.  The  smaller  the  breed,  and  younger  the  ram, 
the  more  ewes  it  will  cover. 

For  our  flDck  in  question — two  hundred — four  rams  would  be 
required.     It  is  a   common  practice  to  use  a  good  ram  in  the 


538  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

same  flock  two  seasons.  The  first  season  it  would  be  a  shearling, 
and  the  second  a  two-shear  tup.  In  some  exceptional  cases, 
where  a  ram  has  produced  very  good  stock,  and  still  possesses 
plenty  of  life  and  vigour,  it  is  kept  another  year.  In  such  a  case, 
great  care  should  be  taken  that  he  is  only  mated  with  the  old  ewes, 
as  some  of  the  shearlings  that  would  enter  the  flock  during  his 
third  service  would  be  his  own  offspring. 

When  four  rams  are  used,  two  should  be  shearlings  and  two 
"  two-shear  tups ; "  then,  by  purchasing  two  shearlings  every  year, 
the  number  would  be  kept  up. 

Selection  of  Ewes  for  Different  Rams.— Some  flock-masters 
place  the  rams  indiscriminately  amongst  the  whole  flock  of  ewes. 
This,  of  course,  saves  trouble;  but  the  practice  is  not  to  be 
recommended.  As  the  ewe  lambs  will  eventually  enter  the  flock, 
great  care  should  be  taken  in  selecting  the  most  suitable  ewes  to 
be  mated  with  each  separate  ram.  For  instance,  ewes  with 
heavy  fleeces,  and  not  so  much  inclined  to  lay  on  flesh,  should, 
if  possible,  be  mated  with  a  ram  which  possesses  the  quality  of 
laying  on  flesh  in  a  high  degree.  Ewes  weak  in  their  wool 
should  be  mated  with  a  ram  carrying  a  specially  good  fleece. 

Shearling  rams,  when  not  over  fed,  are  usually  more  active 
than  two-year-olds,  and  should  generally  have  a  few  more  ewes 
on  this  account. 

In  some  cases  ram  lambs  are  used ;  but  these  should  only  be 
allowed  to  serve  a  limited  number  of  ewes,  otherwise  it  may 
materially  interfere  with  their  growth. 

Smearing  the  Eam. — It  is  usual  to  smear  the  breast  of  the 
ram,  just  between  and  behind  the  two  fore  legs,  with  red  ochre 
and  grease.  This  should  be  applied  before  the  ram  is  turned 
with  the  ewes,  and  renewed  about  every  two  days.  By  this 
means  it  can  be  seen  by  the  mark  left  on  the  rump,  how  the  ram 
is  working  and  how  the  ewes  are  taking  him.  After  about  three 
weeks,  when  several  are  marked,  the  colour  should  be  changed  to 
blue  or  black — lamp-black  and  grease.  An  idea  may  then  be 
formed  as  to  w^hich  will  lamb  early  and  which  late. 

In  some  small  flocks  the  ewes  are  all  numbered.  In  this  case 
a  record  can  be  kept  of  the  dates  that  each  ewe  takes  the  ram. 
In  some  cases  they  do  not  hold  the  first  time,  so  the  last  date 
must  be  taken.  The  black  marking  shows  very  distinctly  over 
the  red. 

Use  of  a  "  Teaser." — In  a  case  where  an  especially  good  ram 
is  required  to  serve  a  large  number  of  ewes,  it  is  advisable  to  keep 
him  in  a  small  paddock  with  a  few  ewes  for  company.  The  rest 
of  the  flock  should  be  supplied  with  any  ordinary  or  second-rate 
ram,  with  a  double  piece  of  sacking  hung  in  front  of  his  genital 


LIVE  STOCK.  539 

organs.  This  prevents  him  from  serving  the  ewe,  but  enables 
the  shepherd  to  see  when  each  ewe  comes  into  season,  when 
she  is  taken  to  the  paddock  to  be  served  by  the  selected  ram. 
There  is  naturally  a  great  deal  of  labour  connected  with  this  plan  ; 
but  the  ram  will  effectually  serve  a  much  greater  number  of  ewes 
than  when  allowed  to  run  with  the  whole  flock,  as  the  energy 
required  for  the  preliminary  performances  is  expended  by  the 
teaser. 

The  ewes  should  be  kept  in  a  good  thriving  condition  whilst 
with  the  ram,  and  for  a  short  time  after,  and  should  never  be 
allowed  to  drop  much  during  the  winter. 

After  the  ram  is  taken  from  the  ewes  they  are  usually  run  on 
the  leas  and  pastures, — unless  on  a  purely  arable  farm,  when  they 
are  folded  on  roots  after  feeding  sheep.  They  should  be  kept  in 
good  healthy  condition  during  winter.  Good  managers  avoid  the 
two  extremes  of  having  them  thin  and  stinted,  anS  of  getting 
them  in  too  high  condition.  Good  sound  dry  pastures  to  run  on, 
with  the  addition  of  a  few  pulped  roots  mixed  with  chaff  and  a 
little  crushed  oats,  if  required  when  the  pastures  are  bare,  is  the 
best  keep  for  in-lamb  ewes. 

It  is  often  the  case,  when  the  pastures  get  eaten  down,  that 
the  ewes  are  allowed  to  fall  very  much  in  condition,  just  for  the 
want  of  a  little  extra  food.  In  such  cases  the  ewes  usually  take 
to  ranging,  consequently  the  young  foetus  gets  turned  or  twisted 
in  some  way.  This  causes  great  difficulty  in  lambing,  and  often 
results  in  dead  lambs,  or,  in  bad  cases,  even  death  of  the  ewe 
during  parturition. 

After  ewes  have  fallen  in  condition,  they  are  often  supplied 
with  whole  roots,  spread  over  the  field,  which  they  rush  raven- 
ously after.  This  is  very  likely  to  twist  the  foetus.  If  these  roots 
are  given  in  large  quantities  near  the  lambing  season,  they  often 
cause  the  young  foetus  to  become  dropsical,  when  it  is  impossible 
to  take  it  away  alive.  When  ewes  are  on  pasture  during  winter, 
it  is  far  better  to  reserve  the  greater  part  of  the  roots  until  after 
they  have  lambed,  and  supply  them  with  chaff,  a  few  pulped 
roots,  etc.,  as  before  mentioned. 

Barren  Ewes. — It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  a  few  barren  ewes 
amongst  the  flock.  Some  rams  leave  more  than  others.  Just 
before  the  lambing  season  commences,  any  that  may  be  suspected 
as  being  barren  should  be  picked  out  and  tested. 

There  are  several  different  ways  of  detecting  barren  ewes. 
The  first  thing  that  would  naturally  strike  the  eye  of  the  shepherd, 
or  an  experienced  flock-master,  would  be  their  light  walk,  flatness 
of  sides,  and  lightness  in  belly,  as  compared  with  the  other  ewes. 
Any  dirt  about  the  tail  is  often  a  sign  of  barrenness.     But  none 


540  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

of  these  indications  are  to  be  relied  upon  in  the  case  of  the  ewe 
being  a  late  lamber. 

If  these  suspected  ewes  be  drawn  out  and  put  on  a  high,  banky 
field,  with  young  ewes,  the  barren  ones  will  usually  be  exceedingly 
active,  and  will  commence  butting  and  skipping.  A  ewe  in  lamb 
rarely  skips,  however  much  she  may  be  enticed  to  join  in  the  fun 
by  a  barren  one.  This  skipping  is  a  very  sure  test.  A  fine  day 
should  be  selected,  and  there  are  certain  fields  on  every  farm,  in 
which  they  are  more  likely  to  reveal  the  secret  than  others ;  the 
shepherd,  as  a  rule,  knows  them  well.  It  often  happens  that  they 
skip  when  with  their  own  flock,  but  are  more  likely  to  do  so  when 
with  younger  sheep.  Another  test  is  to  turn  the  ewe  and  examine 
the  udder.  If  barren,  she  will  show  no  signs  of  secreting  milk, 
will  usually  have  waxy  matter  developed  in  the  wrinkled  skin 
around  the  udder,  and  the  wool  will  generally  be  stronger  in  growth 
than  that  on  an  in-lamb  ewe. 

If  these  ewes  are  in  good  condition,  or  can  be  got  in  good 
condition  quickly,  it  is  often  advisable  to  sell  them  in  the  fleece. 
As  a  rule,  mutton  fetches  a  good  price  at  this  time  of  the  year. 
If,  however,  the  demand  is  not  good  enough  to  keep  the  prices  up, 
it  may  be  better  to  keep  them  to  clip,  and  sell  them  fat  shortly 
afterwards. 

Management  of  Lambing  Ewes.— A  week  or  so  before  lambing, 
some  of  the  most  forward  ewes  should  be  picked  out  and  given  a 
little  extra  food,  in  order  to  get  a  good  flow  of  milk.  When  they 
commence  lambing,  they  should  be  brought  to  a  sheltered  lambing 
paddock,  fitted  with  lambing  pens,  which  may  be  erected  in  a 
variety  of  ways. 

The  Lambing-fold  is  often  made  of  hurdles  filled  between  the 
bars  with  young  twigs  or  stiff"  straw.  A  row  of  pens  should  be 
arranged  on  one  side  facing  the  south;  the  back  of  the  pens 
should  be  made  of  high  wattled  hurdles.  The  roof  consists  of 
hurdles  placed  at  an  angle,  higher  in  front  than  behind,  and 
thatched  with  straw.  Hurdles  are  set  at  right  angles  to  the  back, 
so  as  to  form  the  necessary  partitions  ;  then  another  row  in  front, 
acting  as  gates,  make  the  pens  complete. 

In  front  of  these  pens  there  is  a  large  yard  enclosed  by 
ordinary  hurdles.  This  yard  is  again  divided  into  three ;  the 
largest  portion  being  occupied  by  the  lambing  ewes,  and  the 
other  two  by  the  ewes  and  lambs  a  few  days  old,  which  are  still  too 
young  to  be  driven  from  the  fold.  The  smaller  of  these  divisions 
is  occupied  by  the  newly  lambed  ewes  and  their  offsprings,  as  they 
are  brought  from  the  pens ;  whilst  the  other  contains  the  ewes  and 
older  lambs,  which  are  about  to  be  taken  to  the  fields. 

The  sheds  or  pens  should  be  fairly  wide,  but  not  too  high. 


LIVE   STOCK.  541 

As  sheep  are  naturally  accustomed  to  exposed  positions,  rather 
than  close  buildings,  they  do  not  do  well  if  they  are  packed  too 
closely  in  a  yard. 

In  selecting  a  site  for  a  folding  yard  care  should  be  taken  to 
pitch  on  a  good,  dry,  well-drained  bottom,  otherwise  the  ewes  will 
be  almost  unable  to  move  after  a  few  days'  folding.  Burnt  clay 
makes  an  excellent  bottom  for  such  a  yard ;  this,  covered  with 
short  straw,  or  stubble,  is  much  preferable  to  the  use  of  long 
straw,  which  gets  entangled  about  the  ewes'  legs.  As  the  dung 
accumulates,  it  should  be  cleaned  out. 

There  should  always  be  a  waggon  of  good  hay  in  the  middle 
of  the  fold,  also  some  straw  and  roots  near  at  hand,  and  a  neces- 
sary supply  of  racks  and  feeding-troughs. 

Sometimes,  in  the  place  of  hurdles,  a  long  wooden  shed  is 
erected,  and  partitioned  ofif  into  a  number  of  little  hutches,  the 
roof  being  covered  with  felt.  The  yards  may  be  made  much  like 
those  described. 

On  some  large  sheep-farms  permanent  sheepfolds  are  built  of 
masonry ;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  movable  ones  are  more  convenient. 
In  addition  to  the  large  fold,  small  ones  are  erected  at  intervals 
on  the  sheep-run,  so  that  any  ewes  that  may  lamb  on  the  pastures 
through  the  day  can  be  taken  to  the  nearest  one. 

On  small  farms,  where  only  a  few  ewes  are  kept,  they  are 
usually  sheltered  in  an  empty  Dutch  barn,  or  any  available  well- 
ventilated  house.  They  should  be  brought  to  these  folds  by 
night,  and  turned  to  the  fields  again  early  next  morning,  and 
should  only  be  kept  in  a  yard  all  day  in  the  case  of  very  severe 
weather. 

The  shepherd  has  a  small  wooden  hut  on  wheels,  in  which 
he  has  his  bed  and  a  necessary  supply  of  medicines.  This  hut  is 
kept  close  to  the  fold. 

In  Devon  and  Cornwall  sufficient  shelter  is  usually  afforded 
by  the  banks,  which  are  often  five  feet  high,  with  scrub  growing  on 
the  top,  such  as  thorns,  black  withies,  etc.  These  high  fences 
break  the  wind,  and  make  a  small  paddock  very  sheltered.  If  the 
field  is  fairly  square  and  dry,  with  the  longest  hedge  towards  the 
rainy  quarter,  and  no  water  allowed  to  lodge  in  the  ditches,  the 
ewes  will  much  prefer  this  kind  of  fold  to  any  other.  They 
usually  get  much  better  flushed  in  milk  when  allowed  to  remain 
outside,  than  they  do  when  brought  under  cover. 

When  ewes  are  about  to  lamb  in  the  field,  they  will  select  for 
themselves  a  dry,  clean  spot  by  the  sheltered  hedge,  generally  at 
a  little  distance  from  the  rest  of  the  flock.  They  usually  walk 
backwards  and  forwards,  pawing  any  loose  soil,  such  as  a  mole- 
hill, and  giving  vent  to  an  occasional  bleat ;  these  are  the  usual 


542  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

indications  of  approaching  parturition.  After  a  time  they  may  be 
seen  to  go  on  their  side,  with  their  head  towards  the  hill,  and 
make  great  efforts  to  expel  the  lamb.  They  may  fail  to  do  so, 
and  rise  again,  but  soon  return  once  more  to  their  side,  and,  with 
a  great  effort,  usually  achieve  their  object.  The  lamb  lies  on  the 
ground,  whilst  the  mother  rises  and  licks  the  mucous  film  from  its 
body.  It  then  shakes  its  head,  flaps  its  ears,  and  soon  tries  to 
get  on  its  legs,  which,  after  a  few  stumbles,  it  succeeds  in  doing. 
Its  gait  is  certainly  a  httle  awkward  to  start  with,  but,  if  it  is 
a  good  healthy  lamb,  it  will  soon  establish  itself  by  the  ewe's 
side,  put  its  nose  under  her  flank,  and  partake  of  the  food  that 
nature  has  provided. 

If  the  ewe  is  going  to  bring  forth  twins,  she  will  lie  down 
again,  and,  as  a  rule,  bring  forward  the  second  with  greater  ease 
than  the  first.  They  sometimes  become  fonder  of  one  lamb  than 
the  other,  usually  preferring  the  stronger  (referred  to  later). 

Difficult  Parturition. — It  often  happens,  when  ewes  are  carry- 
ing a  large  single  lamb,  that  they  are  unable  to  bring  it  away.  In 
such  cases  they  should  be  rendered  assistance,  but  not  before 
there  is  any  occasion.  Ewes  should  always  be  allowed  to  try 
and  expel  the  lamb  naturally,  and,  if  left  to  themselves,  will  often 
do  so.  If,  however,  the  case  appears  to  be  too  much  for  them, 
and  a  water-bladder,  foot,  or  nose  makes  its  appearance,  they 
should  at  once  be  assisted.  If  the  lamb  is  coming  in  a  natural 
position,  it  will  have  its  fore  feet  and  nose  coming  first.  The  ewe 
should  be  held  down  on  her  side,  and  one  of  the  lamb's  fore  legs 
pulled  forward  at  a  time,  then,  by  pulling  the  two  towards  the 
udder  and  at  the  same  time  helping  the  lamb's  head  forward  with 
a  finger  from  the  left  hand,  the  lamb  can  generally  be  extracted. 
Directly  the  head  is  clear,  the  lamb  should  be  pulled  quickly 
away,  for,  if  the  walls  of  the  vagina  are  allowed  to  press  on  the 
thorax  of  the  lamb,  it  will  soon  die  from  suffocation.  When 
the  lamb  is  taken,  it  should  be  laid  by  the  ewe's  nose,  its  mouth 
should  be  opened  and  side  patted  with  the  back  of  the  hand. 
After  it  shakes  its  ears  it  may  be  left  to  its  mother,  and  watched 
to  see  that  the  mother  licks  and  takes  kindly  to  it. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  nipples  of  the  teats  get  stopped 
up  with  peculiar  secretions ;  in  this  case  the  lamb  can  abstract  no 
milk.  They  may  easily  be  cleared  if  pressed  between  the  finger 
and  thumb.  The  milk  will  be  slightly  thick  at  first,  but  will  soon 
run  freely. 

During  the  lambing  season  the  shepherd  is  troubled  with 
cases  of  abnormal  presentations,  which  cannot  be  dealt  with  here. 

Monstrosities. — We  have  occasionally  seen  great  difficulty 
caused  in  lambing  by  monstrosities;  such  as  a  lamb  with  two 


LIVE   STOCK.  543 

heads,  two  bodies  and  one  head,  or — perhaps  the  more  usual 
thing — a  lamb  with  more  than  four  legs. 

Dead  Lambs. — If  there  is  one  thing  a  shepherd  dislikes  more 
than  another,  it  is  having  to  take  a  dead  lamb.  He  knows  before 
he  starts  that  there  is  a  great  chance  of  losing  his  patient;  he 
also  knows  that  there  is  more  chance  of  losing  her  if  she  is  left 
alone.  In  these  cases  the  ewes  rarely  come  in  labour  in  the 
natural  way.  The  pelvic  bones  are  not  usually  very  open,  and 
in  many  cases  the  ewes  try  very  little  to  expel  the  lamb.  The 
symptoms  are  that  the  ewe  stands  alone,  with  her  ears  drooping, 
eyes  dull,  and,  instead  of  chewing  her  cud,  she  will  often  grind  her 
teeth. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  take  the  lamb  away  in  pieces,  as  the 
neck  of  the  womb  is  contracted.  It  is  usually  a  very  difficult 
case,  and,  as  the  ewe  is  in  a  delicate  condition,  she  does  not  stand 
the  operation  well;  the  chances  are  that  inflammation  sets  in 
afterwards,  and  in  many  cases  the  ewe  dies.  They  sometimes 
live  for  a  few  days,  and  then  die ;  this  is  often  due  more  to  the 
fact  of  their  not  cleansing  properly,  than  the  effects  of  the  operation 
of  taking  the  lamb. 

If  the  lamb  has  been  dead  any  time  it  becomes  putrid, 
and  gives  off  an  exceedingly  disagreeable  smell. 

When  assistance  has  to  be  given  to  a  ewe  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  it  is  a  bad  practice  to  be  continually  putting  in  and 
withdrawing  the  hand.  The  same  thing  applies  to  too  many 
people  having  a  hand  in  the  operation,  as  in  either  case  a  warm 
hand  is  withdrawn  and  a  cold  one  replaced ;  this  naturally  causes 
irritation,  and  inflammation  follows. 

It  is  a  good  thing  to  wash  the  hands  in  warm  soapy  water 
before  commencing  the  operation;  they  should,  as  well  as  the 
uterus,  receive  a  disinfectant  dressing  afterwards. 

A  very  common  disinfectant  is  made  with  eight  parts  of 
gallipoli  oil,  and  one  part  of  carbolic  acid;  usually  called 
carbolized  oil. 

For  further  information,  the  student  should  refer  to  the  chapter 
on  ''Veterinary  Science"  (pp.  261-264). 

When  ewes  are  in  a  delicate  state,  and  have  to  be  penned 
after  lambing,  they  should  get  some  gruel.  They  often  refuse 
ordinary  food,  such  as  roots  or  hay;  if  a  little  ivy  can  be 
procured  they  will  often  eat  it  greedily,  also  young  shoots  of 
thorns  may  tempt  them ;  as  they  get  stronger  they  will  take  to 
a  little  cabbage. 

The  Shepherd's  Difficulties  with  the  Mothers  and  Lambs. — 
The  shepherd  has  difficulty  in  getting  some  ewes  to  recognize 
their  offspring.     Some  young  ewes,  lambing  for  the  first  time, 


544  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

appear  rather  frightened  at  the  operation  they  have  undergone, 
and  get  up  and  take  no  notice  of  the  lamb.  In  such  a  case 
as  this  the  pair  should  be  penned,  and  the  lamb  put  to  suck  its 
mother ;  after  a  short  time,  with  a  little  trouble,  she  usually  becomes 
very  fond  of  it. 

Some  ewes,  when  lambing  twins,  become  very  fond  of  one  and 
refuse  to  recognize  the  other.  In  a  case  of  this  kind  the  ewe 
should  be  kept  alone,  and  both  lambs  taken  away  for  a  short  time. 
The  refused  lamb  should  be  well  rubbed  against,  and  under  the 
tail  of  the  favourite  lamb,  and  then  taken  back  to  the  mother 
alone.  She  will  usually  be  only  too  glad  to  take  it.  As  soon  as 
she  shows  signs  of  being  really  fond  of  it,  the  second  one  should 
be  taken  back.  We  have  often  seen  this  plan  result  in  the  mother 
showing  a  preference  for  the  lamb  that  was  at  first  refused.  If 
the  ewe  still  refuses  to  take  more  than  one  of  them,  and  she  has 
milk  enough  to  maintain  the  two,  the  shepherd  must  be  still 
more  persistent  until  he  gains  his  point.  Should  the  mother 
be  a  poor  nurse  and  there  happens  to  be  another  ewe  which 
has  lately  lost  her  lamb,  this  second  ewe  should  be  given  the 
refused  lamb.  There  is  often  a  little  difficulty  in  getting  her  to 
take  it  j  sometimes,  by  taking  the  skin  off  her  own  dead  lamb,  and 
putting  it  on  the  body  of  the  lamb  to  be  put  on  her,  she  may  be 
deceived,  and  will  often  take  kindly  to  it.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
she  has  rather  an  antipathy  for  the  lamb,  indicated  by  walking 
away  from  it,  or  butting  it  when  close,  she  should  be  fettered  and 
kept  in  a  close  place  with  the  lamb.  The  fetter  consists  of  a 
short  rope  which  connects  one  hind  leg  with  one  front  one.  This 
prevents  her  from  getting  far  away  from  the  lamb,  as  it  impedes 
her  movements.  She  should  be  continually  watched,  and  the 
lamb  put  to  suck.  She  will  soon  stop  for  the  lamb  at  hearing  the 
shepherd's  voice,  and  as  soon  as  it  can  get  an  occasional  suck  for 
itself  the  fetter  should  be  removed.  When  ewes  have  to  be 
punished  in  this  way,  the  flow  of  milk  decreases ;  they  should  be 
kept  outside  as  much  as  possible,  as  they  give  even  less  milk 
when  confined  in  the  pen. 

Feeding  with  the  Lamb  Tin. — When  ewes  give  only  a  little 
milk  to  commence  with,  their  lambs  require  a  little  cows'  milk, 
which  should  be  given  a  little  at  a  time,  but  often.  It  is  a  bad 
sign  to  hear  young  lambs  crying ;  it  is  a  sign  of  weakness,  usually 
caused  from  their  not  getting  as  much  milk  as  they  require. 

In  some  cases  the  mothers  die  and  leave  their  lambs ;  these 
have  to  be  hand  fed,  and  are  known  as  "pet  lambs."  They 
should  be  kept  in  a  clean  warm  place,  and  fed  with  whole 
milk  warm  from  the  cow,  out  of  a  lamb-feeder.  After  a  time 
skim  milk  may  be  mixed,  and  they  will  soon  learn   to   take  it 


LIVE   STOCK.  545 

from  a  basin,  which  will  be  far  less  trouble.  These  lambs 
should  be  put  out  by  day  as  soon  as  they  get  strong  enough; 
they  soon  learn  to  pick  grass,  young  seeds  will  agree  with  them 
best.  They  should  be  taught  to  eat  a  little  cake  and  corn-meal 
as  soon  as  desirable. 

Weak  Lambs. — The  shepherd  sometimes  finds  a  lamb  which 
has  been  exposed  to  wet  and  cold,  almost  lifeless,  and  may  be 
inclined  to  pass  it  for  dead ;  often,  if  such  lambs  are  taken  and 
placed  in  a  basket  in  front  of  a  good  fire,  they  will  rapidly  recover. 
They  should  be  given  a  little  milk  with  some  gin  in  it,  and,  as 
soon  as  they  get  strong  enough,  they  may  be  returned  to  their 
mothers. 

Management  of  Ewes  and  Lambs. — We  will  suppose  that 
they  are  strong  enough  to  be  removed  from  the  fold  to  more 
distant  grazing,  which  would  have  been  kept  up  particularly  for 
them ;  the  ewes  with  twins  would  be  placed  on  the  best  grazing. 

They  should  be  supplied  with  some  roots  and  hay,  and,  if  the 
lambs  are  required  to  be  forced,  they  may  also  get  a  Httle  crushed 
corn  and  cake  once  a  day. 

When  possible,  the  ewes  and  twins  should  be  put  on  seeds. 

In  exceptional  cases  ewes  have  three  or  four  lambs;  these 
should  be  kept  with  the  doubles,  and  receive  a  little  milk  from  the 
feeder  :  occasionally  some  of  these  lambs  are  put  on  other  ewes. 

At  the  early  part  of  their  life  these  twins  sometimes  cause  the 
shepherd  a  great  deal  of  trouble  and  annoyance,  as  some  of  the 
lambs  stray  from  their  mothers  and  get  mixed  with  others ;  they 
are  then  often  diflicult  to  sort.  If  the  mother  is  not  too  flush 
in  milk  she  will  often  show  very  little  inclination  to  recognize 
the  strayed  lamb.  When  they  are  again  sorted  they  should  be 
seen  to  suck  the  mother,  and,  in  the  case  of  her  not  having 
sufficient  milk,  should  be  supplied  with  a  httle  from  the  feeder. 
With  good  keep  her  milk  will  gradually  increase,  and  in  a  short 
time  the  lambs  will  do  without  any  from  the  feeder. 

In  a  week  or  two  the  lambs  will  begin  to  nibble  at  a  little 
grass  and  crushed  corn  or  meal;  as  soon  as  they  do  so,  they 
should  have  some  in  lamb-troughs,  placed  out  of  the  way  of  the 
ewes,  on  the  other  side  of  lamb-hurdles.  These  hurdles  are  open 
enough  for  the  lambs  to  pass  through,  but  close  enough  to  prevent 
the  passage  of  the  ewe. 

Even  when  ewes  and  lambs  are  on  seeds,  some  farmers  prefer 
to  give  them  a  break  at  a  time,  rather  than  let  them  run  over  the 
whole  field  at  once.  This  plan  gives  a  Httle  more  labour,  but 
certainly  has  its  advantages.  i.  The  lambs  can  always  run 
forward  and  pick  fresh  grass  before  the  ewes.  2.  Instead  of 
keeping  the  flock  for,  say  nine  days,  on  one  field,  by  having  three 

9  N 


54^  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

breaks  it  is  just  like  having  three  changes;  sheep  always  do 
much  better  when  they  are  continually  changed,  than  kept  for  a 
long  time  on  one  field.  Lambs  often  scour  if  kept  on  one  layer 
too  long  j  the  young  shooting  grass  purges  them. 

In  stocking  seeds  in  the  spring,  care  should  be  taken  never  to 
let  them  be  eaten  too  bare.  There  should  always  be  a  supply  of 
hay  and  roots  in  the  field  so  long  as  the  sheep  will  eat  them,  as 
well  as  a  few  lumps  of  rock  salt. 

The  sheep  on  seeds  intended  for  mowing,  should  not  be 
left  on  too  long,  or  it  will  seriously  interfere  with  the  hay  crop. 
Where  the  climate  will  permit,  there  should  be  a  supply  of 
catch  crops  coming  in  succession,  such  as  rye,  vetches,  and 
trifolium.  They  may  be  folded  on  this,  or  have  a  supply  brought 
to  them  on  pasture.  These  catch  crops  may  be  fed  off  in  the 
summer  in  time  enough  to  enable  the  field  to  be  sown  with  late 
turnips.  By  this  means  a  full  crop  of  hay  may  be  got  from  the 
seeds,  and  a  greater  number  of  acres  will  be  available  for  cutting. 

Castration. — The  male  lambs  are  castrated  at  different  ages ; 
from  fourteen  to  twenty-one  days  old  is  usually  considered  the 
best  time  for  the  operation.  They  are  sometimes  done  at  a  few 
days,  and  often  at  six  weeks  old.  It  is  a  bad  practice  to  let  them 
get  too  old,  as  they  suffer  so  much  more  than  when  they  are 
operated  on  at  two  or  three  weeks  of  age. 

The  weather  should  be  taken  into  consideration ;  the  day  to 
choose  should  be  a  seasonable  one,  neither  too  cold  nor  too  warm, 
but  fairly  dry.  The  operation  should  take  place  in  the. morning; 
they  may  then  be  examined  several  times  through  the  day,  so  that 
if  any  bleed  too  much  they  may  be  bathed  with  cold  water. 

The  operation  is  performed  as  follows.  A  man  holds  the 
lamb  to  his  shoulder,  with  its  legs  tightly  clasped  in  his  hands. 
The  shepherd  opens  the  scrotum  with  a  knife ;  the  testicles  are 
then  drawn  out ;  the  cords  may  be  pulled  gently  until  they  snap, 
they  may  be  bitten  through  by  the  teeth,  or  may  be  cut  v/ith  a 
knife.  Some  people  use  the  searing  iron,  but  it  is  not  generally 
used  for  this  operation.  In  some  cases  no  dressing  whatever  is 
applied,  but  we  recommend  the  use  of  a  little  hog's  lard. 

People  who  make  it  a  practice  to  sell  fat  lambs  often  allow 
them  to  run  entire,  but  even  for  this  purpose  wether  lambs  are 
to  be  preferred.  They  recover  from  the  operation  in  a  few  days, 
get  fatter  on  the  backs  than  tup  lambs,  and  are  more  sought  after 
by  dealers. 

Dockiiig. — With  the  tup  lambs  this  operation  is  performed  at 
the  same  time  as  castration.  It  is  desirable  to  get  the  tails  docked 
early  in  the  season  before  the  flies  become  plentiful ;  if  the  opera- 
tion is  not  performed  early  it  should  be  left  until  autumn,     When 


LIVE  STOCK.  547 

it  is  done  in  warm  weather,  the  blood  attracts  the  flies,  and  they 
deposit  their  ova  in  the  dock ;  these  soon  develop  into  maggots, 
and  cause  the  lambs  a  deal  of  irritation  and  pain,  besides  giving 
the  shepherd  a  vast  amount  of  work  in  clearing  the  lambs  of 
the  pests. 

The  usual  length  for  cutting  the  tails  of  the  larger  English 
breeds,  is  at  the  third  or  fourth  notch  (vertebra)  from  the  top; 
whilst  it  is  common  with  mountain  breeds  to  let  it  be  level  with  the 
hocks,  and,  in  some  cases,  they  are  not  cut  at  all,  the  tails  being 
left  to  serve  as  a  protection  for  the  udder  and  belly  against  the 
severe  cold  winds  on  the  hills.  Sheep  with  long  tails  are  more 
likely  to  get  dirty  and  attract  the  flies  than  those  with  short  ones. 

The  operation  may  be  thus  performed :  a  lad  holds  the  lamb 
by  the  wool  under  the  neck,  whilst  the  shepherd,  with  a  strong 
knife  in  his  right  hand  and  the  tail  in  the  left,  puts  the  wool  back 
from  the  place  it  has  to  be  cut  through  with  the  back  of  the 
knife ;  then  with  a  sharp  cut  the  tail  is  left  in  his  hand,  and  the 
lamb  passed  through  the  gate  or  door,  as  the  case  may  be.  By 
the  time  the  first  is  finished,  a  second  lad  has  another  lamb  ready 
for  a  similar  operation.  They  bleed  a  little  after  the  operation, 
but  not  much. 

A  lamb  that  has  been  docked  appears  to  have  a  much  better 
rump  than  a  similar  one  with  a  long  tail ;  it  gives  them  altogether 
a  plumper  appearance.  For  a  few  days  after  this  operation  the 
lambs  should  not  be  driven  or  collected  with  dogs,  as  fast  driving 
often  causes  the  tails  to  bleed. 

Ear-7?iarki7ig. — The  ear-mark  serves  as  a  distinction  between 
different  flocks  in  the  same  neighbourhood,  each  farmer  having 
his  own  mark.  It  is  usually  done  by  what  is  known  as  taking 
a  "  halfpenny  "  out.  The  ear  is  doubled,  and  a  sharp  stroke  with 
the  shears  does  it  j  it  may  be  taken  out  of  the  front  or  back  side 


a  b 

Fig.  90, — a,  hole ;  b,  halfpenny  ;  c,  the  ear  doubled  for  cutting  out  the  halfpenny. 

of  the  ear.  Another  way  of  marking  is  to  simply  punch  a  hole 
through  ;  some  mark  on  the  left  and  some  on  the  right  ear.  By 
these  means,  farmers  adjoining  each  other  know  their  sheep  if  they 
happen  to  get  mixed,  as  each  man  has  his  particular  mark. 

Lambs  are  ear-marked  at  all  ages,  it  is  sometimes  done  at  a 
month  old,  and  often  at  the  same  time  as  they  are  docked  j  in 


548  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

any  case,  it  should  be  not  later  than  weaning  time,  otherwise 
they  might  stray  and  get  another  man's  mark  put  on  them. 

During  the  summer,  the  ewes  and  lambs  are  usually  run  on 
the  leas ;  in  some  cases  a  portion  of  the  seeds  are  reserved  for 
them,  instead  of  being  cut  for  hay.  They  should  never  be  kept 
in  one  field  too  long  at  a  time,  as  the  pasture  gets  stale ;  it  is 
often  better  to  change  them  from  a  good  field  to  a  poorer  one, 
than  to  keep  them  too  long  in  the  same  field.  When  it  is 
necessary  to  change  their  food,  it  should  never  be  done  too 
suddenly,  as  it  often  causes  derangements  of  the  bowels. 

The  Time  of  TVeanmg  vsnies  very  much  with  the  time  of  lamb- 
ing. Some  flocks  are  weaned  at  the  end  of  May,  and  others  not 
until  the  end  of  July.  Perhaps  the  most  general  day  for  weaning 
in  England  is  the  24th  of  June,  whilst  in  Scotland  it  would  be 
about  three  weeks  later.  We  have  noticed  that  lambs  dropped 
at  the  end  of  February  and  the  beginning  of  March,  weaned 
about  the  loth  of  June,  have  frequently  done  better  through  the 
winter  than  similar  lambs  weaned  a  fortnight  later ;  we  therefore 
do  not  recommend  keeping  them  with  their  mothers  too  long. 
It  must  also  be  remembered  that  the  sooner  lambs  are  weaned 
the  better  chance  the  ewes  have  of  getting  in  condition  to  take 
the  ram. 

One  way  of  weaning  is  to  take  the  ewes  and  lambs  in  a  yard 
overnight,  and  separate  them  in  the  morning.  If  the  lambs  have 
not  before  been  ear-marked,  the  operation  should  at  this  time 
be  performed.  The  lambs  should  be  taken  to  a  good  fresh  field 
of  grass,  selected  on  purpose  for  them,  and  the  ewes  to  a  bare 
pasture,  some  distance  from  the  lambs.  Both  the  lambs  and  the 
ewes  will  be  hungry,  more  especially  the  ewes,  and  on  their  bare 
pasture  it  will  take  them  some  time  to  fill  themselves,  and  little 
time  to  think  of  their  lambs.  Both  fields  should  be  securely 
fenced  before  weaning,  to  prevent  any  chance  of  the  ewes  and 
lambs  mixing  again. 

Another  way  of  weaning :  Instead  of  taking  both  the  ewes 
and  lambs  to  spend  the  night  in  the  yard,  some  people  prefer  to 
let  the  lambs  remain  in  the  field  that  they  have  been  keeping  in, 
and  take  the  ewes  to  the  yard  alone.  When  the  lambs  get 
settled  down,  after  a  day  or  so  they  are  taken  to  better  keep.  It 
is  usual  to  milk  the  ewes  about  twice  after  weaning.  In  many 
parts  of  England  it  is  often  done  by  the  labourers'  wives,  who  get 
the  milk  for  their  trouble ;  they  mix  it  with  cow's  milk  and  make 
it  into  cheese. 

The  ewes,  after  weaning,  are  run  on  the  leas  and  poorer 
classes  of  pastures  after  cattle,  until  flushing  time  again 
arrives. 


LIVE   STOCK.  549 

On  arable  farms  they  pick  up  the  leavings  of  other  sheep, 
running  behind  the  folds.  When  the  lambs  are  placed  in  front  of 
them,  they  have  a  double  row  of  hurdles  bet\yeen,  to  prevent  the 
lambs  mixing  again  with  their  mothers. 

The  ewes  are  shorn  sometimes  before,  and  sometimes  after, 
weaning  (referred  to  later). 

The  lambs  should  be  put  on  good  keep,  and,  if  on  grass,  should 
be  continually  changed  from  field  to  field.  In  some  districts  the 
weaned  lambs  are  changed  every  day  or  two. 

Both  young  sheep  and  young  cattle  do  better  on  new  pastures 
than  on  old  ones.  They  usually  do  well  on  the  aftermath  (chiefly 
clover)  that  comes  up  after  lea  hay  (first  year's  hay)  has  been  cut. 
When  first  placed  on  this  keep,  they  should  only  be  put  on  a  few 
hours  at  a  time,  until  they  get  accustomed  to  it.  If  put  on  too 
suddenly  in  wet  weather,  they  are  apt  to  suffer  from  diarrhoea, 
colic,  hoven  or  blown,  and  other  ailments. 

During  the  summer  months,  usually  from  May  until  the  end 
of  September,  the  shepherd  is  continually  annoyed  by  the  "  blue 
bottle,"  and  two  or  three  other  kinds  of  blowflies.  Some 
districts  are  more  subject  to  these  pests  than  others;  the  low- 
land shepherds  usually  suffer  more  from  them  than  those  on 
the  hill. 

These  flies  are  attracted  by  dirt,  and  deposit  their  ova  on 
the  wool  of  the  sheep  or  lambs.  In  a  very  short  time  minute 
maggots  are  developed.  These  wriggle  about  and  find  their  way 
to  the  skin.  If  the  animal  happens  to  have  a  wound,  the  ova 
are  often  deposited  on  it.  As  soon  as  the  maggot  develops,  it 
gnaws  into  the  skin  and  feeds  on  the  sheep.  Many  hundreds 
may  be  seen  at  a  time  on  a  single  sheep.  They  usually  strike  on 
the  rump,  tail,  back,  or  thighs.  As  soon  as  they  break  the  skin 
a  greasy  fluid  oozes  out,  and  makes  a  dark  wet  place  on  the 
wool ;  this,  with  the  animal  continually  biting  and  waggling  its 
tail,  are  indications  of  maggots.  After  they  have  been  on  a  sheep 
for  about  twelve  hours  they  will  eat  large  holes  out  of  the  animal, 
and  in  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  they  will  often  kill  it  if  not 
discovered. 

These  pests  are  most  prevalent  when  hot  sun  follows  rain,  in 
damp,  close,  warm  weather.  When  sheep  are  badly  attacked  by 
maggots  they  will  often  leave  the  flock  and  hide  in  such  secluded 
spots  as  unused  quarries,  brakes,  cliffs,  or  any  wooded  places, 
and  are  sometimes  very  difficult  to  find. 

The  best  means  of  prevention  are,  to  dip  the  sheep  through 
the  summer,  especially  lambs ;  keep  them  perfectly  free  from 
dirt,  as  nothing  attracts  blowflies  quicker  than  dirty  tails;  in 
drafting,  cull  all  ewes  that  have  had  maggots  badly,  and  never  use 


550  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

a  ram  that  has  had  them.  The  writer  has  known  several  mstances 
of  maggots  being  reduced  to  a  minimum  in  a  flock  by  carefully 
carrying  out  the  last-mentioned  means  of  prevention. 

Notwithstanding  all  this  good  management,  maggots  will 
occur  more  or  less  in  the  best-regulated  flocks.  So  here  comes 
the  question,  "  What  is  the  best  cure  ?  "  On  this  point  shepherds 
are  not  agreed.  In  selecting  a  cure  there  are  two  points  to  be 
considered ;  something  is  wanted  that  will  be  efl'ective  in  removing 
or  killing  the  maggots,  and,  at  the  same  time,  do  least  harm  to  the 
sheep,  or  growth  of  the  wool  by  its  application.  Paraffin  oil,  for 
instance,  will  soon  clear  the  maggots,  but,  at  the  same  time,  will 
very  seriously  injure  the  growth  of  the  wool.  Other  ointments 
are  made  up  which  do  the  wool  very  little  harm,  but  are  not  so 
eflective  in  getting  rid  of  the  maggots,  and  certainly  their  exter- 
mination should  be  the  first  point  to  be  considered. 

A  strong  solution  of  McDougall's  carbolic  sheep-dip  is  often 
used  for  this  purpose  with  very  good  results. 

Some  shepherds  use  the  mercuric  pencil. 

If  the  wool  is  short  the  pests  may  be  removed  by  putting  on 
air-slaked  lime,  and  rubbing  it  in  with  leaves  from  a  foxglove. 
These  maggots  cannot  put  up  with  anything  so  dry,  and  quickly 
throw  themselves  off. 

In  exceptional  cases  sheep  get  badly  eaten,  the  maggots 
break  the  skin  and  make  large  holes.  In  a  case  of  this  kind 
they  should  be  taken  out  of  the  holes  with  a  small  stick  or  quill, 
after  the  wool  has  been  shorn  around,  and  a  little  beyond  the 
affected  place,  very  closely.  The  body  of  the  sheep  should  then 
be  well  dosed  with  powdered  air-slaked  lime,  for  two  or  three  times 
a  day,  until  the  flies  give  up  irritating  the  sheep.  In  such  a  case 
as  this,  some  people  use  Stockholm  tar,  but  we  much  prefer  the 
powdered  lime ;  it  heals  the  wound  quicker,  and  the  wool  grows 
better  after  it. 

In  the  case  of  a  sheep  getting  maggots  before  being  shorn, 
the  best  plan  will  be  to  clip  it,  and  dress  with  powdered  lime. 
The  part  of  the  fleece  damaged  by  the  maggots  should  be  pulled 
out  and  washed,  whilst  the  remainder  may  be  bound  like  an 
ordinary  fleece. 

Management  of  Hoggs. — These  may  all  run  together  until  the 
ones  to  be  fattened  are  picked  out  for  that  purpose.  At  that 
time,  a  few  more  of  the  best  gimmer  hoggs  should  be  picked  out 
than  will  be  required  to  replace  the  ewes  drafted  from  the  flock 
in  the  following  autumn.  The  hoggs  will  then  be  divided  into 
two  lots,  the  fattening  tegs  and  gimmer  hoggs. 

The  fattening  tegs  are  usually  pushed  forward  in  order  to  get 
them  fit  for  the  butcher  about  Christmas,  or  as  near  afterwards 


LIVE  STOCK.  551 

as  possible.  The  management  of  these  sheep  will  vary  a  little 
under  different  owners,  each  one  as  a  rule  adapting  his  manage- 
ment to  suit  slightly  different  circumstances. 

We  will  suppose  that  they  have  been  liberally  kept  with 
continual  change,  since  weaning,  until  the  end  of  August  or  Sep- 
tember. This  is  sometimes  considered  the  most  critical  period 
of  the  hogg's  life.  Great  care  should  be  taken  that  they  are 
not  allowed  to  graze  on  damp,  badly  drained  pastures  at  this 
time.  When  allowed  on  such  fields  they  usually  get  bad  attacks 
of  *'  lung  worms  "  and  "liver  flukes." 

If  there  is  any  rape,  they  should  be  put  on  it,  but  not  too 
suddenly,  just  a  few  hours  at  a  time  for  the  first  few  days.  When 
they  get  accustomed  to  their  new  food  they  may  be  folded  on  it 
altogether.  In  the  last  folding  of  the  rape  there  should  be  some 
turnips,  so  that  they  may  learn  to  break  them  before  being  folded 
on  them  altogether.  In  the  case  of  their  not  being  on  rape  they 
should  have  a  few  loads  of  roots  spread  on  the  grass  land,  in 
order  that  they  may  be  accustomed  to  them.  When  they  are 
first  folded  on  roots  they  are  often  allowed  to  run  on  grass  by 
night  for  the  first  week.  If  there  happens  to  be  a  suitable  grass 
field  on  the  other  side,  they  may  often  easily  be  taken  through 
a  gap  in  the  fence. 

The  fencing  consists  of  hurdles,  or  posts  and  netting.  The 
hurdles  are  usually  made  of  wood,  but  in  some  cases  iron 
ones  are  used.  They  stand  about  three  feet  six  inches  high  when 
in  the  ground,  and  are  from  seven  to  eight  feet  long. 

Iron  hurdles  on  wheels  are  sometimes  used.  They  are  very 
expensive,  but  convenient  on  arable  farms  in  summer  time ;  when 
the  ground  is  hard,  it  is  awkward  for  driving  in  wooden  hurdles. 

Formerly  the  netting  was  made  of  rope,  but  of  late  years  the 
wire  netting  has  become  almost  universal  in  folding  districts. 

The  posts  on  to  which  the  netting  is  fastened  are  about  four 
feet  six  inches,  before  being  driven  into  the  ground  ;  the  distance 
between  the  posts  is  usually  about  three  or  four  yards.  The 
rope  netting  is  simply  fastened  to  the  post  by  string  ;  for  the  wire 
netting  two  crooks  are  driven  into  the  post — one  at  the  top,  which 
is  turned  up,  and  another  the  width  of  the  netting  lower,  which 
is  turned  down.  The  netting  is  then  fastened  to  these  crooks 
by  a  top  and  a  bottom  mesh,  and  hung  towards  the  sheep,  the 
posts  being  on  the  outside. 

The  fencing  should  be  put  up  in  a  straight  line.  The  holes 
are  made  with  an  iron  crow-bar,  and  the  posts  or  hurdles  are  then 
driven  in  with  a  heavy  wooden  mallet. 

The  size  of  the  breaks  in  different  districts  vary  very  much  : 
some   people   go  to   the   trouble   of  shifting  the  hurdles   every 


5S2  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

day ;  usually  sufficient  ground  is  fenced  off  to  keep  the  sheep 
from  a  week  to  a  fortnight.  When  the  turnips  get  eaten  well 
down  to  the  bottom  the  hurdles  are  lifted.  The  fencing  is  then 
put  forward  so  as  to  give  a  fresh  break.  In  some  cases  the  sheep 
are  allowed  to  come  back  over  the  old  break  as  well.  Where 
store  sheep  are  kept,  the  fattening  hoggs  are  kept  forward,  and 
the  stores  follow  them  on  the  old  break ;  they  clean  up  the  shells 
better  than  the  fattening  hoggs  would  do.  Young  sheep  usually 
have  to  break  their  own  roots  until  Christmas.  The  white  and 
yellow  turnips  generally  last  until  this  time. 

Young  hoggs  often  fail  in  their  teeth  after  Christmas,  and  as 
the  swedes  are  much  harder  than  the  yellows,  they  are  generally 
put  through  the  turnip-cutter,  and  given  in  troughs.  This 
makes  a  great  deal  more  labour ;  but  the  sheep  do  better,  as  in 
some  cases  they  have  great  difficulty  in  breaking  the  swedes. 
Another  point  in  favour  of  cutting  swedes  is,  there  is  far  less 
waste,  no  shells  being  left  behind.  In  the  north  of  England,  where 
there  is  a  chance  of  the  roots  being  injured  by  frost,  this  practice 
is  almost  universal.  In  order  to  save  labour,  and  get  an  even 
distribution  of  the  manure,  the  roots  are  put  up  in  small  heaps 
in  rows  across  the  field,  and  are  covered  with  old  straw  and  soil. 
Swedes,  when  rested  in  this  way,  improve,  and  become  more 
nutritious,  as  more  of  the  starch  gets  converted  into  sugar,  which 
is  more  digestible. 

The  rows  of  heaps  are  put  at  such  distances  apart  as  will  make 
a  convenient  break.  The  fencing  is  placed  quite  close  to  the 
heaps,  but  on  the  fold  side,  and  as  one  row  gets  finished  the 
fencing  is  put  on  to  the  next. 

A  turnip-cutter  is  kept  in  the  field,  being  placed  by  the  side 
of  the  heap  in  use.  Feeding-troughs  are  kept  in  the  fold,  close  by 
the  cutter.  The  cut  roots  are  carried  from  the  cutter  to  the  troughs 
in  swills,  two  or  three  times  a  day.  If  the  troughs  are  kept  too 
long  in  one  place,  the  ground  around  them  gets  very  muddy  and 
bad  for  the  sheep ;  for  this  reason,  it  is  advisable  not  to  have  the 
heaps  of  swedes  too  large. 

Sheep  on  roots  should  be  supplied  with  fresh  straw,  or  hay  in 
covered  racks ;  they  will  consume  very  little  until  the  weather 
gets  severe.  The  more  dry  food  they  eat  the  better  it  is  for  them, 
as  turnips  alone  make  far  too  watery  a  diet.  When  first  put  on 
roots  they  consume  about  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  hay  per  head, 
but  in  severe  frosty  weather  they  may  eat  three  or  four  times 
that  amount.  Many  writers  put  a  great  deal  more  than  this,  but 
our  experience  goes  to  prove  that,  when  hoggs  are  supplied  with 
plenty  of  turnips  they  rarely  exceed  three-quarters  of  a  pound  of 
hay  per  sheep  per  day.     In  a  case  where  they  are  only  supplied 


LIVE  STOCK.  553 

with  a  limited  amount  of  roots,  they  will,  of  course,  eat  more 
straw  or  hay. 

If  sheep  are  required  to  go  off  fat  fairly  early,  it  is  necessary 
to  give  them  a  supply  of  artificial  food,  such  as  crushed  oats  or 
barley,  bean  or  pea  meal,  cotton  or  linseed  cake, — all,  or  some  of 
these,  may  be  mixed  together.  They  should  have  only  a  few 
ounces  per  head  given  at  first,  until  they  get  accustomed  to  eating 
it,  when  it  may  be  increased  to  three-quarters  or  one  pound  per 
day.  Some  people  give  as  much  as  one  and  a  half  pounds  per 
day,  but  when  feeding  stuffs  are  high,  and  mutton  low,  the 
practice  is  not  to  be  recommended  ;  we  think,  however,  that  an 
allowance  of  three-quarters  of  a  pound  per  day  may  be  given  and 
prove  remunerative. 

If  a  sheep  were  fattening  for  twenty  weeks,  and  started  on 
artificial  food  at  the  rate  of  a  quarter  of  a  pound  per  day,  and 
finished  with  three  quarters,  it  would  just  consume  five  stones 
during  the  twenty  weeks;  this  would  cost  5^.  at  ;£"8  per  ton. 
The  sheep  would  be  fatter,  heavier,  and  better  in  appearance 
than  others  that  had  received  no  artificial  food,  and  would 
generally  fetch  the  extra  cost  of  five  shillings  per  head.  Besides 
this,  there  are  other  advantages  gained  by  the  use  of  a  little 
artificial  feeding.  The  land  would  be  enriched ;  the  manurial  value 
of  the  food,  at,  say,  £^2  per  ton  (about  half  Lawes  and  Gilbert's 
valuation),  would  come  to  \s.  T^d.  per  head.  Another  thing  to  be 
considered  is,  the  addition  of  the  artificial  food  would  make  a 
better-balanced  ration,  and  this  would  tend  to  reduce  the  fatality 
in  the  flock,  as  less  deaths  would  be  likely  to  occur  than  if  fed 
entirely  on  roots. 

Sheep  should  have  a  little  salt  sprinkled  with  their  meal  or 
hay,  unless  they  have  access  to  rock  salt. 

In  the  case  of  hoggs  not  being  fattened  and  sold  in  time  to 
plough  the  root  land  for  barley  or  oats,  they  are  removed  to  a 
pasture  field,  and  if  any  roots  are  left  they  consume  them  with 
hay,  corn,  cake,  etc.,  on  the  grass  land.  They  are  then  shorn 
before  going  into  the  market,  whilst  when  sold  from  the  root  field, 
at  an  earher  date,  they  are  usually  sold  in  their  fleece. 

We  reckon,  in  this  neighbourhood  (Aspatria),  that  an  acre  of 
roots,  about  twenty  tons,  with  a  little  straw  or  hay,  will  keep  about 
fourteen  crossbred  hoggs  (Cheviot  and  Border  Leicester)  for 
twenty  weeks,  after  which  they  should  be  fit  for  the  market.  The 
quantity  that  these  sheep  will  consume  per  day  varies  much  with 
the  weather  and  other  circumstances,  but  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  pounds  of  roots  with  a  little  hay  or  straw  may  be  taken  as 
an  average  quantity. 

Some  farmers,  instead  of  buying  sheep  to  consume  their  roots. 


554  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

prefer  to  take  in  other  people's,  at  so  much  per  head  per  week. 
From  4^d.  to  6d.  is  usually  paid  per  head  per  week,  although 
in  some  seasons,  when  heavy  crops  prevail,  the  price  falls  as  low  as 
3^^.  to  4^.,  but  this  is  unusual.  Besides  the  roots,  the  farmer 
usually  has  to  provide  the  sheep  with  a  little  fresh  oat  straw,  and 
perhaps  a  Httle  hay  in  the  spring ;  this  he  reckons  economical,  as 
the  more  straw  they  consume  the  less  roots  they  will  require. 

In  some  cases  the  farmer  contracts  to  look  after  and  feed  the 
sheep,  in  others  the  owner  has  his  own  shepherd. 

These  turnip  hoggs  often  go  down  :  in  such  a  case  the  sheep 
are  bled,  and,  if  fit,  sent  to  the  owner  ;  if  not,  the  skin  alone  is  sent. 

The  two  most  common  causes  of  death  amongst  these  sheep 
are  "braxy"  and  stoppage  of  the  water. 

It  is  the  farmer's  aim  to  keep  as  many  of  the  sheep  alive  as 
possible,  as  he  gets  no  pay  for  the  keep  of  any  that  may  go  down. 

Shepherding. — During  the  time  these  sheep  are  on  roots, 
they  will  often  require  to  have  their  feet  pruned  and  dressed,  as 
they  sometimes  get  overgrown,  and  suffer  from  foot-rot. 

The  sheep  should  be  visited  not  less  than  twice  daily ;  if  any 
appear  to  be  doing  badly,  they  should  be  watched.  If  an  ailing 
sheep  has  any  flesh  on  it,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  let  it  die  ; 
if  the  chances  of  its  recovery  are  small,  it  should  at  once  be 
slaughtered.  Sheep  that  die  without  being  bled  are  no  use  as 
mutton,  whilst  many  that  are  ailing  from  stomach  derangements 
or  stoppage  of  the  water,  if  killed  in  time,  will  be  perfectly  good 
for  consumption. 

A  sheep  with  gid  or  sturdy  should  be  killed  and  sent  to  the 
butcher,  unless  it  is  very  thin  and  there  is  a  chance  of  removing 
the  bladder  safely  from  the  head. 

Cos^  of  Feeding  a  Teg. — We  will  suppose* the  example  to  be 
from  a  Cumberland  farm,  and  the  lamb  to  be  a  half-bred  Cheviot 
and  Border  Leicester,  purchased  some  time  in  August  and  run  on 
grass  for  six  weeks  before  going  on  roots.  The  lamb  might  be 
bought  for  about  thirty  shillings. 

J.   d. 
6  weeks  on  grass,  at  3^.    . .  . .  . .  . .  . .  ..16 

16  ,,  on  roots,  20  lbs.  per  day  =  i  ton  in  t6  weeks,  at  8j'.  8  o 
16    ,,      on  straw  and  hay,  \  lb.  per  day  on  average  =  \  cwt. 

in  16  weeks,  2x2s.  6d.       ..  ..  ..  ..13 

16     „     on  cake  and  corn,  \  lb.  per  day  on  average  —  \  cwt. 

in  16  weeks,  at  8j.  ..  ..  ..  ..40 


14    9 


Supposing  the  lamb  was  seventy  pounds  living  weight  when 
purchased,  and  to  have  increased  on  an  average  two  pounds  living 


LIVE  STOCK.  555 

weight,  per  week.  70  +  (2  X  22)  =  114  lbs.,  living  weight :  sixty 
per  cent,  of  this  may  be  taken  as  its  deadweight.  114  X  -^  = 
68*4  lbs.,  or  17  lb.  per  quarter,  dead  weight. 

Dr.  Teg.  Cr. 

£  s.    d.  £    s.    d. 

To  cost  price  ..     i  10    o     By  68  lbs.  mutton,  at  8^.   254 

„  food  consumed         o  14    9 
,,  balance  ..         ..     007 

;^2     5     4  ;^2     5     4 

The  value  of  the  manure  left  from  the  consumption  of  the 
different  foods  would  be  four  shillings  at  half  Lawes  and  Gilbert's 
valuation. 

The  above  calculation  can  only  be  regarded  as  an  approximate 
estimate.  A  farmer  would  do  well  to  consume  his  crops  at  the 
prices  stated,  and  get  the  manure  value  over.  The  fluctuation  of 
the  mutton  market,  as  well  as  deaths  in  the  flock,  influence  to 
a  great  extent  both  profit  and  loss. 

Management  of  Gimmer  Hoggs. — As  before  stated,  these 
gimmer  hoggs  are  usually  separated  from  the  wethers,  when  the 
latter  are  placed  on  better  keep,  in  the  autumn,  for  the  purpose  of 
getting  them  fattened.  It  is  usual  to  feed  all  those  that  do  not 
appear  good  enough  for  breeding  purposes.  The  remainder  are 
run  on  grass  with  a  few  roots  during  the  winter,  with  perhaps  a 
little  hay,  and  in  exceptional  cases  they  may  be  supplied  with  a 
little  artificial  food,  such  as  cake,  crushed  oats,  beans,  etc. 

They  are  grazed  through  the  next  summer,  and  shorn  usually 
in  May  or  June. 

In  the  autumn,  all  those  that  may  be  required  to  replace  the 
draft  ewes  are  selected  for  that  purpose,  and  the  remainder  are  sold 
for  breeding  purposes,  being  then  shearlings,  or  "  two-teeth  ewes." 

Breeding  from  Gimmer  Hoggs. — Many  farmers  who  keep  the 
larger  breeds  of  sheep  allow  the  ram  to  go  with  these  ewe  tegs 
when  they  are  about  seven  or  eight  months  old,  so  that  those 
holding  the  ram  may  lamb  when  about  thirteen  months  of  age. 
Some  of  these  lambs  are  yeaned  late,  when  they  receive  the  name 
of  "  cuckoo  lambs." 

The  mothers  and  their  lambs  should  be  kept  on  the  best  of 
keep,  to  get  the  lambs  fat  and  keep  the  mothers  in  a  growing 
condition. 

These  lambs,  if  fat,  usually  meet  with  a  brisk  demand  towards 
the  end  of  the  fat-lamb  season.  Being  small  and  tender,  butchers 
will  readily  give  a  penny  per  pound  more  for  them  than  for  ordi- 
nary ones.  It  is  the  best  plan  to  sell  them  fat  in  this  way,  as  they 
do  not  as  a  rule  stand  the  winter  as  well  as  older  lambs ;  the 


556  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

money  that  they  make  will  usually  buy  larger  lambs  in  a  leaner 
condition,  and  better  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  winter  feeding. 

It  is  a  disputed  question  as  to  whether  this  practice  of  early 
breeding  is  to  be  recommended.  The  ewes  certainly  have  less 
chance  of  developing  strong  frames  than  those  left  another  year 
before  lambing.  This  mode  of  management  is  practised  by  many 
lowland  farmers,  who  hold  that  the  ewes  become  better  nurses 
and  experience  less  difficulty  in  lambing  afterwards. 

On  arable  farms  these  "  ewe  tegs "  often  follow  on  the  old 
folds  after  the  fattening  sheep. 

To  complete  the  management  of  our  flock  for  the  year,  we 
shall  have  to  describe  the  two  very  important  operations  of 
"  shearing  "  and  "  dipping."  The  reasons  for  leaving  them  until 
last  are,  that  they  may  be  more  thoroughly  grasped  by  the 
student,  and  perhaps  prove  less  confusing  than  if  mixed  up  with 
the  general  management. 

Shearing. — This  operation  is  performed  in  the  spring  and 
summer,  the  time  varies  with  different  classes  of  sheep. 

Show  rams  and  fat  sheep  are  often  shorn  very  early ;  when 
the  weather  is  cold  they  have  to  be  kept  in  folds  or  sheds  for  a 
time  after  being  shorn. 

The  reason  for  shearing  rams  so  early  that  are  intended  for 
showing,  is  to  allow  them  to  get  a  good  growth  of  wool  before  the 
show  season  comes  on.  Some  skilful  workmen,  by  leaving  long 
wool  in  some  places,  and  clipping  closely  in  others,  can  cover 
many  imperfections  that  the  sheep  would  otherwise  display. 

This  practice  of  early  clipping  has  lately  been  much  put  down 
by  agricultural-show  committees,  who  disqualify  any  sheep  which 
can  be  proved  to  have  been  shorn  before  the  first  of  April.  Not- 
withstanding this  stringent  regulation,  show  rams  are  clipped 
long  before  this  date,  but  they  are  well  looked  after  and  kept 
under  cover  during  the  cold  weather. 

Fat  sheep  are  often  clipped  in  April,  and  driven  into  the 
market  directly  afterwards;  though  many  are  not  shorn  until 
May  or  June. 

The  store  ewes  are  usually  shorn  last,  generally  before  weaning 
in  the  beginning  of  June.  Some  people  who  wean  their  lambs 
early  prefer  to  clip  the  ewes  a  week  or  so  after  they  have  been 
weaned,  as  then  the  yolk  rises  in  the  wool,  it  weighs  heavier, 
and  is  easier  to  clip.  The  wool  is  much  drier  when  a  ewe  is 
suckling  her  lamb;  in  fact,  when  a  single  lamb  has  been  only 
sucking  from  one  side,  the  wool  is  drier  on  that  side  than  on 
the  other. 

There  are  many  different  modes  of  shearing.  In  one  way  the 
sheep  is  placed  on  a  stool,  in  another  the  man  stands  in  a  pit. 


LIVE  STOCK.  557 

Both  of  these  methods  prevent  stooping,  to  a  great  extent,  but  the 
work  is  usually  very  roughly  performed. 

The  orthodox  way  of  shearing,  is  for  the  man  first  to  turn  his 
sheep,  and  put  it  to  sit  up  on  its  rump,  and  commence  by  taking 
a  few  cuts  off  the  fronts  of  the  thighs,  so  that  the  shears  may  be 
easier  entered  afterwards,  when  finishing  each  side.  The  head  is 
then  held  against  the  thighs,  the  throat  and  breast  is  opened 
down,  and  the  belly  wool  shorn  off.  (Some  leave  the  belly  until 
last.)  The  neck  is  then  shorn  down  to  the  shoulders.  After  this, 
the  position  is  slightly  changed.  The  sheep's  head  is  placed 
between  the  shearer's  thighs,  the  right  shoulder  rests  on  the 
shearer's  knees,  whilst  he  keeps  his  right  foot  on  the  other 
side  of  its  right  hind  leg  to  keep  it  in  position,  and  also  to 
prevent  it  from  kicking.  The  left  side  of  the  sheep  is  then  shorn 
down  with  the  right  hand,  starting  each  cut  at  the  underline  and 
finishing  at  the  back.  When  approaching  the  hind  quarter,  the 
animal  is  laid  on  its  side,  and  the  shearer  gets  on  his  knees, 
putting  one  foot  over  the  sheep's  neck  to  prevent  it  from  rising. 
When  the  left  side  is  finished,  the  sheep  is  set  again  on  its  rump, 
and  the  right  side  is  shorn  down  with  the  left  hand.  When 
finished,  a  well-shorn  sheep  should  appear  to  be  in  concentric 
rings,  joining  exactly  in  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  running  very 
much  in  the  same  direction  as  the  ribs.  These  rings  should  show 
no  signs  of  unevenness. 

When  sheep  are  shorn  carefully  in  this  way,  a  man  would 
shear  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  long-wooUed  sheep  in  a  day — that 
is  to  say,  if  he  had  to  catch  his  own  sheep  and  bind  the  fleeces. 

As  a  rule,  about  three  men  shear,  and  they  have  a  stout  lad 
to  catch  the  sheep  and  bind  the  fleeces  ;  in  this  case  they  would 
shear  about  four  times  as  many  as  one  man,  or  from  one  hundred 
to  one  hundred  and  twenty  sheep  per  day. 

Farmers  who  keep  the  larger  breeds  sometimes  let  their  flocks 
to  be  shorn.  In  some  districts  twopence  per  sheep  is  given  for 
catching,  shearing,  and  binding  the  fleeces ;  ^s.  ^d.  per  score  is 
a  common  price. 

When  lambs  are  clipped  they  should  be  shorn  early,  in  order 
that  they  may  get  good  coats  by  winter.  Some  farmers  leave  the 
belly  wool  on,  and  clip  the  rest.  The  price  for  clipping  lambs 
is  usually  from  2S.  ^d.  to  2s.  6d.  per  score.  They  are  not  usually 
clipped  so  closely  as  older  sheep ;  their  wool  is  much  harder  to  cut. 

When  large  flocks  of  sheep  are  kept,  as  on  hill  farms,  the 
shearing  is  done  in  a  very  much  rougher  style,  and,  instead  of  the 
sheep  appearing  in  even  rings,  broad  uneven  stripes  from  shoulder 
to  rump  usually  prevail.  With  these  small  sheep  and  rough 
shearing  an  experienced  hand  will  clip  fifty  in  a  day. 


558  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

There  is  a  deal  of  knack  in  tying  up  a  fleece.  Some  men  bind 
them  neatly  and  tightly,  others  untidily  and  loosely.  Any  dirty 
locks  that  may  be  on  the  fleece  should  be  pulled  oif,  and 
thrown  in  a  pile  kept  specially  for  that  purpose.      The  ground 

should  be  perfectly  clean  and  free 
from  straw.     The  clean  or  cut  side 
of  the  fleece  is  then  thrown  on  the 
ground;  the  two  sides  are  turned 
in,    and    should    overlap    in    the 
_         middle.     It  is  then  rolled  tightly 
-—       from  the  tail  end  to  the  neck.     A 
1I_.~     portion  of  the  neck  wool  is  drawn 
Fig.  91.  out,  and  twisted  without  separating 

it  from  the  fleece ;  this  forms  the 
band,  and  is  passed  round  the  middle  of  the  rolled  fleece,  and, 
when  once  round,  the  end  of  the  band  is  turned  in,  to  keep  the 
fleece  secure.  By  this  means  only  the  inside,  or  clean  part  of 
the  wool  is  seen,  as  what  was  the  exterior  of  the  fleece  on  the 
sheep  is  turned  inside  before  lapping  the  fleece. 

Sheep  should  be  fasted  for  a  few  hours  before  being  clipped. 
When  full,  they  are  very  uneasy  and  troublesome  for  shearing,  and 
therefore  liable  to  get  cut.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  a  few  in  a 
large  loose  house  overnight,  to  commence  with  in  the  morning. 
As  soon  as  they  are  finished  they  may  be  turned  out  to  feed. 
This  will  allow  time  for  fasting,  and  drying  the  wool,  of  those 
brought  in  to  be  shorn  on  the  same  morning. 

Cutting  the  sheep  during  clipping  should  be  avoided  as  much 
as  possible;  when  such  an  accident  does  take  place,  a  little 
Stockholm  tar  should  be  put  over  the  place  with  a  stick, — this  will 
keep  flies  from  irritating  it. 

In  shearing  young  ewes  for  the  first  time,  particular  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  cut  the  teats,  which  are  often  small,  and 
closely  surrounded  with  wool. 

When  shearing  is  done  under  cover,  the  sheep  should  be 
placed  on  packing  or  bags,  which  should  be  kept  perfectly  clean. 
By  far  the  best  place  for  shearing  is  on  grass ;  it  is  free  from  straw 
and  dirt,  and  the  sheep  has  a  more  comfortable  resting-place  than 
when  on  wood  or  stone  floors. 

For  colonial  purposes,  where  very  great  numbers  of  sheep 
have  to  be  shorn,  a  most  excellent  invention  was  brought  out,  and 
shown  at  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society's  Show  held  at  Doncaster 
in  1 89 1,  by  **  The  Australian  Shearer  Company."  This,  in  its  action, 
is  very  like  an  ordinary  horse-clipping  machine,  and  is  known  as  the 
**  Compressed  Air  Sheep  Shearer."  The  machine  is  worked  by 
compressed  air,  which  is  conveyed  to  the  machine  by  means  of 


LIVE  STOCK.  559 

flexible  tubing,  which  permits  the  operator  to  work  in  any  position. 
A  small  engine,  or  other  motive  power,  is  required  to  work  the 
air-compressor,  and  to  drive  the  air  into  the  air-receiver.  The 
machine  is,  of  course,  only  useful  when  shearing  is  done  on  a 
large  scale.  An  unlimited  number  of  workers  can  go  on  at  one 
time,  whilst  only  one  skilled  man  is  required  to  look  after  the 
whole  machine.  The  sheep  are  quickly  clipped,  and  the  wool 
is  taken  off  in  an  even  manner  all  over  the  sheep. 

Washing. — It  is  a  disputed  point  as  to  whether  washing  is 
necessary  before  clipping  or  not.  We  are  inclined  to  think  that 
sheep  kept  on  grass  should  be  clipped  without  being  washed. 
The  wool  makes  less  per  pound,  but  the  fleece  is  heavier  than  a 
washed  one,  and  balances  the  difference,  without  having  the 
trouble  of  washing. 

On  the  other  hand,  where  sheep  have  been  folded  on  roots 
for  the  winter,  we  recommend  washing,  otherwise  the  fleece  will 
contain  an  undue  proportion  of  dirt,  besides  being  bad  for 
shearing. 

The  operation  is  performed  by  taking  the  sheep  to  a  stream 
or  river  side.  They  should  be  allowed  to  stand  for  an  hour 
before  being  put  into  the  water,  as  they  might  be  over-heated  at 
first,  consequently  there  would  be  a  risk  of  their  taking  a  chill 
after  the  cold  bath.  It  is  also  unwise  to  cast  a  sheep  into  cold 
water  on  a  full  stomach. 

Two  men  throw  the  sheep  over  the  bank  into  fairly  deep 
water ;  by  putting  one  hand  each  under  the  neck  and  joining  the 
other  two  under  the  belly,  the  sheep  is  dropped  in  tail  foremost. 
It  is  then  allowed  to  swim  until  it  gets  perfectly  soaked ;  the 
natural  yolk  in  the  wool,  containing  so  much  potash,  acts  as  a 
soap.  The  sheep  is  next  moved  to  a  shallow  running  part  of  the 
stream,  near  at  hand,  where  it  gets  its  back  and  belly  well  washed, 
and  a  general  finish. 

They  should,  if  possible,  be  allowed  to  run  on  a  clean  pasture 
for  a  week  or  so  after  washing,  in  order  to  allow  the  yolk  to  rise  ; 
otherwise  the  wool  is  dry  for  clipping,  and  not  inclined  to  weigh 
so  well. 

Dipping. — If  any  one  could  see  the  lambs  whilst  being  clipped 
in  the  south-western  counties  of  England,  they  would  fully  con- 
ceive the  advantages  of  dipping.  If  the  ewe  and  her  lamb  be 
shorn  at  the  same  time,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  latter  will  be 
infested  with  ticks  to  about  twelve  times  the  extent  of  the  former. 
In  the  case  of  the  ewes  being  shorn  before  being  weaned,  the 
ticks  and  lice  that  they  have  will  leave  them,  and  pass  to  increase 
the  number  of  the  unfortunate  lambs.  When  lambs  are  not  shorn, 
as  is  generally  the  case,  they  are  even  worse  off  than  those  that 


560  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

are,  as  the  latter  often  get  rid  of  a  proportion  of  these  parasites 
during  and  after  the  operation  of  clipping. 

This  population  of  ticks  and  lice  causes  a  great  deal  of  irritation 
and  uneasiness  to  the  lambs,  and  thus  very  much  retards  their 
growth  and  fattening,  if  allowed  to  remain  on  the  host. 

We  have  known  farmers,  having  only  a  few  sheep,  neglect 
dipping  their  lambs,  not  caring  to  go  to  the  trouble,  and  perhaps 
expense,  for  such  a  few.  This,  of  course,  is  shortsightedness ;  it  is, 
however,  encouraging  to  know  that  these  careless  men  are  far 
in  the  minority.  Although  there  are,  perhaps,  many  who  neglect 
dipping  their  older  sheep,  still  there  are  few  who  omit  to  dip  their 
lambs,  at  least  once  during  their  existence,  excepting  those  sold 
to  the  butcher  as  fat  lambs. 

It  may  be  well  to  note  what  these  unfortunate  lambs,  that  are 
not  dipped  during  the  autumn,  have  to  go  through  during  the  winter. 
These  parasites  cause  a  considerable  amount  of  irritation,  and 
consequently  the  sheep  bite  at  the  irritated  parts  j  in  doing  so, 
they  often  get  their  wool  entangled  between  their  teeth,  and,  when 
the  wool  is  particularly  strong,  the  head  is  held  in  this  position  of 
biting,  in  consequence  of  the  wool  not  giving  way ;  so  the  poor 
sheep  may  be  going  round  the  field  for  hours  with  its  mouth 
fastened  to  its  shoulder,  until  some  one  comes  to  clear  it.  The 
teeth  get  very  much  loosened,  and  in  some  cases  broken  off.  In 
other  cases  the  sheep  may  be  seen  hopping  round  the  field  on 
three  legs,  owing  to  one  hind  foot  having  got  entangled  in  some 
clots  of  wool  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  shoulder.  It,  is  about 
the  shoulder  that  these  parasites  mostly  abound,  especially  in  the 
case  of  lice.  In  the  months  of  December  and  January  these  un- 
dipped hoggs  will  often  be  seen  with  bare  patches  on  the  shoulder, 
in  consequence  of  their  continual  biting  and  scratching  with  their 
hind  feet  in  order  to  try  and  free  themselves  of  these  pests.  If 
the  mouths  of  these  sheep  be  opened,  the  teeth  will  be  found, 
either  broken,  or  matted  up  with  wool  so  tightly,  that  it  is  some- 
times hard  to  cut  it  through  with  a  knife.  All  these  things  must 
materially  interfere  with  the  well-doing  of  the  sheep.  In  some 
cases,  when  the  wool  has  been  swallowed,  it  forms  into  balls,  and 
may  cause  the  death  of  the  sheep. 

From  these  remarks  it  may  be  seen  that,  as  regards  both  wool 
and  mutton,  there  is  a  great  economy  in  dipping  lambs.  For  the 
same  reasons,  in  a  less  marked  degree,  it  will  be  found  economical 
to  dip  older  sheep,  at  least  once  during  the  year. 

When  only  dipped  once,  it  should  be  done  in  September  or 
October ;  and  the  dip  should  be  of  an  oily  nature,  as  it  then  pro- 
tects the  sheep  and  w^ool  from  wet,  besides  destroying  the  parasites 
that  may  infest  the  animal     This  is  known  as  the  "  autumn  "  or 


LIVE   STOCK. 


561 


"  winter  dip."  The  "  summer  dip  "  is  also  used  for  killing  these 
parasites,  but  more  particularly  for  stopping  the  blowing  flies 
from  producing  maggots.  The  lambs  should  be  dipped  in  this 
about  shearing  time.  Many  farmers  dip  their  ewes  in  it  as  well, 
about  a  month  after  they  have  been  shorn  (as  soon  as  they  have 
wool  enough  to  hold  the  dip),  to  prevent  them  getting  maggots 
during  the  busy  time  of  harvesting.  This  is  only  a  temporary 
operation,  and  they  should  be  dipped  again  in  October. 

Some  careful  flockmasters  think  it  necessary,  or  advantageous, 
to  dip  three  times ;  when  this  is  done,  the  first  operation  takes 
place  in  February  or  March,  with  the  summer  quality  dip.  It  is 
supposed  to  have  a  beneficial  eff"ect  on  the  wool,  besides  stopping 
the  ravages  of  the  blow-flies. 

To  secure  the  full  advantages  of  dipping,  the  precaution  should 
be  taken  to  select  a  time  when  the  sheep  are  perfectly  dry.  When 
the  wool  is  wet  it  will  absorb  much  less  of  the  liquid,  and  conse- 
quently the  operation  will  not  be  so  eflective  as  it  should  be. 

On  all  farms  where  large  flocks  are  kept,  there  should  be  a 
conveniently-constructed  dipping-place.  A  glance  at  the  rough 
sketch  below  will  give  an  idea  as  to  how  such  a  place  may  be 
constructed. 

The  sheep  to  be  dipped  stand  in  the  pen  D,  and  are  brought 


Fig.  92.— a,  a,  A,  manholes  ;  B,  bath  ;  C,  drainer  ;  D,  sheep-pen  ; 
E,  inlet  gate  ;  F,  outlet  gate. 


one  by  one  through  the  gate  E.  A  man  stands  in  each  of  holes 
A,  A,  A.  The  sheep  is  put,  tail  first  and  legs  downwards,  into 
the  bath  B,  containing  the  dipping-liquor.  The  man  at  the  end  hole 
holds  the  sheep's  head  out  of  the  liquid  whilst  the  two  at  the  sides 
rub  the  dip  well  into  the  skin  and  wool  After  the  sheep  has  been 
suspended  about  twenty  or  thirty  seconds  in  the  dip,  it  is  turned 
up  the  steps  leading  to  the  draining-pen  j  here  some  of  the 
liquid  runs  out  of  the  wool,  as  it  is  left  for  some  time  to  drain 
in  the  pen.  The  floor  of  the  draining-pen  is  lowest  in  the 
middle,  slanting  from  each  side,  and  on  an  incline  towards  the 
dipping-bath,  so  that  all  the  liquid  that  drains  off",  may  run  back 
again  to  the  bath.    The  bottom  of  the  draining-pen,  as  well  as  the 

2  o 


562  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

bottom  and  sides  of  the  bath,  are  laid  with  cement,  to  prevent 
any  of  the  liquid  being  lost  by  absorption. 

The  draining-pen  is  sometimes  divided  into  two.  In  this  case 
the  sheep  pass  into  the  first  pen,  until  it  is  filled,  and  remain 
there  to  drain  whilst  the  second  pen  is  being  filled. 

On  small  farms,  where  only  a  small  flock  is  kept,  wooden 
dipping-tubs  are  generally  used,  but  these  are  not  nearly  so  con- 
venient, for  the  following  reasons  : — 

(i)  The  sheep  have  to  be  lifted  up  and  put  into  the  tub, 
instead  of  just  being  dropped  into  the  bath,  which  is  just  level  with 
the  ground. 

(2)  The  sheep,  instead  of  being  in  a  natural  position,  have  to 
be  put  on  their  backs.  When  dropped  into  the  well  with  their 
feet  down,  the  wool  has  a  tendency  to  float,  consequently  the  dip 
gets  free  admittance  to  the  skin,  and  the  fleece  gets  quickly 
soaked.  Also  the  legs  and  feet  get  a  thorough  soaking,  this  being 
a  preventative  against  foot-rot. 

(3)  As  the  draining-pen  is  much  smaller,  more  trouble 
has  to  be  taken  in  squeezing  the  superfluous  dip  from  the 
fleece. 

In  some  elaborate  arrangements  a  dropping  platform  is  sus- 
pended by  pulleys  and  weights ;  the  sheep  is  placed  on  this,  and 
dropped  into  the  dip  in  a  standing  position. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  in  choosing  dips,  as  some  contain 
large  percentages  of  arsenic  and  sulphur ;  these  are  poisonous, 
and,  although  they  are  very  effective  in  destroying  the  parasites, 
they  often  injure  the  wool. 

Cases  have  been  known  where  the  use  of  such  dips  has 
been  the  cause  of  death  amongst  the  flock,  besides  occasionally 
poisoning  cattle  that  may  happen  to  be  grazing  on  the  same 
pastures,  through  eating  grass  with  some  of  this  poison  on  it. 

McDougall's  non-poisonous  dip  is  now  in  great  request 
amongst  flock-masters ;  there  are  several  others  which  are  also 
almost  as  popular,  such  as  Cooper's,  Biggs's,  Little's,  Campbell's, 
and  several  others. 

Some  farmers  prefer  to  mix  a  proportion  of  poisonous  with 
McDougall's  non-poisonous  for  summer  use,  as  they  hold  that  the 
mixture  is  a  better  preventative  against  maggots  than  McDougall's 
alone. 

When  any  poisonous  dip  is  used  it  should  not  be  applied  to 
ewes  suckling  lambs. 

In  the  case  of  dipping  to  prevent  or  kill  scab  mites,  the  solu 
tion  should  be  made  nearly  double  the  usual  strength,  and  the 
sheep  kept  in  the  solution  for  double  the  time.  They  should 
undergo  another  operation  about  three  weeks  later,  in  order  to 


LIVE   STOCK.  563 

kill  any  mites  that  might  have  been  out  of  reach  at  the  first 
dipping. 

The  most  important  constituent  in  McDougall's  dip  is  carbolic 
acid.  It  may  be  purchased  in  small  lots  in  canisters,  in  drums 
containing  about  twenty  pounds,  or  in  casks  containing  from  fifty 
to  two  hundred  pounds.  In  the  ordinary  way  ten  pounds  is  suffi- 
cient for  about  fifty  sheep.  It  is  dissolved  in  hot  water,  and  then 
cold  is  added — so  as  to  make  about  one  gallon  of  dip  for  each 
sheep.  The  cost,  including  labour,  comes  between  2s.  6d.  and  3^. 
per  score. 

Pouring  is  sometimes  done ;  it  consists  of  opening  the  wool  with 
the  fingers,  and  pouring  the  solution  on  from  a  can  with  a  long 
spout  (a  watering-can  without  the  rose  does  very  well).  The 
solution  is  made  about  four  times  the  strength  of  the  usual  dip, 
and  about  one  quart  to  a  sheep  is  used. 

Smearing  or  Salving  is  still  practised  in  some  parts  of  Scot- 
land. It  consists  of  smearing  the  wool  with  a  mixture  of  rancid 
butter,  grease,  and  Stockholm  tar,  or  ordinary  dipping  composition 
in  concentrated  form.  It  is  supposed  to  protect  the  fleece  from 
rain.     The  practice  is  chiefly  confined  to  hill  farming. 

Striking. — Some  people  strike  their  sheep  over  the  back  and 
sides  with  powders.  This  practice  is  not  to  be  recommended,  as 
the  powders  used  chiefly  consist  of  sulphur,  which  has  an  injurious 
effect  on  the  wool. 

Sheep  on  Purely  Arable  Farms. — Unless  the  leas  are  allowed 
to  remain  down  for  some  time  on  these  farms,  the  sheep  have  to 
be  folded  almost  all  the  year  round.  In  such  cases  a  great  variety 
of  crops  are  grown ;  a  part  of  the  fallow  as  well  as  some  of  the 
corn  acreage,  is  cropped  with  forage  crops,  in  order  to  provide 
food  at  diff'erent  parts  of  the  year.  The  rotation  is  often  very 
complicated,  being  made  to  suit  differing  circumstances.  In 
many  cases  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  pursue  any  regular  course, 
as  it  is  often  best  to  break  a  bad  layer  before  its  time ;  whilst, 
with  such  a  crop  as  lucerne,  it  would  often  be  advisable  to  allow 
it  to  remain  down  an  extra  year  or  two,  if  it  continued  to  keep 
clean  and  produce  good  crops. 

Such  crops  as  the  following  are  usually  grown  on  such  farms. 
Rye,  trifolium,  vetches,  lucerne,  sainfoin,  rape,  mustard,  thousand- 
headed  kale,  cabbages,  kohlrabi,  besides  the  ordinary  roots  (white 
and  yellow  turnips,  swedes  and  mangolds.) 

Rye,  vetches,  and  trifolium  are  often  grown  as  catch  crops, 
having  roots  taken  after  them.  Lucerne  and  sainfoin,  being 
perennials,  are  often  kept  down  for  some  time. 

Sheep  being  folded  on  roots  so  much  on  these  farms,  have 
a  tendency  to  fail  in  their  teeth  earlier  than  grazed  sheep. 


564  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

"A  Flying"  Stock." — This  system,  of  keeping  a  flying  stock, 
consists  of  buying  in  ewes  during  the  autumn  and  tupping  them  ; 
they  are  usually  sold  with  their  produce  during  the  following 
spring  or  summer. 

Draft  ewes  are  usually  bought  for  this  purpose,  and  are  often 
crossed  with  rams  of  other  breeds  for  the  purpose  of  producing  fat 
lambs.  The  lambs  are  sold  to  the  butcher  early,  and  the  ewes 
fattened  off. 

Another  way  is  to  sell  the  ewes  with  their  lambs  by  their  sides 
in  the  early  summer. 

This  system  is  a  good  one  on  damp  farms,  where  sheep  are 
subject  to  "  fluke,"  because  the  sheep  are  fattened  before  the  pests 
have  the  chance  of  doing  much  injury.  If  the  sheep  were  kept 
for  two  or  three  years  on  the  farm,  the  death-rate  in  some  seasons 
might  become  very  serious. 

Hill  Farming. — The  management  of  sheep  on  a  hill  is  rather 
different  and  less  liberal  than  on  a  lowland  farm.  On  these 
farms  only  the  smaller,  more  active,  and  hardier  breeds  are  kept, 
such  as  the  Scotch  Blackfaces,  Cheviots,  Herdwicks,  Welsh, 
Exmoors,  and  Lonks. 

The  ewes  are  usually  tupped  in  November,  one  ram  being 
selected  for  every  sixty  or   eighty  ewes.      They  then  lamb   in 

April. 

They  run  on  the  hills  all  winter,  and  are  often  supplied  with 
no  other  food  beyond  what  they  pick.  In  some  cases,  however, 
they  receive  a  little  hay  during  severe  snow  storms,  and,  if  any 
is  available,  they  get  some  a  few  weeks  before  lambing. 

The  lambing  is  arranged  to  take  place  late  in  the  season,  in 
order  that  there  may  be  a  chance  of  getting  fresh  keep  soon  after 
the  lambs  are  dropped,  otherwise  the  mothers  would  have  little 
chance  of  maintaining  their  offspring.  Another  reason  for  late 
lambing  is,  that,  as  the  mothers  have  to  lamb  on  the  hill,  it  would 
be  unwise  to  expose  them  during  lambing  to  the  severe  weather 
earlier  in  the  season. 

In  backward  springs  they  often  get  their  lambs  before  there  is 
any  food,  consequently  great  losses  occur  in  the  flock  during 
such  seasons ;  in  some  cases  the  keep  is  so  scarce  that  the  lambs 
have  to  be  killed  in  order  to  save  the  lives  of  the  ewes. 

The  ewes  and  lambs  run  together  on  the  hills  until  the 
autumn.  The  lambs  are  then  usually  brought  down.  The  ivether 
lambs  are  sold  to  lowland  farmers  to  feed  on  roots,  etc. ;  or 
else  wintered  on  the  lowlands,  and  sent  to  the  hills  again  in 
summer,  being  kept  there  in  some  cases  until  they  are  two  or  three 
years  old,  when  they  are  sold,  either  to  the  butcher  or  the  low- 
land farmer,  to  be  fattened  on  roots. 


LIVE  STOCK.  565 

The  gimmer  lambs  are  either  sent  away  to  winter,  or  otherwise 
kept  on  the  low-lying  land,  where  they  are  usually  given  a  little 
hay  during  winter ;  they  return  to  the  hills  the  following  summer, 
and  the  best  are  selected  to  supply  the  place  of  the  "  draft " 
or  "  cast "  ewes  in  the  autumn. 

The  ewes  are  drafted  at  four  or  five  years  old  ;  they  are 
often  purchased  by  lowland  arable  farmers,  who  feed  them  off 
on  roots. 

In  many  cases  where  it  is  the  custom  to  sell  off  the  lambs 
every  year  and  only  keep  the  ewes  on  the  hills,  these  ewes  are 
crossed  with  a  **  bred  '*  tup,  such  as  a  Border  Leicester,  Lincoln, 
or  Oxford  Down.  In  such  cases  a  certain  number  of  the  ewes  are 
put  to  a  ram  of  their  own  breed,  in  order  to  keep  up  the  number 
of  pure-bred  ewes. 

In  many  cases  half-bred  ewes  are  bred  from.  The  object  in 
crossing,  or  using  a  ram  of  a  larger  breed,  is  to  improve  the  size 
of  the  lambs,  as  well  as  giving  them  a  tendency  to  come  early  to 
maturity. 

House  Lambs. — It  has  been  mentioned  that  Dorset  ewes 
often  lamb  in  October,  so  as  to  produce  fat  lambs  for  the  Christ- 
mas market.  These  are  usually  known  as  "  house  lambs,"  owing 
to  their  spending  some  time  of  their  life  in  a  house.  It  may,  how- 
ever, surprise  our  north-country  friends  to  hear  that,  in  favour- 
able winters,  many  of  these  lambs  are  reared  and  sold  fat  without 
having  spent  a  quarter  of  their  nights  under  cover. 

In  order  to  get  a  good  supply  of  nutritious  keep,  to  produce  a 
good  flow  of  milk,  some  of  the  cleanest  of  the  wheat  land  is 
seeded  with  Italian  rye-grass.  This  will,  as  a  rule,  produce  more 
autumn  keep  than  ordinary  seeds.  It  can  be  fed  down  quite  bare, 
and  the  stubble  may  be  cultivated  in  plenty  of  time  for  the  suc- 
ceeding crop.  Besides  this  rye-grass,  there  should  always  be 
some  rape  and  early  turnips  ready  for  these  ewes  and  lamb.^. 

When  the  lambs  are  about  a  month  old  they  may  be  folded 
on  turnips,  and  the  males  castrated.  The  turnips  are  often 
sliced  for  the  ewes,  and  put  through  the  cutter  a  second  time 
for  the  lambs,  so  as  to  get  them  in  small  pieces.  Lamb  hurdles 
are  used,  so  that  the  lambs  may  be  fed  in  advance  of  the  ewes. 
They  get  a  supply  of  cake  and  meal  with  a  slight  sprinkUng 
of  salt;  besides  this,  they  can  get  a  little  of  the  best  meadow 
hay  that  can  be  procured  for  them ;  the  hay  they  leave  is  given  to 
the  ewes.  Both  the  hay  and  meal  should  be  given  to  the  lambs 
in  covered  racks  and  troughs  to  prevent  it  getting  wet. 

For  producing  these  early  lambs,  it  is  usual  to  pick  old  ewes 
which  have  been  gradually  brought  to  lamb  earlier  every  year. 
In  order  to  get  them   in  season  early  they  receive  a  bountiful 


$66  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

supply  of  vetches,  trifolium,  etc.,  just  before  the  required  time. 
The  ewes  are  generally  fed  off  with  their  lambs,  by  giving  a  supply 
of  cake  and  meal  in  addition  to  their  turnips  and  hay,  getting 
from  half  a  pound  per  head  per  day  to  a  pound  and  a  quarter  to 
finish  with. 

In  order  to  get  the  flesh  firm,  it  is  necessary  to  give  a  pro- 
portion of  bean  meal  during  the  last  period  of  fattening.  In  bad 
weather  they  are  talcen  off  the  turnip  land,  and  get  the  same  food 
on  pasture. 

As  a  rule  they  require  very  little  more  shelter  than  is  afforded 
them  by  the  pecuharly  constructed  hurdles,  named  "  wattled 
hurdles,"  seen  in  Dorset,  Somersetshire,  and  the  neighbouring 
counties.  Instead  of  being  open  like  an  ordinary  hurdle,  they 
are  of  a  basket-work  construction. 

These  fat  lambs  make  an  enormous  price  in  the  beginning  of 
the  year ;  some  are  fit  for  the  market  at  ten  to  twelve  weeks  old. 

D. — Breeds  of  Pigs, 

Amongst  the  most  popular  breeds  of  pigs  are  the  Large,  Small, 
and  Middle  White  breeds  of  Yorkshire  and  Lincolnshire,  Berk- 
shires,  Tarn  worths,  and  Suffolks.     Besides  these,  there  are  many 


Fig.  93.— Large  White  Yorkshire  boar,  "  Holywell  Windsor ;  "  bred  by  Sanders  Spencer, 
Holywell  Manor,  St,  Ives. 

Other  local  breeds  which  have   usually  been  very  much  mixed 
and  crossed  with  others. 

The  Large  Whites  are  a  great  improvement  on  the  old  large 
and   coarse   breeds  of  Yorkshire,   which  were  originally  coarse 


LIVE   STOCK. 


567 


boned,  long  limbed,  low  shouldered  and  narrow  backed.  Bake- 
well  is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  great  improver  of 
this  breed,  meeting  with  the  same  marked  success  in  this  case  as 
he  did  with  the  improvement  of  the  Leicester  sheep  and  Long- 
horned  cattle. 

The  original  breed  were  slow  feeders,  but  when  they  reached 
maturity  they  made  very  great  weights,  from  sixty  to  sixty-five 
stones  (imperial),  dead  weight,  were  often  scaled. 

The  improved  breed  are  very  fine  pigs,  and  are  widely  dis- 
tributed. The  head  is  fairly  large,  ears  overhanging.  The  body 
is  large,  shoulders  full;  back,  as  a  rule,  level,  but  sometimes 
arched;  the  hind  quarters  slanting  towards  the  tail,  and  legs  fairly 
large. 

They  are  fairly  prolific,  and  carry  a  good  proportion  of  lean 
in  comparison  with  fat  flesh,  consequently  make  good  bacon  hogs. 
Under  good  management  and  feeding,  they  often  weigh  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  stones  (dead  weight),  at  twelve  months  old. 

The  Middle  Whites  are  smaller  than  the  large,  and  larger  than 
the  small  breeds.     They  are  not  so  uniform  in  size  and  appear- 


FiG.  94.— Small  White  Yorkshires  ;  bred  by  Sanders  Spencer,  Holywell  Manor,  St.  Ives. 

ance  as  the  other  two  breeds,  but,  as  a  rule,  they  approach  nearer 
the  form  of  the  large  white  than  the  small.  They  are  an  excellent 
breed ;  the  pork  is  of  very  good  quality,  and  they  come  early  to 
maturity.     The  sows  are  fairly  prolific,  and  are  very  good  nurses. 


S68  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

The  Small  Whites  (Fig.  94),  like  the  others,  are  very  widely 
distributed,  but  on  the  whole  are  not  such  favourites,  as  they  have 
a  tendency  to  lay  on  a  large  proportion  of  fat  to  lean  flesh.  They 
are  supposed  to  have  inherited  this  quality  from  the  Chinese  pig, 
which  was  used  to  improve  the  original  breed.  They  are  more 
delicate  than  either  of  the  other  breeds,  and  the  sows  are  not  very 
prolific.  In  fat  pigs  the  eyes  are  often  invisible,  although  they  should 
appear  large  in  store  animals.  The  forehead  is  flat  and  broad, 
the  snout  short  and  upturned.  The  ears  should  be  small  and 
slightly  inclined  forward,  but  not  drooping,  and  set  widely  apart. 
The  chops,  or  jowls,  should  be  very  full  and  large.  The  neck  is 
very  full  and  heavy,  shoulders  wide.  The  ribs  are  well  sprung  and 
the  loins  are  wide.  The  tail  is  set  rather  high.  The  hams  are  large, 
the  meat  being  well  let  down  to  the  hocks.  The  proportion  of 
oflal  is  small. 

These  pigs  are  often  used  for  crossing  with  others  which 
have  less  tendency  to  put  on  fat ;  for  this  purpose  they  are 
very  useful,  as  they  usually  improve  the  quaUty  of  the  meat  in 
such  cases. 

The  Berkshires  are  a  very  old-established  breed,  and  have 
many  admirers.  It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  old  breed  has 
been  improved  by  the .  introduction  of  Chinese  and  Neapolitan 


Fig.  95.— Berkshire  sow. 


blood,  but  manv  of  the  Berkshire  breeders  dispute  this  statement, 
and  contend  that  they  have  been  improved  purely  by  selection 
from  the  original  breed. 

They  are  a  black  breed  with  white  points.  The  black  is  often 
tinged  with  red,  and  not  so  coal  black  as  the  Suffolks.  They 
usually  have  a  little  white  on  the  nose  and  forehead,  four  white 


LIVE  STOCK.  569 

feet,  and  end  of  the  tail  white.  Head  is  moderately  short,  fore- 
head wide,  nose  usually  straight,  ears  slightly  projecting,  some- 
times covering  eyes.  Chops  full,  eyes  usually  bright  and  large. 
Good  muscular  neck  ;  fairly  good  shoulders  ;  ribs  often  rather  flat, 
but  not  always ;  very  strong  over  the  loins,  but  the  hind  quarters 
are  often  short  and  droop  too  much.  The  underline  is  not  so 
even  as  in  some  other  breeds.     The  legs  are  short. 

The  amount  of  hair  these  pigs  carry  varies  much  with  different 
management.  When  allowed  to  run  roughly  they  develop  a  great 
deal,  but  when  confined  and  well  fed,  much  less  is  to  be  seen. 
When  deficient  in  hair  they  are  usually  considered  to  be  a  little 
delicate,  but  those  carrying  too  much,  of  a  coarse  and  bristly 
nature,  are  usually  coarse  fleshed,  and  slow  feeders. 

These  pigs  are  well  adapted  to  rough  treatment,  or  to  act  as 
scavengers  on  the  farm,  when  they  have  to  find  most  of  their  own 
living,  in  the  yards,  fields,  or  forest.  For  this  purpose  the  rough- 
haired  ones  are  usually  best,  being  stronger  in  constitution  ;  whilst 
the  finer  specimens  are  often  faster  feeders,  and  best  adapted  for 
making  pork  under  more  liberal  treatment  and  confinement. 

The  strong  point  about  the  Berkshire  pig  is,  that  the  pork  has 
a  large  proportion  of  lean  to  fat  meat,  of  excellent  flavour. 

The  Suffolks  are  a  very  black  breed  with  plenty  of  fine  hair. 
The  forehead  is  broad,  the  nose  short  and  slightly  turned  up  ;  the 
ears  are  short  and  hang  rather  forward ;  the  chops  are  full ;  the 
shoulders  good ;  body  long  ;  tail  set  high ;  the  legs  are  short, 
with  the  meat  well  let  down  to  the  knees  and  hocks.  They  are 
very  quiet,  less  inclined  to  range  than  the  Berkshires,  when  kept 
in  fields.  They  are  not  large  eaters,  nor  very  fast  growers,  but 
are  easily  kept  fat,  and,  when  properly  fed,  produce  plenty  of  lean 
meat.     The  sows  are  fairly  prolific,  and  good  nurses. 

The  Tamworth  pigs  are,  comparatively  speaking,  a  new  breed, 
and  until  lately  were  not  much  known  out  of  their  own  county 
(Staflbrd shire),  but  during  the  last  few  years  they  have  become 
widely  distributed,  as  many  breeders  of  different  districts  have 
purchased  a  few  in  order  to  test  their  merits  with  other 
breeds. 

As  might  be  expected,  this  breed  is  not  quite  so  uniform  in 
character  as  some  of  the  other  breeds ;  but  as  their  best  points  and 
qualities  become  more  stamped  by  the  judges  in  the  principal 
show  yards,  their  breeders  will  know  more  definitely  what  to 
breed  for.  Their  colour  varies  from  red  to  brick  colour.  The 
head  is  comparatively  small,  with  a  rather  long  straight  snout ; 
ears  drooping  rather  forward.  The  body  is  fairly  long  and  deep- 
sided  ;  the  legs  are  sometimes  rather  long,  but  they  have  good 
hams,  the  meat  being  well  let  down  to  the  hocks. 


570 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


They  have  plenty  of  lean  flesh  in  proportion  to  fat,  conse- 
quently they  are  great  favourites  with  bacon-curers.  They  are 
also  well  adapted  to  cross  with  other  breeds  that  are  inclined  to 
run  too  much  to  fat. 


%  '/'^^ 


Fig.  96,— Tamworth  sow 

They  are  prolific,  hardy,  and  come  early  to  maturity,  making 
good  weights. 

The  breeds  that  have  been  described  are  the  principal  ones ; 
but,  besides  these,  there  are  some  local  breeds  which  have  become 
adapted  and  suited  to  the  different  requirements  of  different 
localities.  Under  this  class  the  *'  Large  "  and  "  Small  Blacks  " 
perhaps  should  be  noticed.  These  two  breeds  are  found  in 
considerable  numbers  in  Devon  and  Cornwall.  The  **  Large 
Blacks  "  are  very  long-sided,  and  large  pigs  with  black  coats.  In 
form  they  are  not  unlike  the  Tamworths.  The  head  is  rather 
small,  with  long  and  straight  snout,  with  the  ears  lapping  over  the 
eyes.  The  long  lapping  ear  is  considered  a  strong  point  for 
denoting  purity  in  the  breed,  as,  when  crossed  with  the  Berkshire, 
as  they  often  are,  they  develop  pricked  ears.     They  are  fairly 


LIVE  STOCK.  571 

wide  over  the  shoulders,  and  deep  sided ;  the  back  should  arch 
rather  than  droop.  They  are  inclined  to  be  a  little  higher  on  the 
hind  than  the  fore  quarters. 

The  average  litter  may  be  taken  from  ten  to  twelve.  The 
sows  are  fairly  good  nurses. 

The  "  Small  Blacks  "  are  slower  feeders,  smaller  consumers, 
and  cost  much  less  to  keep ;  but  still,  where  there  is  plenty  of 
food,  they  are  considered  less  profitable  than  the  large  breed. 
They  have  short  snouts ;  small  ears,  coming  a  Uttle  forward ;  low 
and  round  in  the  carcase ;  good  constitutions,  but  less  prolific 
than  the  ''  Large  Blacks."  They  are  probably  a  variety  of  the 
Suffolk  breed. 

Management  of  Pigs. 

On  almost  every  farm,  pigs  form  a  more  or  less  important 
part  of  the  live  stock.  Their  management,  however,  varies  very 
much  according  to  different  circumstances  of  farming.  In  some 
cases  they  may  be  fed  and  sold  as  porkers,  or  kept  for  bacon  hogs ; 
sometimes  sold  as  stores  from  ten  to  sixteen  weeks  old;  and 
sometimes  kept  as  scavengers,  to  pick  up  just  what  otherwise 
might  be  wasted. 

Before  selecting  any  particular  breed,  the  farmer  should  con- 
sider the  merits  of  each,  and  choose  from  those  that  would  be 
most  likely  to  prove  profitable  under  the  circumstances  that  he 
would  require  them  for.  In  a  case  where  they  would  be  required 
to  find  the  major  part  of  their  own  living  from  the  grass,  fallows, 
and  waste  foods,  the  Berkshires,  Suffolks,  and  Blacks  would  be 
very  suitable.  For  close  confinement  and  early  feeding,  the  York- 
shires might  prove  more  profitable. 

The  male  animal  (entire),  after  weaning,  is  called  a  *'  boar." 

The  male  animal  (castrated),  a  "  hog." 

The  female  is  a  "  sow." 

If  spayed,  a  "  cut "  or  "  spayed  sow." 

A  young  uncut  female,  a  "yelt"  or  "gilt." 

A  sow  after  taking  the  boar  is  said  to  be  "  lined."  When  she 
gets  her  young  she  is  said  to  have  "  Uttered,"  and  the  young  are 
**  farrows  "  until  they  are  weaned.  If  killed  before  weaning,  they 
are  known  as  *'  sucking  pigs."  After  weaning,  they  are  in  some 
places  called  "  slips ;"  when  fattened  at  an  early  age,  "  porkers  ;  " 
when  kept  for  bacon,  "baconers ; "  and  when  kept  for  store,  to 
grow  without  fattening,  "  stores." 

It  is  most  important  that  only  well-bred  stock  should  be 
selected  to  breed  from — a  fact  that  is  too  often  not  recognized 
by  the  ordinary  farmer.  A  little  extra  outlay  in  the  first  place,  in 
order  to  procure  well-got  and  good  animals,  will  stand  a  far  better 


572  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

chance  of  being  repaid  with  interest,  in  the  case  of  pigs,  than  with 
any  other  class  of  live  stock.  Pigs  being  so  much  more  prolific 
than  horses,  cattle,  or  sheep,  the  extra  outlay  is  divided  amongst 
a  much  greater  number  of  young  ones,  and  consequently  more 
likely  to  be  realized. 

A  good  sow,  with  ordinary  luck,  will  produce  twenty  pigs  a 
year.  Supposing  these  were  kept  on  similar  food  to  twenty  from 
an  indifferent  sow,  until  both  lots  were  three  months  old,  as  store 
pigs,  the  ones  from  the  well-bred  stock  would  probably  fetch  about 
5^-.  per  head  more  than  those  from  the  indifferent  sow.  This 
would  mean  £^  on  the  lot.  If  any  were  sold  for  breeding 
purposes,  the  difference  would  be  still  greater.  We  may  conclude 
from  this,  that  the  extra  outlay  would  be  more  than  covered  the 
first  year. 

In  the  case  of  sheep,  in  order  to  get  twenty  lambs,  about 
from  twelve  to  fourteen  ewes  would  have  to  be  purchased,  con- 
sequently the  extra  outlay  would  be  far  greater,  and  less  likely  to 
be  returned  by  the  first  year's  produce. 

Best  Age  for  Service. — A  sow  should  not  be  allowed  with  the 
boar  until  she  is  ten  months  old ;  neither  should  a  boar  be  allowed 
to  line  a  sow  until  it  has  reached  that  age.  When  pigs  are  bred 
from  at  too  early  an  age  they  get  weakened  in  constitution,  and 
produce  degenerate  young. 

Sows  for  breeding  should,  if  possible,  be  selected  from  a  spring 
litter,  from  a  mother  with  good  milking  qualities,  and  they  should 
not  have  less  than  twelve  teats.  The  reasons  for  taking  brood 
sows  from  spring  litters  are  because  they  get  the  advantages  of 
the  summer  weather,  healthy  exercise,  and  green  food,  which  are 
more  likely  to  encourage  milking  qualities  and  well-developed 
frames  than  when  they  are  kept  in  houses  in  winter,  during  the 
early  part  of  their-  lives. 

When  a  sow  wants  connection  with  the  boar  she  shows  very 
marked  signs — she  becomes  very  restless,  refuses  her  food,  grunts 
a  great  deal,  the  vagina  gets  swollen,  and,  if  allowed  to  run  with 
other  animals,  will  follow  them. 

A  sow  has  two  litters  a  year.  They  should  be  allowed  to  get 
their  first  litter  in  March.  They  will  be  ready  then  to  take  the 
pig  again  some  time  in  May,  and,  as  their  period  of  gestation  is 
sixteen  weeks  (they  occasionally  go  a  few  days  longer),  they  will 
bring  their  second  litter  early  in  September,  just  at  the  time  there 
will  be  plenty  of  food,  and  will  get  fairly  well  grown  before  winter 
comes  on. 

After  the  sows  have  been  served,  during  winter  they  should  be 
allowed  plenty  of  exercise  in  a  roomy  sheltered  yard,  where  they 
may  be  supplied  with  roots,  wash  from  the  house,  and  a  little  bran 


LIVE  STOCK.  573 

or  tail  corn,  sufficient  to  keep  them  in  good  healthy  condition. 
During  summer  they  may  be  allowed  to  run  on  the  pastures,  or 
rape,  or  perhaps  be  supplied  with  clover,  rape,  vetches,  or  prickly 
comfrey  in  the  yards.  As  they  approach  within  a  week  or  two  of 
the  time  of  parturition  they  should  receive  a  little  extra  food,  such 
as  a  little  oat  or  barley  meal,  mixed  in  their  wash,  in  order  to 
produce  a  good  flow  of  milk.  The  food  should  not  be  changed 
suddenly  at  any  time  near  the  date  of  farrowing,  either  before  or 
after,  as  it  might  suddenly  alter  the  character  of  the  milk  and  act 
injuriously  on  the  young  animals. 

The  sow  should  be  removed  to  the  farrowing-house  some  days 
before  she  is  expected  to  litter,  so  that  she  may  become  well 
accustomed  to  it.  She  should  be  provided  with  short  straw  for 
bedding,  which  would  get  well  trampled  down  by  the  time  she 
farrows.  Fresh  straw  should  never  be  given  at  this  time,  as  the 
young  ones  might  crawl  into  it  and  get  lost. 

The  chief  indications  of  approaching  parturition  are  :  the 
distension  of  the  teats  with  milk,  dropping  of  the  pelvic  bones, 
enlargement  of  the  vagina,  besides  the  sow  collecting  any  available 
straw  for  the  purpose  of  making  her  bed. 

An  attendant  should  always  be  present  during  farrowing,  in 
order  to  see  that  none  of  the  young  stray  away  from  the  mother, 
as  they  sometimes  will  do,  and  die  of  cold  and  hunger  in  an 
opposite  corner.  The  attendant  should  be  some  one  the  sow  is 
familiar  with  (as  the  feeder),  as  with  strangers  she  will  be  suspicious 
and  very  uneasy. 

Houses  used  for  farrowing  should  have  a  stout  rail  all  round, 
about  nine  or  ten  inches  from  the  wall  and  about  a  foot  high. 
Heavy  sows  often  lie  on  the  young  pigs  and  kill  them.  The 
rail  acts  as  a  preventative,  as  the  little  pigs  are  fond  of  nestling 
together  by  the  sides  of  the  walls  or  partitions.  Consequently 
the  rail  protects  them  from  the  mother  whilst  lying  down.  The 
sow  usually  rests  her  back  against  the  wall  in  order  to  let  herself 
down  gently. 

As  soon  as  the  afterbirth,  or  cleansing,  comes  away,  it  should 
be  removed  and  buried  in  the  dung-pit  or  some  convenient  place. 

After  farrowing,  the  sow  is  usually  very  thirsty.  She  should 
be  given  some  chilled  food  of  a  washy  nature  with  a  little 
meal  in  it. 

In  some  cases  sows  are  rather  given  to  eat  their  young.  If 
anything  of  the  kind  is  suspected  it  is  well  to  give  them  plenty  of 
washy  food  for  the  first  day  or  so,  and  more  especially  directly 
after  farrowing,  though  in  the  ordinary  way  we  do  not  recommend 
feeding  heavily  for  the  first  few  days. 

Sows  a  day  or  so  after  farrowing  often  get  very  costive,  and 


574  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

require  a  slight  purge,  such  as  two  or  three  ounces  of  salts 
(Epsom  Salts)  in  their  food  per  day. 

Some  young  pigs  lose  their  tails.  This  gives  them  a  very 
awkward  appearance,  and  for  breeding  purposes  goes  very  much 
against  them,  a  long  and  bushy  tail  being,  as  a  rule,  considered 
a  point  denoting  constitution.  This  is  often  considered  a  result 
of  "in-and-in  breeding,"  and  said  by  some  only  to  occur  in 
highly  bred  stock ;  but  the  writer's  experience  proves  that  it  may 
be  seen  just  as  often  in  cross-bred  pigs  which  have  been  bred 
entirely  at  random.  Many  other  reasons  have  been  given  for 
pigs  losing  their  tails.  Winter  litters  are,  as  a  rule,  much  more 
affected  than  summer  ones.  It  may  be  prevented  to  a  very  great 
extent  by  rubbing  the  tails  with  goose  fat  or  linseed  oil.  If  they 
are  examined,  the  tail  in  the  early  stage  will  appear  slightly 
inflamed.  This  increases  every  day,  until  the  end  simply 
rots  off. 

The  young  pigs  should  always  be  kept  warm,  and  free  from 
draughts.  After  they  are  a  few  days  old  they  should  always  be 
provided  with  good  bedding. 

The  mother  should  be  liberally  fed  whilst  suckling  her  young. 
In  winter  time  it  is  better  if  the  food  can  be  given  slightly  warm. 
Boiled  potatoes,  roots,  and  meal  of  different  kinds  may  be  given, 
besides  washings  from  the  kitchen.  When  the  farrows  get  a  week 
or  two  old,  the  mother  should  be  allowed  a  run  in  the  yard  or 
field  for  a  few  hours  every  day.  When  they  are  about  a  month 
old  they  should  be  taught  to  take  a  little  milk  and  corn ;  a  little 
whole  wheat  is  the  best  thing  to  start  them  with.  They  have 
very  sharp  teeth,  and  grind  it  up  very  readily  when  they  once 
start.  They  should  be  given  the  grains  whilst  the  sow  is  out- 
side, in  the  middle  of  the  day. 

The  males,  unless  required  for  boars,  should  be  castrated  when 
from  four  to  six  weeks  old.  Some  people  leave  it  until  later,  but 
we  consider  about  a  month  old  the  best  time,  as  they  suffer  and 
swell  less  at  this  age  than  when  left  until  later. 

The  operation  is  very  simple  with  a  good  knife  or  old  razor. 
When  the  stone  (testicle)  is  taken  out  free  from  the  lining 
membrane,  the  string  may  be  either  cut  or  drawn.  The  little 
animal  is  then  held  up  by  the  two  hind  legs,  and  a  little  water,  in 
which  some  common  salt  has  been  dissolved,  is  poured  over  the 
incisions.     It  may  then  be  returned  to  the  house. 

The  females  that  are  not  intended  for  breeding  purposes  may 
be  spayed.  The  operation  consists  of  removing  the  ovaries,  and 
should  be  performed  about  ten  days  before  weaning,  so  that  they 
may  recover  from  the  operation  before  the  mother  is  taken  from 
them. 


LIVE  STOCK.  575 

Spayed  sows  feed  much  better  than  others ;  when  they  are  not 
spayed  they  come  in  season.  Whilst  in  this  state  they  get  very 
uneasy,  and  waste  their  food,  besides  disturbing  other  pigs 
that  may  be  kept  with  them.  Under  such  circumstances  they 
naturally  fall  off  in  condition.  If  they  are  killed  whilst  in 
season  the  pork  has  a  strong  taste,  and  the  bacon  will  not  cure 
properly. 

Some  people  prefer  to  wean  young  pigs  at  six,  others  at 
eight,  weeks  old.  If  pigs  are  strong,  and  started  to  eat  at  a 
month  old,  they  will  generally  be  fit  to  wean  at  six  weeks.  If 
they  can  be  supplied  with  plenty  of  skim  milk  and  kept  warm, 
they  will  do  quite  as  well  without  their  mother  as  widi  her.  When 
a  sow  is  kept  very  much  with  a  large  litter  between  six  and  eight 
weeks  old,  she  naturally  gets  pulled  down  in  condition,  and  the 
extra  amount  of  food  she  will  require  will  be  more  than  required 
for  the  young  pigs  if  weaned  at  six  weeks  old.  Should  the 
young  pigs  be  small,  or  the  skim  milk  scarce,  they  should  be 
kept  eight  weeks  with  their  mother. 

Weaning  should  be  done  gradually,  so  that  the  sow  may 
not  become  overflushed  with  milk.  One  way  is  to  let  her  be 
with  the  farrows  just  twice  a  day  a  short  time  before  weaning, 
and  only  once  later  on.  Another  very  good  plan  is  to  take  some 
of  the  strong  ones  from  her  first,  and  keep  the  weaker  ones  on 
her  a  little  longer. 

When  the  sow  begins  to  get  litters  that  are  not  uniform  in  size 
or  character,  she  should  be  fed.  As  they  get  old  they  often 
bring  a  few  weak  specimens,  which  are  not  worth  rearing,  and 
which  in  many  cases  die  after  a  week  or  so  old,  when  the  others 
get  strong  enough  to  push  them  from  the  teats.  In  the  south- 
western counties  these  small  pigs  receive  the  name  of  **  nestle 
birds,"  in  other  places  "  wrecklings,"  etc.  Some  sows  may  be 
bred  from  much  longer  than  others,  but,  as  a  rule,  four  or  five 
litters  will  be  quite  enough  to  take  from  a  sow.  She  should  get 
her  fourth  litter  at  about  three  years  old. 

Some  sows  are  much  more  prolific  than  others.  Ten  is  a 
good  average  litter,  and  generally  quite  as  many  as  an  ordinary 
sow  can  bring  up  properly.  Sometimes  a  sow  may  only  get  six 
or  seven,  whilst  others  get  fourteen  or  fifteen,  and  even  more. 

It  is  often  a  good  thing  to  get  two  sows  to  farrow  as  near  the 
same  date  as  possible.  Then,  if  one  happens  to  have  a  small  and 
the  other  a  large  litter,  they  may  be  equally  divided.  A  sow  is 
not  as  a  rule  particular  about  having  strange  pigs  put  on  her,  if 
they  are  transferred  soon  after  farrowing.  In  putting  one  sow's 
pigs  on  to  another,  it  is  a  mistake  to  take  the  worst  ones,  if  they 
are  smaller  than  the  ones  they  are  going  to  mix  with,  as  they  will 


576  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

probably  be  kept  away  from  the  teats  by  her  own  pigs.  In  such 
cases  the  strong  ones  should  be  taken,  as  the  weaker  ones  would 
in  all  probability  do  better  with  their  own  mother.  But  if  the 
weaker  ones  are  older  than  those  with  which  they  are  to  be  mixed, 
they  may  be  selected,  as  they  will  probably  be  able  to  look  after 
themselves. 

The  Management  of  Young  Pigs 

after  weaning  will  vary  very  much  with  the  different  purposes  for 
which  they  will  be  required. 

When  they  are  required  to  be  kept  through  the  summer  as 
"  stores,"  to  consume  the  skim  milk,  whey,  or  washings  from  the 
kitchen,  and  run  on  the  pastures,  or  get  green  food  given  them 
in  yards,  they  would  not  receive  a  large  allowance  of  corn  or  meal 
after  weaning,  but  as  much  milk  as  could  be  spared.  After  running 
in  the  way  described  through  the  summer,  they  would  be  run  on 
the  stubbles  after  harvest  to  pick  up  any  heads  not  collected. 
They  are  also  fond  of  weeds  and  roots,  such  as  couch. 

In  neighbourhoods  where  acorns  are  to  be  had,  the  store  pigs 
will  find  a  large  proportion  of  their  food  in  the  woods.  They 
should  be  given  a  little  meal,  or  a  few  peas  or  beans  at  night,  so 
as  to  bring  them  home  regularly.  After  running  cheaply  in  this 
way  through  the  summer  and  autumn,  they  may  be  put  up  to  feed, 
when  they  will  probably  make  great  progress  on  small  or  slightly 
diseased  potatoes,  boiled  and  mixed  with  a  little  barley-meal  and 
bran,  or  any  tail  corn  which  may  be  boiled  or  crushed  for  them. 

It  is  a  common  practice  on  mixed  farms  in  the  western 
counties,  and  probably  in  many  others,  to  dispose  of  the  pigs  as 
"  slips  "  at  ten  or  twelve  weeks  old.  With  a  good  breed  of  pigs 
this  system  may  be  made  to  pay  very  well.  The  great  secret  in 
this  system  is  to  have  the  sows  farrowing  at  the  right  time. 

There  is  always  a  great  demand  for  young  pigs  about 
April  and  May,  just  as  the  dairymen  get  in  full  working  order 
with  their  cows.  It  is  usually  a  good  point  to  be  early  in  the 
market  with  pigs  which  have  the  appearance  of  putting  on  flesh 
rapidly,  having  plenty  of  length.  When  intended  for  such  a 
purpose  they  should  be  farrowed  in  February  and  well  kept.  It 
is  an  old  saying  that  "  half  the  breed  of  a  pig  goes  in  at  its 
mouth,"  and  certainly,  after  looking  at  a  pig  that  has  been  meanly 
kept,  and  a  brother  from  the  same  litter  that  has  been  well  fed, 
we  might  be  almost  inclined  to  believe  it. 

After  weaning  they  should  get  as  much  skim  milk  as  could 
be  spared,  with  a  little  mixed  barley,  oats,  maize,  and  bean  meal, 
first  wetted  with  cold  and  then  scalded  with  boiling  water. 
This  should  be  given  at  both  ends  of  the  day.     In  the  middle  of 


LIVE  STOCK.  577 

the  day  they  should  get  some  whole  grains  of  barley  and  wheat, 
with  a  little  mangold-wurzel  chopped  up  small.  These  whole 
grains  they  thoroughly  grind  up  and  masticate.  They  give  them 
a  good  coat  and  a  firm  appearance,  and  prevent  them  from 
becoming  puffed-bellied,  as  they  do  sometimes  when  too  much 
cooked  food  is  given.  About  two  pounds  of  corn  per  head  per 
day  may  be  given,  besides  milk,  etc. 

They  should  be  kept  in  a  light  sty,  and  have  plenty  of  room 
for  running  about  to  exercise  their  muscles  and  develop  their 
limbs.  In  the  event  of  their  being  kept  in  a  small  house  they 
should  be  put  out  in  the  yard  for  exercise  every  day,  otherwise 
they  may  get  stiff  in  their  movements  and  appear  delicate  in 
their  coat. 

When  these  pigs  are  well  managed,  they  will  weigh  from  fifty 
to  sixty  pounds  at  ten  weeks  old  without  being  too  fat,  and  about 
the  beginning  of  May  such  pigs  would  probably  make  from 
twenty-three  to  twenty-six  shillings  per  head.  They  are  often  sold 
at  the  rate  of  sixpence  per  pound,  living  weight,  when  not 
exceeding  fifty  pounds  per  pig. 

The  second  litter,  which  should  be  born  about  the  end  of 
August,  will  not  usually  sell  so  well;  but  they  will  come  at 
harvest  time  when  corn  and  roots  are  abundant,  so  may  be  kept 
fairly  cheaply.  These  pigs,  as  a  rule,  will  have  to  be  sold  to 
cottagers  and  people  having  gardens  and  small  potatoes.  Pig- 
jobbers  can  usually  dispose  of  them  round  the  countryside. 
They  will  probably  be  fit  to  sell  at  the  end  of  October  or  the 
beginning  of  November,  when  a  pig  weighing  about  sixty  pounds, 
living  weight,  will  fetch  about  twenty  shillings ;  or  fourpence  per 
pound,  living  weight.  Should  the  demand  for  such  pigs  be  small, 
owing  to  a  failure  in  the  potato  crop  or  high  price  of  corn,  etc., 
it  will  often  pay  better  to  feed  them  off  as  "  porkers,"  selling 
them,  from  four  to  six  months  old,  to  the  butchers.  Or  some 
of  them  may  be  kept  rather  coarsely  through  the  winter,  and  sold 
in  the  following  spring  as  ''stores,"  when  the  price  gets  up;  or 
they  may  be  run  very  cheaply  through  the  summer  and  autumn 
as  "  stores,"  and  will  feed  to  large  baconers  during  the  following 
winter. 

"Fattening  Pigs,"  besides  being  supplied  with  the  necessary 
amount  of  good  food,  require  regular  and  systematic  feeding,  a 
clean  and  comfortable  bed,  and  a  warm  sty.  Some  pigs  are  much 
more  restless  than  others;  those  that  lie  quietly  between  their 
meals  usually  thrive  best. 

Fat  pigs  may  be  disposed  of  as  "  porkers  "  or  "  bacon  hogs." 

When  intended  for  "porkers,"  feeding  should  be  commenced 
directly  after  weaning.     In  winter  time  their  food  should  be  given 

2  p 


578  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

slightly  warm.  The  farmers  who  usually  go  in  for  fattening 
porkers  are  those  who  have  a  supply  of  skim  milk,  butter  milk,  or 
whey,  which,  with  an  addition  of  meal  of  various  kinds,  produces 
excellent  quality  young  porkers  at  four,  five,  or  six  months  old, 
when  they  might  weigh  from  seven  to  nine  or  ten  imperial  stones, 
dead  weight. 

In  feeding  porkers,  only  small  quantities  of  maize  meal  or 
kitchen  wash  should  be  used,  as  these  foods  are  apt  to  produce 
pork  of  a  greasy  nature. 

Young  pigs,  after  weaning,  should  at  first  be  fed  three  or  four 
times  a  day,  and  should  get  only  as  much  at  a  time  as  they 
will  finish.  If  they  are  given  more  at  a  meal  than  they  can 
consume  at  once,  in  all  probability  they  will  get  it  dirty,  and  then 
refuse  it :  this  will  encourage  them  to  waste  their  food,  and,  in 
a  short  time,  pick  out  the  best  and  leave  the  rest. 

The  trough  should  be  kept  perfectly  sweety  and  cleaned  out,  if 
necessary,  before  each  meal. 

When  intended  for  baconers  they  are  usually  run  as  stores  for 
twelve  months  or  more  on  the  coarser  classes  of  food,  such  as 
grass,  clover,  roots,  etc.  They  develop  good  large  frames,  and 
when  first  put  up  to  feed  are  usually  large  consumers,  and  put  on 
flesh  very  rapidly.  During  the  first  period,  they  should  be  kept 
on  boiled  potatoes,  or  roots  mixed  with  a  little  boiled  or  steamed 
corn  or  meal.  Their  appetite  will  soon  be  reduced,  and  they  will 
often  become  more  particular  and  dainty  as  regards  their  food ; 
consequently  the  boiled  potatoes,  roots,  etc.,  should  be  reduced, 
and  the  meal  or  boiled  corn  increased.  In  some  cases  pigs  will 
feed  almost  entirely  on  boiled  potatoes  and  swedes ;  but,  when 
fed  in  this  way,  the  bacon  is  not  of  good  quaUty — it  lacks  in  firm- 
ness, and  the  fat  is  usually  present  in  too  large  a  proportion. 

In  order  to  get  good  quality  bacon,  with  firmness  and  streaky 
appearance,  and  with  a  good  proportion  of  lean  to  fat,  great  care 
should  be  exercised  during  the  last  three  or  four  weeks  of  fatten- 
ing ;  boiled  food  should  be  reduced,  and  be  supplemented  by 
mixed  meals  and  bran,  which  may  be  scalded  for  a  short  time,  a 
little  salt  added,  and,  if  possible,  be  mixed  with  a  little  milk. 
Maize  meal  should  be  used  only  in  small  quantities,  whilst  pea 
and  bean  meals  should  be  well  represented  in  the  mixture.  It 
should,  however,  be  remembered  that,  if  bean  meal  is  given  in  too 
large  a  proportion,  it  is  likely  to  produce  hard  meat,  instead  of  its 
being  merely  firm  in  character. 

Old  Sows,  after  they  have  produced  four  or  five  litters  of  pigs, 
are  fed;  they  make  good  bacon  and  excellent  hams  when  the 
latter  are  well  cured. 

The  weights  that  these  sows  make  when  fattened  vary  very 


LIVE  STOCK.  579 

much  with  the  breeds  and  management,  varying  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  score  with  the  smaller  breeds,  and  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty-five  score  with  the  larger  ones  (dead  weight),  and,  in  ex- 
ceptional cases,  even  more  than  this. 

Boars  that  are  no  longer  required  for  service  are  often 
castrated,  allowed  to  get  thin,  and  then  fattened.  They  make 
much  less  money  than  other  pigs  of  the  same  weight,  and  are 
usually  disposed  of  in  mining  or  similar  districts. 

As  pigs  vary  so  much  in  size,  the  amount  of  food  that  they 
will  consume  will  also  vary.  From  one  to  two  bushels  of  mixed 
meal  or  boiled  corn  are  often  consumed  per  head  per  week  whilst 
fattening.  When  possible,  cheap  and  second  quality  grain  should 
be  consumed  by  pigs.  Barley  that  is  not  fit  for  malting  purposes 
can  often  be  obtained  for  less  than  three  shillings  per  bushel,  and 
is  usually  calculated,  if  boiled,  steamed,  or  scalded,  to  produce  an 
increase  of  about  eleven  pounds,  living  weight,  or  nine  pounds, 
dead  weight,  for  every  bushel  consumed. 

Pigs  will  rarely  be  found  profitable  unless  they  are  fed  partly 
on  food  that  is  not  marketable,  such  as  waste  from  the  kitchen, 
small  and  unsound  potatoes,  tail  corn,  whey  from  cheese-making, 
skim  milk  and  butter  milk  which  cannot  otherwise  be  disposed  of. 
They  are  exceedingly  useful  animals,  being  almost  the  only  means 
of  converting  these  waste  materials  into  marketable  produce. 

Pigs  make  a  greater  increase  of  live  weight  for  a  given  quantity 
of  food  consumed  than  either  cattle  or  sheep ;  they  also  have  a 
much  larger  percentage  of  carcase  weight  to  offal  when  killed. 
The  dead  weight  of  a  fat  pig  amounts  to  from  eighty  to  eighty- 
three  per  cent  of  its  living  weight.  They  will  increase  from  eight 
to  fourteen  pounds  in  living  weight  per  week,  varying  with  size 
and  management.  In  exceptional  cases  twenty  pounds  increase 
per  week  has  been  reached. 

It  is  the  custom  in  Berkshire  to  sour  all  food  (especially  milk) 
for  pigs.  For  this  purpose  it  is  all  mixed  in  large  troughs  (in 
which  a  Httle  of  the  last-mixed  food  remains),  and  allowed  to 
stand  for  some  time  before  being  given  to  the  pigs,  the  idea  being 
that  they  feed  better  on  this  soured  food,  and  are  less  liable  to 
suffer  from  costiveness. 

When  young  pigs  are  kept  in  high  condition  on  maize  alone, 
they  will  often  be  subjected  to  staggering  and  fits.  The  writer 
has  known  many  young  pigs  die  from  the  effects  of  maize  in  this 
way ;  and  when  the  food  was  changed  for  mixed  barley  and  wheat, 
no  more  deaths  occurred. 

Maize  is  particularly  low  in  ash  constituents,  and  therefore 


580  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

unsuitable  for  any  young  stock,  unless  mixed  in  small  quantities 
with  other  more  suitable  foods. 

In  an  experiment  at  Rothamsted,  it  was  found  that  an  addi- 
tion of  superphosphate  of  lime  improved  the  feeding  qualities  of 
maize  for  pigs.  Small  coal  and  cinders  are  recommended  by 
some  feeders  to  be  kept  within  reach ;  they  are  supposed  to  help 
in  the  digestion  of  their  food. 

Pigs  are  often  kept  by  butchers,  to  consume  the  offal  from  the 
slaughter-house.  They  will  also  eat  the  flesh  of  dead  animals, 
if  allowed.  Flesh  is  better  for  them  when  boiled.  The  pork 
from  pigs  fed  in  this  way  is  not  nearly  so  delicate  in  flavour  as 
when  they  have  been  fed  on  grain,  milk,  etc. 

Brood  sows  should  not  be  allowed  to  consume  any  animal 
flesh,  as  it  gives  them  a  taste  for  eating  chicken  or  young 
lambs,  if  they  get  the  chance ;  it  also  may  encourage  them  to  eat 
their  own  farrows. 

Pigs  cannot  be  successfully  reared  on  7a^ey  alone ;  but  its 
addition  to  meal  shows  a  marked  saving  in  that  substance.  It 
has  been  calculated,  from  experiments,  that  when  whey  has  been 
given  to  pigs,  in  the  proportion  of  one  gallon  of  whey  to  one  or 
two  pounds  of  meal,  the  gallon  of  whey  has  been  equal  to  rather 
more  than  one  pound  of  meal.  The  whey  is  chiefly  valuable  for 
the  sugar  it  contains.  When  it  is  given  in  large  quantities,  the 
meal  supplied  in  conjunction  should  be  of  a  fairly  nitrogenous 
nature,  to  get  the  best  results. 

The  Piggeries  should,  if  possible,  be  built  facing  the  south,  as 
pigs  feed  best  in  warm  situations. 

The  ordinary  kind  of  pigsty  is  built  in  the  following  manner. 
There  is  an  enclosed  portion  for  the  pig  to  retire  to  for  sleeping, 
etc.,  entirely  built  in  with  the  exception  of  a  little  open  doorway, 
large  enough  for  the  pig  to  pass  in  and  out.  When  a  man 
wants  to  enter  the  sty  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  it,  he  has  to 
stoop  to  get  through  the  doorway.  As  a  rule  there  is  no  door ; 
but  it  is  convenient  to  have  a  door  fitted  that  slides  up  and  down 
in  a  groove,  in  order  that  the  pigs  may  be  sheltered  in  very  cold 
and  windy  weather  during  winter,  although  in  the  general  way  it 
need  not  be  used  at  other  times  of  the  year.  In  front  of  the  sty 
is  built  a  little  yard,  which  is  usually  slightly  larger  than  the  sty ; 
the  walls  of  the  yard  are  low,  so  as  to  admit  the  sun. 

The  feeding-trough  is  usually  built  in  the  wall  of  the  yard, 
with  a  swinging  door  dropping  in  it,  so  that  the  trough  may  be 
cleaned  from  outside.  An  iron  bar  drops  from  the  door  into  the 
trough ;  this  keeps  the  door  from  swinging  beyond  either  side 
of  the  trough,  and  so  prevents  the  escape  of  the  pig  through 
the  hole,  in  which  the  trough  is  let  in.     The  advantage  of  this 


POULTRY.  581 

system  is  that  the  pigs  may  be  fed  without  entering  the  yard.  In 
some  cases  a  stone  flag  is  let  down  in  the  place  of  the  door,  but 
this,  being  immovable,  does  not  offer  the  same  facility  for  cleaning 
out  the  trough  without  entering  the  yard. 

A  special  house  or  two  should  be  erected  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  farrowing  sows.  These  should  be  larger,  and  may  be 
built  without  the  yard,  and  usually  without  the  trough  let  in  the 
wall,  as  this  may  act  as  an  inlet  for  too  much  cold  air.  It  should 
be  fitted  with  ventilators,  which  in  severe  weather  might  be  easily 
stopped  with  straw,  if  necessary.  It  should  have  a  stout  rail  all 
round,  as  before  mentioned. 

Some  people  prefer  these  closed  sties  for  feeding  purposes  to 
those  fitted  with  yards.  A  few  fairly  large  sties,  with  yards  pro- 
portionately large,  should  be  erected  for  young  pigs. 

The  ground  on  which  piggeries  are  erected  should  be  well 
drained. 

Opinions  differ  very  much  as  to  which  is  the  best  material  for 
flooring.  In  some  cases  asphalte  is  used.  These  floors  are 
easily  cleaned,  and  do  not  absorb  the  moisture;  their  slippery 
nature,  however,  makes  them  objectionable.  Flagged  floors  are 
common,  but  many  breeders  object  to  flags,  as  they  are  apt  to 
absorb  the  moisture,  and  are  not  considered  good  for  young  pigs. 

Floors  made  of  bricks  laid  in  cement,  or  cobbled  floors,  are 
free  from  these  objections,  and  are  generally  approved  of. 

In  some  cases  wooden  floors  with  small  spaces  between  the 
boards  are  used,  with  the  idea  of  saving  litter.  The  Uquid  manure 
passes  between  the  boards  to  a  space  below,  the  floors  being 
swept  out  every  day.  The  wood  absorbs  the  moisture,  and  the 
liquid  below  soon  gives  off  an  objectionable  odour.  Pigs  thrive 
much  better  when  supplied  w^ith  a  warm,  dry,  and  comfortable 
bed  of  straw.  It  is  not,  therefore,  surprising  to  find  that  this  kind 
of  flooring  has  met  with  very  few  supporters  in  districts  where 
straw  is  even  only  moderately  abundant. 

The  floor  should  always  have  an  inclination,  in  order  to  allow 
the  unabsorbed  Hquid  to  run  off,  and  keep  the  bed  dry.  Pigs,  as 
a  rule,  thrive  badly  in  a  damp  sty. 

It  is  convenient  to  have  a  boiling-house  near  the  piggeries,  in 
which  the  food  may  be  prepared  and  mixed.  If  water  can  be 
laid  on  to  the  sties  and  boiling-house,  it  will  be  found  a  great 
advantage. 

E. — Poultry. 

Poultry  are  among  the  lesser  means  which  a  farmer  can 
employ   to   make   a   profit.     As  a  rule  they  do  not   occupy  a 


582  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

prominent  place  among  the  stock  of  the  ordinary  English 
agriculturist,  and  it  is  somewhat  rare  to  see  in  this  country  a 
farm,  of  any  size,  exclusively  given  up  to  the  breeding  and  rearing 
of  poultry.  On  the  continent,  however,  poultry  farming  is  often 
carried  on  with  success  by  itself,  and  there  is  no  reason  why 
every  English  farmer  should  not  make  a  good  profit  out  of  his 
fowls  and  ducks.  This  desirable  result,  however,  is  not  always 
attained,  on  account  of  bad  management  and  neglect. 

Kinds  of  Poultry.— The  most  common  poultry  kept  on  the 
farm  are  fowls,  ducks,  geese,  and  sometimes  a  few  turkeys.  On 
some  estates  pigeons  are  kept,  often  in  considerable  numbers. 


I.  Fowls. 

Breeds. — The  following  are  the  more  important : — 

Dorkings. — Large  square  body;  small  neck  and  medium 
head,  having  a  rose  comb ;  legs,  white  in  colour,  with  five  toes ; 
flesh,  fine  and  white.  They  are  excellent  table  fowls,  but  are 
scarcely  up  to  the  average  in  laying  powers.  The  plumage  is 
white  or  coloured.     The  white  variety  is  the  best. 

Scotch-greys. — Very  like  the  Dorkings,  and  also  are  five-toed. 
Their  plumage  is  black  and  white,  and  legs  white  or  speckled.  They 
are  good  layers,  and  give  flesh  of  fair  quality  and  white  in  colour. 

Andalusians. — Small  size,  with  rather  long  legs  and  neck  : 
plumage  a  bluish-grey  or  slate  colour ;  legs  blue  ;  cocks  have 
large  sickle-shaped  tails.  They  give  plenty  of  eggs,  but  are 
poor-fleshed. 

Minorcas. — Small  in  size,  but  hardy ;  legs  shorter  than  with 
other  Spanish  fowls,  and  dark-coloured  ;  white  on  face  ;  single  large 
comb  j  feathers,  black.  Flesh  is  dark-coloured,  and  indifferent  in 
quality,  but  they  are  very  good  egg-producers. 

Brahmas. — Large,  feather-legged,  heavy  birds ;  heads  rather 
small ;  small  rose  comb.  Their  flesh  is  of  moderate  quality,  and, 
although  not  above  the  average  in  egg-laying,  they  make  good 
mothers.  They  are  hardy,  and  rank  among  the  general-purpose 
fowls. 

Cochins. — Fairly  large  birds ;  wings  small  and  incapable  of 
flight ;  cocks  have  no  long  tail-feathers ;  variously  coloured — 
buffs  are  best.  They  are  yellow-fleshed,  of  not  very  good  quality  ; 
rather  poor  layers. 

Langs hans. — Large  size  ;  long  legs,  slightly  feathered ;  long, 
high  tails  ;  single  comb  ;  plumage,  black.  They  are  hardy,  good- 
fleshed,  but  do  not  produce  many  eggs.  This  and  the  last  two 
breeds  originally  came  from  China. 

Malays. — Large,  heavy  breeds  j   close  feathered  ;   very  pug- 


POULTRY.  583 

nacious.  They  are  brownish-fleshed,  rather  coarse  in  quality ;  not 
good  layers. 

Game. — Small  size,  often  very  handsome;  legs  clean  and 
long;  head  long,  with  strong  beak  and  single  upright  comb;  breast 
broad  ;  feathers  hard  ;  very  pugnacious.  The  brown-red  and  old 
English  game  are  the  best.  They  have  good  flesh,  especially 
the  latter  breed.  It  is,  however,  dark  in  colour.  They  do  not 
lay  many  eggs. 

Indian  Game. — Large  fowls,  rather  heavily  boned ;  long  legs 
and  neck  ;  plumage  dark-coloured ;  small  tail.  Their  flesh  is  of 
good  quality,  and  abundant. 

Hamburgs. — Small  size,  but  well-shaped;  legs  long;  neat 
head  with  rose-comb ;  tail  large,  and  feathers  of  it  curved.  There 
are  five  varieties :  Gold-spangled  and  Silver-spangled,  Gold- 
pencilled  and  Silver-pencilled,  and  Black,  according  to  their 
colour.  The  Spangled  varieties  are  hardier  than  the  two  Pencilled 
kinds,  and  grow  to  larger  size.  The  Black  Hamburg  is  the  largest 
of  the  five  varieties.  The  Hamburgs  are  better  layers  than  any 
other  breed,  but,  excepting  those  of  the  Black  variety,  the  eggs 
are  very  small.  They  do  not  often  sit  on  their  eggs,  but  keep 
on  laying.  They  are  not  very  good  meat-producers,  and  do  not 
thrive  when  closely  confined. 

Redcaps. — Derived  from  the  Golden-spangled  Hamburg,  which 
they  closely  resemble.  They  have  large,  peculiar-looking  combs ; 
markings  similar  to  Hamburgs,  but  not  so  regular ;  tail  feathers 
long  and  sickle-shaped.     They  are  good  layers. 

Leghoi'ns. — Medium  size ;  single-combed ;  long  drooping 
tail-feathers ;  legs  clean,  yellow  in  colour.  There  are  several 
varieties,  the  Brown  and  White  being  the  chief.  Besides  these, 
there  are  Black,  Buff,  Duckwing,  Cuckoo,  and  Pile.  Their  flesh 
is  not  of  great  value,  but  they  are  good  layers,  and  their  eggs  are 
of  large  size. 

Plymouth  Rocks. — Large  size  and  rather  big-boned;  comb 
single;  broad  breast  and  back;  large  tail;  short,  clean,  yellow 
legs ;  plumage  dark  blue.  The  varieties  are  the  Cuckoo,  Black, 
and  White.  They  are  hardy  and  docile ;  though  very  frequent 
layers,  their  eggs  are  of  good  size,  and  they  are  good  sitters  and 
mothers.     Their  flesh  is  not  of  more  than  average  quality. 

Wyandottes. — Large  size  ;  plumage  laced ;  legs  yellow ;  comb 
rose-coloured.  Very  similar  as  regards  value  to  Plymouth  Rocks, 
but  are  rather  better  layers.  These  two  breeds,  with  the  Domi- 
niques,  come  from  America. 

Dominiques. — Average  size ;  rose  combs ;  yellow  legs  and 
beaks ;  plumage  is  cuckoo-marked.  They  are  hardy,  good  layers, 
and  excellent  mothers. 


584  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

Houdans. — Large  size ;  head  crested  \  legs  clean,  light  in 
colour,  and  with  five  toes ;  rose-combed ;  tail  large ;  plumage 
mottled  black  and  wliite.  They  are  very  hardy,  plump  ;  flesh  fine 
and  white ;  good  summer  layers ;  do  not  sit  much,  and  require 
an  extensive  run. 

Ci'lvecmirs. — Fine  large  fowls;  compact,  plump  body;  wide 
backs  ;  head  crested,  round  in  female ;  comb  forked  ;  legs  short 
and  black ;  colour,  metallic  black.  They  have  excellent  white 
flesh,  and  readily  fatten,  but  are  not  hardy.  They  are  only 
average  egg-producers. 

La  Flkhe. — Large,  massive  birds ;  head  has  forked  comb ; 
face  large,  red,  and  bare ;  long  black  legs ;  plumage  a  metallic 
black.  Their  flesh  is  fine  and  white ;  they  fatten  easily  and  are 
better  layers  than  other  French  breeds. 

La  Bresse. — Large  breed ;  combs  large ;  resemble  the  pencilled 
Hamburgs.     Flesh  is  very  good ;  they  do  not  produce  many  eggs. 

There  are  several  other  French  breeds,  giving  good  flesh  of  a 
white  colour  as  a  rule. 

Bantams. — Are  very  small  in  size,  and  hence  scarcely  pay 
the  farmer  for  their  keep. 

The  Poultry-house. — On  an  ordinary  farm  the  poultry-house 
will  most  probably  be  a  fixed  building.  Where  poultry-raising  is 
carried  out  on  a  large  scale,  movable  houses  are  the  best.  The 
permanent  building  should  be  divided  into  several  compartments  ; 
hens  and  turkeys,  owing  to  their  roosting,  will  take  up  one  part, 
and  ducks  and  geese,  which  do  not  roost,  require  another.  A 
room  eight  feet  by  six  feet,  and  six  feet  high,  holds  about  thirty 
fowls.  All  houses  should  be  warm,  dry,  clean,  and  well  ventilated. 
Their  temperature  may  be  raised  by  making  them  medium-sized 
and  not  too  large,  and,  if  possible,  having  them  adjoining  a  stable 
or  byre.  When  too  cold  it  benumbs  the  fowls,  does  not  allow 
them  to  lay  on  any  flesh,  and  decreases  their  egg-laying  powers. 
Dryness  is  essential  to  the  well-doing  of  poultry.  Nothing  causes 
hens  to  appear  more  miserable  than  when  constantly  wet.  A 
good  roof  of  slate  or  tarred  wood  keeps  out  the  rain,  and,  as  a 
protection  against  damp  from  below,  the  floor  should  be  a  foot  or 
two  above  the  ground.  The  house  should  be  often  cleaned  out, 
and  whitewashed,  once  a  year  at  least,  with  lime-wash,  to  which 
a  httle  carbolic  acid  has  been  added.  When  the  room  is  allowed 
to  remain  in  a  dirty  condition,  poultry  become  affected  by  Uce. 
Ventilation  may  be  secured  by  having  a  few  small  holes  high  up 
at  the  gables,  or  by  having  a  ventilator  fixed  in  the  roof.  The 
impure  air  rises  above  the  other,  and  thus  gets  out  by  these  holes. 
A  small  window  should  be  put  in  the  side  of  the  room,  as  light 
adds  much  to  the  comfort  of  the  place. 


POULTRY.  585 

Perches  are  needed  for  fowls  and  turkeys.  They  should  be 
three  or  four  inches  broad,  with  rounded  edges,  and  from  one  to 
two  feet  from  the  floor. 

An  apartment  may  be  reserved  for  laying  fowls,  but  this  is 
not  necessary.  Nests  have  to  be  provided,  of  course.  They 
should  be  about  fourteen  inches  square,  and  a  foot  high,  and 
have  their  sides  formed,  generally,  of  a  box.  This  is  then  partly 
filled  in  with  straw,  hay,  or  some  soft  vegetable  material.  Poultry, 
which  are  hatching  eggs,  should  have  an  apartment  to  themselves, 
in  order  that  they  may  not  be  disturbed.  The  nests  should  be 
placed  in  small  compartments,  secured  by  doors,  so  that  the 
mother  may  be  prevented  from  leaving  the  eggs  at  any  time.  A 
small  green  sod  should  be  placed  at  the  bottom  of  each  nest : 
it  prevents  the  eggs  becoming  too  dry.  Outside  every  poultry- 
house  there  should,  if  possible,  be  a  small  covered  yard  in 
which  the  fowls  can  take  a  little  exercise  in  wet  weather. 
Movable  poultry-houses  are  generally  raised  two  or  three  feet 
from  the  ground,  and  hence  provide  an  outdoor  shelter  for  their 
occupants. 

An  apartment  for  chickens  and  another  for  fattening  fowls  are 
generally  needed.  The  chicken-coop  should  be  placed  up  against 
a  wall  for  protection,  and  should  face  south.  It  should  have  a 
large  window,  and  a  covered  shed  in  which  the  young  ones  may 
run.     The  room  should  be  kept  warm  and  dry. 

Fattening-rooms  must  be  dark,  warm,  and  dry.  The  darkness 
prevents  the  fowls  from  taking  too  much  exercise,  and  their 
comfortable  situations  cause  them  to  lay  on  flesh  rapidly. 

Movable  poultry-houses  are  very  useful  on  many  farms.  By 
their  means  poultry  can  be  often  provided  with  fresh  runs,  and 
such  changes  greatly  improve  their  health.  The  sizes  are  similar 
to  those  of  permanent  houses.  They  run  on  four  wheels,  so 
placed  that  the  floor  is  about  two  or  two  and  a  half  feet  above  the 
ground.  On  a  large  poultry-farm  these  kinds  of  houses  are  better 
than  permanent  structures. 


The  Production  of  Eggs,  and  Management  of  Laying 
Poultry. 

The  general  shape  of  eggs  is  well  known,  but  of  their  minute 
internal  structure  most  people  are  ignorant. 

An  average  egg  weighs  about  two  ounces,  although  some  weigh 
nearly  three.    We  will  now  consider  the  different  parts  of  an  egg. 

The  Shell  consists  chiefly  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  a  little 
phosphate  of  lime,  and  is  cemented  together  by  a  small  amount  of 


586 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


gluten,  and  is  either  white  or  coloured.     Coloured  eggs  are  often 
regarded  as  the  richer,  though  not  much  difference  exists. 

The  White  of  the  egg  consists  of  albumen,  coagulable  on 
heating.  It  is  in  three  layers,  and  through  it  there  runs  a 
hardened  spiral  band  of  albuminous  material,  called  the  chalaza, 
which  supports  the  yolk. 

Between  the  white  of  the  egg  and  the  shell  are  two  delicate 

membranes,  one  ad- 
hering closely  to  the 
shell,  the  other  to  the 
albumen.  These  two 
skins  are  joined  except 
at  the  large  end  of  the 
egg,  where  they  separate 
and  form  the  air-cavity. 
The  Yolk,  in  the 
centre  of  the  egg,  is  in- 
vested by  the  vitelline 
membrane.  It  consists 
of  a  small  flask-shaped 
mass  of  white  yolk, 
round  which  are  ar- 
ranged alternating  con- 
centric layers  of  yellow 
and  white  yolk,  the  yel- 
low being  in  much  the 
greater  abundance.  At 
the  commencement  of 
the  larger  mass  of  white 
yolk  is  seen  the  yel- 
or  blastoderm,  from  which,  when  properly 
The  yolk  is   very  nourish- 


FiG.  97. — Section  of  an  egg  :  A,  the  shell ; 
brane  adhering  to  the  shell ;  C,  second  membrane, 
slightly  attached  to  B,  except  at  the  large  end  of 
egg,  where  they  separate  and  form  D,  the  air-space  ; 
E,  the_  white  or  albuminous  part  of  the  egg  (first 
layer,  liquid) ;  F,  the  white  of  the  egg  (second  layer, 
semi-liquid)  ;  G,  the  inner  white  ;  HH,  chalaza ; 
I,  inner  membrane  ;  J,  very  fine  vitelline  membrane  ; 
K,-  the  outer  part  of  yolk ;  L,  the  germ ;  M,  yolk ; 
N,  utricle ;  a,  b,  c,  separate  layers  composing  yolk. 


lowish-white   germ 

fertilized,  the  young  chick  grows. 

ing,  containing  a  large  percentage  of  albuminoids,  fatty  organic 

matters,  and  mineral  salts.     Its  yellow  colour  is  due  chiefly  to 

sulphur,  which,  on  decomposition,   is  given  oif  as  sulphuretted 

hydrogen,  causing  an  unpleasant  smell. 

Egg-laying. — The  powers  of  various  hens  as  egg-producers 
have  already  been  noticed.  The  yolk  is  produced  in  the  ovary, 
and,  during  its  passage  along  the  oviduct,  becomes  coated  with 
albumen.  The  chalaza  is  formed  by  the  spiral  motion  of  the 
egg.  It  also  receives  its  two  protecting  membranes  and  its  shell, 
and  is  then  expelled  apex  foremost.  In  a  year  a  hen  lays  from 
a  hundred  to  over  two  hundred,  according  to  breed.  Generally 
about  three  or  four  eggs  are  laid  on  successive  days,  and  then  a 
miss  for  a  day  takes  place. 


POULTRY.  587 

Treatment  of  Laying  Fowls.— Poultry,  in  order  to  lay  eggs, 
require  to  be  well  supplied  with  proper  food,  as  it  is  only  from 
the  extra  amount  given  that  eggs  are  produced.  Highly  albu- 
minous food  is  needed  for  the  white  and  yolk ;  and  plenty  of 
mineral  salts,  particularly  carbonate  of  lime,  is  required  for  the 
shell.  When  at  large,  the  fowls  generally  pick  up  enough  lime 
with  their  food,  but  when  confined  it  should  be  supplied  in  a  small 
heap  near  the  house,  in  the  form  of  slaked  lime,  powdered  oyster, 
and  other  shells,  etc.    Their  other  food  will  be  treated  further  on. 

Laying  poultry  require  plenty  of  exercise  to  keep  them  in 
good  health.  Soft-shelled  eggs  are  one  of  the  results  of  insufficient 
exercise,  food  of  too  fattening  a  nature  and  deficient  in  lime.  When 
the  birds  are  too  fat,  there  also  is  often  a  difficulty  in  passing  the 
eggs  out. 

It  should  be  said  that  hens  lay  plenty  of  eggs  when  a  male  is 
not  among  the  stock ;  but  these  eggs  contain  no  living  germ,  and 
are  of  no  use  for  hatching. 

Hatching. 

Before  the  eggs  can  be  hatched,  the  germ  must  be  alive,  and 
this  can  only  be  accomplished  by  copulation.  In  order  that  this 
process  may  take  place,  not  more  than  a  dozen  females  should  be 
allowed  to  every  male.  The  cocks  should  be  strong  and  vigorous, 
and  not  related  in  blood  to  the  hens,  as  in-and-in  breeding  is  apt 
to  cause  constitutional  derangement  among  the  offspring. 

The  Hatching-house  should  be  roomy  and  comfortable,  and 
ought  to  be  well  lighted.  One  essential  condition  is,  that  it  should 
be  quiet,  for,  if  the  hens  are  frequently  driven  off  their  nests,  the 
eggs  get  chilled  and  the  young  embryo  they  contain  dies.  It  is 
perhaps  best  to  have  each  nest  in  a  separate  small  compartment, 
about  fifteen  inches  square  and  eighteen  inches  high,  and  having 
a  door  about  a  foot  high.  The  nests  should  be  made  of  clean 
soft  straw,  placed  upon  a  green  sod. 

Sitting  Hens. — Hens  should  be  selected  which  may  be 
expected  to  make  good  sitters  and  good  mothers.  Plymouth 
Rocks  and  Wyandottes  make  excellent  hatchers.  Large  bulky 
fowls  are  not  generally  good  mothers,  being  apt  to  crush  the 
chickens,  and  not  getting  them  plenty  of  food.  Hens  above  three 
and  a  half  years  old  ought  not  to  be  kept  for  breeding.  The 
hen  should  be  trained  to  sit,  by  giving  it  two  or  three  old  eggs  the 
first  time.  If  it  keeps  to  the  nest  well,  these  eggs  may  be  taken 
out  after  a  couple  of  days  and  fertile  eggs  put  in.  The  fertile 
eggs,  when  held  to  the  light,  should  appear  semi-transparent  and 
of  uniform  density.     Eleven  to  thirteen  eggs  are  about  as  many 


588  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

as  a  hen  can  comfortably  cover.  It  is  best  to  place  the  hen  on 
the  nest  towards  evening,  when  it  would  be  coming  home  to  roost, 
as  then  it  takes  better  to  the  nest.  With  small  stocks,  April 
is  early  enough  to  begin  sitting. 

It  is  most  advisable  to  place  the  food  near  the  nest ;  where 
breeding  poultry  have  to  seek  the  food  the  eggs  are  apt  to  get 
chilled.  Clean  water  is  always  required,  and  grain  should  be 
given  in  its  natural  state.  Grit  is  needed ;  it  is  taken  into  the 
crop  of  the  fowl,  and  acts  in  much  the  same  way  as  teeth,  grinding 
away  the  food  by  its  movements.  A  dust  bath  is  needed  by  the 
fowls  to  clean  themselves  in,  and  about  half  an  hour  a  day  may  be 
allowed  to  the  hen  for  exercise.  In  dry  weather  the  eggs  may  be 
damped  occasionally  with  warm  water ;  a  better  way  of  damping 
would  be  to  run  a  little  warm  water  upon  the  sod  at  the  bottom 
of  the  nest.  Enough  moisture  would  rise  through  the  straw  to 
give  the  required  amount  to  the  eggs.  The  hatching-room  should 
always  be  well  ventilated,  as  the  chicks,  when  large  enough,  begin 
to  breathe  through  the  slightly  porous  shell  of  the  egg ;  bad  air 
would  soon  kill  them  at  this  stage.  About  the  eighth  day  of 
hatching,  if  the  egg  is  held  up  to  the  light,  the  embryo  can  be 
seen  as  a  dark  mass.  When  this  is  not  the  case,  the  egg  is  not  fertile, 
and  should  be  removed  at  once.  When  many  have  to  be  taken 
away  in  this  manner  it  often  happens  that  there  are  only  enough 
eggs  for  two  hens,  instead  of,  say,  three  to  hatch ;  in  this  case  the 
third  hen  may  be  given  fresh  eggs.  In  twenty-one  days  the  eggs 
generally  hatch ;  those  of  ducks,  geese,  and  turkeys, ,  however, 
require  thirty  days.  About  a  day  or  two  before  hatching,  the 
eggs  may  again  be  tested  by  floating  in  warm  water.  Those  that 
sink,  contain  dead  chicks,  and  may  be  thrown  away ;  the  rest  may 
be  returned  into  the  nest  after  about  two  minutes'  test.  It  is  best 
to  allow  the  chickens  to  come  out  themselves,  and  not  to  break  the 
shell.  After  hatching,  it  is  advisable  to  leave  the  young  with  the 
mother  for  the  first  twenty-four  hours  before  beginning  to  feed 
them.  Then  a  little  crumbled  bread  and  oatmeal,  or  boiled  rice 
and  barley  meal  may  be  given,  in  a  warm  condition,  with  clean 
water.  They  should  be  removed  from  the  hatching- house,  and 
allowed  to  shelter  in  warm  dry  chicken-houses  or  coops.  They 
should  run  about  with  the  hen  as  much  as  possible.  In  this 
way  they  grow  up  to  be  more  vigorous,  and  are  taught  to  pick 
up  various  insects,  worms,  seeds,  and  other  food.  They  should 
be  fed  frequently  during  the  day,  getting  oatmeal  porridge,  rice, 
crumbled  bread  or  potatoes,  with  sometimes  a  hard-boiled  egg, 
cut  up  fine.  Nothing  should  be  given  in  a  cold,  sloppy,  or  sour 
condition.  Various  prepared  foods  for  chickens  are  now  manu- 
factured, and  are  very  useful.     In  a  month  or  two  the  chickens 


POULTRY.  589 

will  be  able  to  forage  for  themselves.  When  rather  older,  they 
become  known  as  cockerels  or  pullets,  according  to  sex. 

Artificial  Incubators. — These  are  now  taking  the  place  of 
sitting  hens  to  a  large  extent.  Their  advantages  are— (i)  many 
more  eggs  can  be  hatched  in  a  year,  and  at  any  time ;  (2)  there 
are  very  few  losses  from  the  eggs  being  chilled  or  being  broken ; 
(3)  the  brooding  hens  can  be  employed  in  laying  eggs,  or  may  be 
sold.  The  outer  case  of  an  incubator  is  of  wood  or  block  tin, 
and  is  of  rectangular  form.  At  the  base  or  side  of  this  is  a  lamp 
(burning  various  kinds  of  oil)  or  a  gas-burner.  The  eggs  are  laid 
upon  a  perforated  curved  zinc  sheet,  fitting  into  a  drawer,  which 
can  be  easily  pulled  out.  Air  comes  in  from  the  bottom  of  the 
machine,  and,  passing  up  through  a  cloth  soaked  in  water,  becomes 
charged  with  moisture,  and  damps  the  eggs.  The  temperature  of 
the  incubator  is  kept  up  to  104°  Fahr.  by  the  lamp,  the  heat  from 
which  passes  along  one  or  more  pipes  running  through  a  small 
reservoir  of  water  in  the  upper  part  of  the  machine.  The  water 
is  heated,  then  the  air  above  the  tray,  and  finally  the  eggs.  In 
order  that  the  temperature  may  not  rise  too  high,  various  kinds 
of  regulators  are  used.  One  of  the  best  consists  of  a  metal 
capsule,  containing  a  small  amount  of  a  liquid  boiling  at  104° 
Fahr.  It  is  situated  just  above  the  eggs,  and  fixed  to  the  water- 
vessel  above.  When  the  temperature  rises  too  high  the  liquid 
boils,  and  communicates  motion  to  a  long  needle,  which,  by  means 
of  a  system  of  levers,  causes  a  valve  to  open  near  the  lamp.  •  This 
allows  much  of  the  heat  to  pass  out,  and  almost  at  once  reduces 
the  temperature  to  the  proper  degree. 

The  room  in  which  the  incubator  is,  should  be  well  ventilated, 
but  not  draughty,  and  should  be  kept  at  a  regular  temperature, 
C.S  near  60°  Fahr.  as  possible.  All  eggs  before  putting  in  the 
incubator  should  be  dated,  and  heated  by  placing  in  warm  water 
for  a  short  time.  The  latter  operation  is  to  get  them  at  the  same 
temperature  as  those  already  on  the  tray.  Eggs  require  to  be 
turned  twice  daily  to  get  them  acted  on  uniformly,  and  ought  to 
be  cooled  for  about  five  minutes  each  day  so  as  to  make  the 
process  as  natural  as  possible.  The  water-tray  below  should  be 
regularly  supplied  with  water,  warmed  a  little.  When  the  chickens 
come  out  of  their  shells  they  should  be  removed  to  a  warm  room, 
and  the  remains  of  their  eggs  taken  away. 

Artificial  Mothers. — These  are  very  useful  where  large  numbers 
of  chickens  are  produced  by  the  incubator.  They  each  consist  of 
an  apartment,  heated  by  means  of  a  well-protected  lamp.  The 
structure  is  well- ventilated,  warm,  dry,  and  has  certain  means  for 
keeping  the  temperature  regular.  Connected  with  this  nursery 
kpart  is  a  partly  covered  run.     The  nursery  is  so  arranged  that 


590  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

the  chickens  do  not  crowd  each  other,  and  can  be  easily  and 
regularly  fed.  The  "  artificial  mothers  "  are  often  upon  wheels, 
and  can  thus  be  easily  removed  from  one  place  to  another. 

Foods. 

In  feeding  it  should  always  be  remembered  to  give  the  food 
often,  and  quite  fresh.  The  food  for  chickens  has  already  been 
mentioned.  They  must  have  soft  food,  and  no  whole  grain  until 
five  or  six  weeks  old,  although  a  little  crushed  buckwheat  may  be 
given  occasionally  before  this  time.  The  young  poultry  should 
be  allowed  to  run  about  in  some  field  if  possible.  There  they 
pick  up  various  worms  and  insects,  and  also  a  few  nice  fresh 
leaves.  If  breeding  poultry  are  needed,  plenty  of  mineral  salts, 
etc.,  should  be  given  in  the  food  in  order  to  get  strong  frames. 
Should  the  young  fowl  be  intended  for  the  table  at  an  early  age, 
soft  foods  are  given  to  get  flesh  with  little  bone. 

Food  of  Ordinary  Fowls. — Laying  and  hatching  hens  require 
foods  rich  in  all  the  constituents.  Grain  is  very  useful;  oats, 
buckwheat,  wheat,  and  barley  are  the  best  kinds.  A  mixture  of 
two  parts  of  barley  meal  and  one  part  each  of  oatmeal  and  Indian 
meal  has  been  recommended,  made  into  a  warm  crumbly  mass 
with  boiling  water.  Two  meals  a  day  are  sufficient  in  summer, 
but  three  are  required  in  winter.  The  first,  given  about  dawn, 
should  be  of  soft  food  with  a  little  animal  fat  in  it.  The  second, 
at  noon,  consists  of  chopped  green  food,  with  mashed  potatoes, 
table  scraps,  and  either  oatmeal  or  the  whole  grain.  About  five 
o'clock,  p.m.,  a  feed  of  grain,  oats,  wheat,  barley,  buckwheat,  or 
maize,  should  be  given.  Maize  is  a  good  winter  food,  containing 
a  large  percentage  of  heat-producing  elements.  Boiled  rice,  mixed 
with  oatmeal,  answers  well  in  summer.  When  feeding,  never  give 
food  in  large  quantities  at  a  time,  and  never  throw  grain  among  a 
large  number  of  fowls ;  the  stronger  will  prevent  the  weaker 
from  feeding.  Clean  water  is  always  needed,  and  should  be  often 
supplied. 

Fattening  Fowls. — In  order  that  as  much  profit  as  possible 
may  result,  it  is  best  to  keep  each  fattening  fowl  in  a  separate 
dark  compartment,  where  they  will  not  run  about  and  thus  use 
up  their  store  materials  for  energy.  Again,  the  room  should  be 
warm  and  dry,  and  the  poultry  as  comfortable  as  possible.  Rice, 
prepared  as  stated  before,  and  maize  are  the  two  most  valuable 
grains  for  fattening.  Soft  food  should  be  given,  and  it  is  well  to 
mix  it  with  skim  milk,  as  this  is  said  to  whiten  the  flesh.  Barley 
meal  and  oat  meal,  made  into  a  paste  with  milk,  are  good  foods. 
Another  mixture,  prepared   similarly,   consists   of  two  parts   of 


POULTRY.  591 

barley  meal,  and  one  each  of  maize  meal  and  buckwheat.  A 
little  cattle  spice  is  very  good  for  giving  a  flavour  to  the 
food. 

In  order  to  get  more  food  into  the  fowl,  cramming  is  some- 
times resorted  to.  The  process  is  either  performed  by  hand 
or  by  machine.  In  the  former  case,  the  food  is  made  into 
a  paste,  and  then  formed  into  pellets,  an  inch  and  a  half 
long  and  three-quarters  of  an  inch  broad.  It  is  then  dipped 
into  milk,  and  inserted  into  the  fowl's  mouth,  which  the 
operator  has  been  keeping  open.  It  is  then  pressed  by  the 
fingers  gently  into  the  crop,  until  filled.  Cramming  machines 
are  sometimes  used.  They  consist  of  a  vessel  holding  the 
food,  which  should  be  in  an  almost  liquid  state.  Attached 
to  this  vessel  is  a  small  force-pump,  worked  by  the  foot  of  the 
operator  by  means  of  a  treadle.  From  the  pump  there  comes 
an  india-rubber  tube  with  a  nozzle.  In  operating,  a  few  inches 
of  the  tube  are  gently  forced  down  the  throat  of  the  bird,  which 
is  held  in  both  hands.  By  pressing  on  the  treadle,  food  is  forced 
along  the  tube  into  the  fowl.  When  the  crop  is  filled,  the  tube 
is  gently  pulled  out,  and  the  fowl  set  at  liberty. 

2.  Ducks. 

Breeds. — There  are  only  three  important  breeds  of  ducks. 

Aylesbury, — Large  body;  plumage  white;  legs  short;  bill 
long,  flesh-coloured ;  feet  flesh-coloured.  It  is  a  very  good  layer, 
and  also  gives  plenty  of  fine  flesh. 

Pekifi. — Plumage  white;  bills  and  feet  orange  yellow;  legs 
placed  far  back.  Very  good  layers,  and  their  cross  with  the 
Aylesbury  grows  to  large  size  and  makes  a  good  table  bird. 

Rouen. — Large  size ;  colour  like  that  of  wild  duck,  from  which 
they  are  thought  to  be  descended.  They  are  good  layers,  hardy, 
and  have  good  flesh.  They  do  not  fatten  rapidly,  however,  and 
must  not  be  confined. 

Hatching. 

The  eggs  may  be  put  under  a  hen,  as  the  duck  does  not 
make  such  a  good  sitter  and  mother.  The  incubator  is  very 
useful,  and  ought  to  be  used  wherever  enough  eggs  have  to  be 
hatched.  It  should  be  remembered  always  to  have  the  eggs 
damp ;  on  no  account  should  they  be  allowed  to  get  dry. 

General  Management. — The  duck  house  should  always  be 
well  littered,  and,  as  the  ducks  roost  on  the  ground,  no  perches 
are  needed.    The  young  ducklings,  if  for  the  table,  should  be 


592  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

kept  away  from  ponds  and  streams;  otherwise  they  require 
access  to  water.  Barley  meal,  and  afterwards  Indian  meal  and 
bran,  made  very  watery,  are  good  foods  for  the  young  ducks. 
Boiled  potatoes  are  useful  as  a  change,  and  green  food  may  be 
given  in  small  quantities.  Hard-boiled  eggs,  chopped  up  fine, 
and  mixed  with  breadcrumbs  and  boiled  rice,  make  the  best  food 
for  the  ducklings  when  first  hatched.  After  they  are  about  five 
weeks  old,  they  may  get  coarse  rice  and  chandlers'  greaves,  boiled 
together.  Plenty  of  grit  is  needed.  The  ducks  will  be  ready  for 
the  market  in  about  eight  weeks. 

For  the  ordinary  ducks,  intended  for  laying  purposes,  fattening 
food  should  not  be  given.  Barley  meal,  and  pollards,  with  a  little 
oat  meal,  make  good  food  when  a  little  hot  water  is  added. 
Chandler's  greaves  are  very  useful  when  mixed  with  other  food. 
Twice  a  day  is  sufficient  for  the  ducks  to  be  fed.  Always 
remember  to  let  them  have  plenty  of  pure  water,  or  else  have 
the  food  in  a  sloppy  condition,  as  ducks  find  great  difficulty  in 
swallowing  dry  food. 

When  spring  ducklings  are  needed,  the  birds  may  be  mated 
about  December,  three  or  four  ducks  being  sufficient  for  each 
drake.  Ducks  often  have  a  bad  habit  of  laying  their  eggs  away 
from  home;  to  prevent  this,  they  should  not  be  let  out  until 
about  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  should  be  encouraged,  by 
feeding,  not  to  wander  away. 

3.  Geese. 

Breeds. — Only  two  pure  breeds  of  geese  are  known. 

Toulouse, — Large,  square-built  bird ;  plumage  grey ;  bill  and 
feet,  deep  orange ;  head  and  bill  strong ;  throat  has  a  "  dewlap." 
It  does  not  mature  early,  and  hence  is  of  little  use  "green."  It 
makes,  however,  very  large  weights,  and  its  flesh  is  of  good 
quality.     They  are  very  good  layers,  but  very  rarely  hatch. 

Embdett. — Plumage  white;  bill  flesh-coloured;  legs  and  feet, 
orange;  stands  more  erect  than  the  Toulouse.  It  matures 
rapidly,  but  does  not  make  quite  such  large  weights  as  the  former 
breed.  It  will  hatch  its  eggs,  but  as  a  rule  only  produces  one 
brood  per  year. 

The  common  breed  of  geese  are  often  a  cross  between 
Toulouse  and  Embden.  They  are  smaller  in  size,  but  more 
prolific,  rearing  two  or  three  broods  a  year. 

Hatching. 

The  eggs  may  either  be  hatched  by  giving  about  four  each 
to  a  few  Brahmas,  or  by  the  goose,  if  not  a  Toulouse.     Twelve 


POULTRY.  593 

to  fifteen  are  about  the  number  for  one  goose  to  hatch,  and  when 
the  female  has  got  about  this  number,  she  often  commences  to 
sit.  If  the  nests  are  in  a  house,  they  should  be  often  sprinkled 
with  luke-warm  water. 

General  Management. — The  goslings,  on  coming  out  of  their 
shells,  should  be  left  alone  for  about  a  day.  They  may  then  be 
taken  into  a  sunny  field  with  the  goose.  For  the  first  week  or  so, 
if  at  all  wet,  they  should  be  confined  to  a  large  roomy  coop, 
well  protected  from  both  the  sun's  rays  and  the  wind,  and  having 
no  floor.  They  should  be  well  supplied  with  fresh  green  turfs, 
as  they  are  very  fond  of  the  young  leaves  of  grasses.  Oatmeal 
paste,  made  into  pellets,  may  be  given,  with  plenty  of  good  water 
in  a  large  shallow  vessel.  Scalded  wheat  mixed  with  the  meal 
is  a  good  food,  with  boiled  potatoes  and  other  vegetables.  After 
they  are  about  ten  days  old  they  may  be  allowed  to  forage  for 
themselves,  and  if  to  be  sold  at  Christmas,  or  kept  for  breeding, 
they  are  run  on  the  pastures  all  summer,  and  receive  little  or  no 
extra  food.  After  harvest  they  are  put  on  the  stubbles.  They 
should  be  brought  home  before  dusk,  and  then  may  get  a  feed  of 
grain.  In  the  morning  the  fattening  goslings  should  receive  a  feed 
of  oat  meal  or  barley  meal  made  into  a  paste.  If  intended  for 
breeding,  they  should  be  allowed  a  few  turnips  frequently,  or 
some  vegetables  or  household  scraps,  with  their  corn.  They 
require  large  runs,  and  a  good  pond  to  swim  about  in.  Owing 
to  their  great  powers  of  foraging  for  themselves,  they  do  not  cost 
much  for  their  keep,  and  hence,  when  large  runs  are  easily 
obtained,  they  are  among  the  most  profitable  of  the  farmer's 
poultry  stock. 

Fattening. — The  young  goslings,  when  not  for  laying  purposes, 
should  be  fattened  from  their  birth,  if  to  be  sold  "green"  at  Michael- 
mas. One  essential  condition  is,  that  they  are  not  separated  one 
from  another,  but  all  fattened  in  one  flock.  Their  food  is  similar 
to  that  mentioned  before  ;  barley  meal,  light  wheat,  maize,  and 
brewers'  grains  being  also  given.  Most  geese  are  intended  to 
fatten  by  Christmas,  and  are  nearly  always  killed  before  sending 
to  market.  They  ought  to  fast  for  about  twenty-four  hours 
before  their  death.  Their  feathers,  especially  those  of  the 
Embden  goose,  are  of  considerable  value. 

4.  Turkeys. 

Breeds. — There  are  three  principal  breeds,  the  Cambridge, 
the  Black  Norfolk,  and  the  American  Bronze.  The  original 
turkeys  were  imported  from  America,  where  they  are  still  found 
wild. 

2  Q 


594  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Cambridge. — Large  size ;  full,  broad  chest ;  broad  tail ;  stands 
upright.     It  is  a  fairly  good  table  bird. 

Black  Norfolk. — Plumage  black;  not  quite  so  large  as  the 
last,  but  its  flesh  is  of  finer  flavour. 

American  Bronze. — The  largest  and  handsomest  variety, 
making  heavy  weights,  and  hence  of  more  value  per  pound  than 
the  ordinary  kind. 

General  Management. — If  one  thing  more  than  any  other 
must  be  insisted  on  in  turkey-rearing,  it  is  that  they  be  kept 
warm  and  dry.  This  is  due  to  their  being  natives  of  a  more 
southern  climate  than  England.  Clay  soils,  especially  when  not 
drained,  prevent  success,  and  on  these  places  turkeys  should  never 
be  kept.  On  the  lighter  and  drier  soils  of  Norfolk  they  can  be 
bred  with  profit.  In-and-in  breeding  tells  strongly  on  the  con- 
stitutions of  the  turkeys,  and  hence  it  is  advisable  to  frequently 
change  the  stock. 

The  hen  begins  to  lay  her  eggs  about  March,  and,  when 
observed  seeking  a  nest,  she  should  be  confined  in  a  place  in 
which  it  is  desired  that  the  eggs  be  laid.  After  laying  the  first  egg 
she  will  always  keep  to  the  same  nest.  If  this  is  not  done,  the 
eggs  are  often  lost  through  being  laid  in  out-of-the-way  places. 
Remove  the  eggs,  and  keep  them  packed  in  bran  until  enough 
have  been  collected  for  a  hatching.  Then  the  eggs  are  returned 
to  the  nest  when  she  shows  a  desire  to  hatch  by  remaining  on  the 
nest  for  a  considerable  time.  During  hatching  the  turkey  should 
be  disturbed  as  little  as  possible,  and  consequently  she  should  have 
plenty  of  food  handy  all  the  time.  Leave  the  young  birds  alone 
for  some  time  after  they  are  hatched.  Then  remove  them  with 
the  parent  to  a  large  dry  coop,  and  give  them  hard-boiled  eggs, 
chopped  up  fine  with  a  few  fresh  green  leaves  and  onions  (which 
are  very  important).  Boiled  rice  and  soft  food  should  also  be 
given.  Animal  food  should  be  given,  in  a  fine  state  of  division, 
in  small  amounts,  until  the  young  ones  are  fairly  well  grown.  The 
old  hen  should  not  be  allowed  to  take  them  into  the  fields,  as 
she  is  apt  to  take  them  long  tiring  journeys. 

When  fattening,  they  ought  to  be  shut  up  in  dark  rooms,  and 
there  given  two  meals  a  day  of  barley  meal  and  milk,  with  a  few 
slices  of  turnips,  or  mangels,  or  any  nutritious  green  food.  Corn, 
meal  porridge  and  milk  are  very  good,  and  some  sort  of  grain, 
oats,  wheat,  or  Indian  corn,  should  be  given. 

Turkeys  as  Mothers. — Turkeys  are,  as  a  rule,  very  attentive 
to  their  young,  and  have  been  recommended  for  hatching  hens* 
eggs.  For  the  latter  purpose  they  would  scarcely  surpass  the 
ordinary  hen,  although  they  would  be  able  to  take  more  under 
their  care.     A  peculiarity  of  the  turkey  is,  that  one  copulation  at 


POULTRY.  595 

the  beginning  of  the  season  renders  fertile  all  the  eggs  in  the 
ovarium. 

5.  Pigeons. 

Pigeons  are  of  little  trouble,  and,  being  generally  easily  sold, 
it  may  be  wondered  that  a  few  are  not  kept  on  every  farm. 
There  are  many  breeds,  but  for  table  and  profit  the  Blue  Rocks 
are  the  best.  The  dovecots  should  be  very  clean  ;  the  pigeons 
will  make  their  own  nests,  if  allowed.  When  placed  in  a  warm 
situation,  they  will  lay  from  February  to  December.  They  only 
hatch  two  eggs  at  a  time,  but  may  have  ten  hatches  a  year. 
After  the  brooding  season  is  over,  the  nests  should  be  cleared 
out,  as  a  considerable  amount  of  dung  accumulates  in  them.  The 
dung  is  rich  in  fertilizing  matters.  Pigeons  should  not  be  given 
too  much  food,  as  they  gather  nearly  enough  themselves.  Grain 
is  one  of  their  best  foods. 

6.  Guinea-hens. 

These  are  handsome  birds,  not  commonly  met  with  on  farms. 
The  spotted  variety  is  hardier  than  the  white,  and,  if  any  are  to 
be  kept,  it  should  be  these.  The  eggs  are  hatched  by  a  common 
hen  or  an  incubator;  the  period  of  incubation  being  one  month. 
The  young  ones  are  then  reared  in  a  coop,  round  which  is  a 
guard  to  prevent  them  from  straying.  It  should  be  moved  on 
to  fresh  ground  every  other  day.  They  are  fed  similarly  to 
young  turkeys.  They  forage  well,  and  give  good  flesh.  Their 
eggs  are  small  but  well  flavoured.  The  disadvantage  is  that  they 
are  very  quarrelsome  and  noisy,  and  on  this  account  are  often 
banished  from  the  farmyard. 

Marketing  of  Poultry  and  Eggs. 

Killing  and  Dressing  Poultry.— As  a  rule,  the  necks  are  first 
dislocated  by  extending  the  fowl  and  then  bending  the  head 
suddenly  backwards.  In  order  to  pull  them  more  easily,  the 
feathers  are  often  pulled  as  soon  as  this  operation  is  done.  They 
may  then  be  hung  up  by  the  legs ;  the  blood  collects  in  the  neck, 
and  does  not  colour  the  flesh.  Turkeys  generally  get  their  throats 
cut  in  order  to  bleed  them  well ;  they  are  then  plucked,  the 
feathers  being  only  left  on  the  neck  and  rump.  Geese  should 
be  well  fasted  before  killing,  and  should  be  allowed  to  clean  them- 
selves well  in  the  pond,  getting  clean  straw  to  lie  on  in  their 
houses.  Mr.  Edward  Brown  gives  the  following  account  of  the 
French  method  of  dressing  and  shaping  poultry.     There  are  two 


59^  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

principal  systems,  one  for  the  La  Bresse  fowls,  the  other  for  any 
kind.  In  the  former  the  hens  are  plucked  as  soon  as  killed, 
and,  whilst  warm,  they  are  wrapped  in  two  cloths  of  fine  and 
coarse  linen  respectively.  These  are  tied  on  tightl}',  the  outer 
one  being  stitched  up  and  damped.  The  birds  remain  in  these 
for  thirty-six  hours,  and  when  taken  out  are  long  in  shape,  with 
pointed  ends,  and  perfectly  round,  the  legs  and  wings  being 
pressed  tightly  into  the  sides.  In  the  other  system,  when  plucked, 
the  head,  legs,  and  lower  bowels  are  removed.  The  fowl  is 
then  laid  back  downwards,  on  the  dressing-board,  and  the  breast 
pressed  in  with  the  hands,  causing  the  ribs  to  crack  slightly  and 
loosen.  All  the  air  is  thus  forced  out  of  the  bird.  It  is  then 
turned  back  upwards ;  the  hocks  having  been  already  tied  with 
the  wings  through  them,  and  the  rump  supported  by  a  block  of 
wood  and  the  neck  by  a  pad,  a  wet  cloth  is  drawn  very  tightly 
over  the  back,  and  the  tapes  attached  to  it  for  the  purpose,  tied 
down  to  nails  on  the  sides  of  the  shaping  boards.  The  whole 
is  well  drenched  with  cold  water,  and  left  to  set.  On  receiving 
the  fowl,  the  cook  bends  the  legs  into  their  former  position,  and 
thus  raises  the  meat  on  the  breast-bone. 

If  the  poultry  are  not  to  be  sent  at  once  to  the  market,  they 
may  be  kept  in  a  very  cool  room,  after  having  had  their  intestines 
removed.  When  sent  by  rail,  they  should  be  packed  tightly  in 
damped  hampers. 

Eggs. — It  is  best  to  sell  all  eggs  as  fresh  as  possible,  but 
sometimes  they  have  to  be  stored  before  sale.  When  to  be  kept 
any  length  of  time,  prepare  the  following  mixture  in  a  large 
tub  : — water  15  gallons,  common  salt  i  lb.,  cream  of  tartar  -j  lb., 
well  stirred.  The  eggs  are  packed  tightly,  apex  downwards,  in 
another  vessel,  and  enough  of  the  mixture  poured  in  to  cover 
them.  This  goes  on  until  the  case  is  nearly  full.  On  standing 
a  few  days,  a  crust  forms  on  the  surface  and  excludes  all  air. 
When  eggs  are  being  collected  for  setting  fowls,  they  should  be 
placed,  point  down,  in  layers  of  bran. 

Infertile  eggs  will  keep  longer  than  those  containing  germs ; 
as  the  living  organism  will  soon  die,  decomposition  will  set  in, 
and  an  unpleasant  smell  be  produced. 

Eggs  should  be  carefully  packed  on  sending  to  markets. 
Various  kinds  of  egg-boxes  may  now  be  cheaply  purchased. 
The  eggs  are  either  placed  in  holes  in  trays,  or  may  be  placed 
in  an  even  manner  between  layers  of  clean  fresh  straw. 

Feathers  are  of  minor  importance,  and  only  a  small  weight 
is  obtained  from  each  fowl.  Those  of  the  Embden  goose  are 
about  the  most  valuable.  If  the  fowls  are  killed  on  the  farm, 
of  course  the  feathers,  excepting  the  large  strong  ones,  should 


BEES.  597 

be  kept.  They  should  be  heated  and  dried  several  times.  If 
tainted,  they  require  to  be  steamed.  Feathers  have  been  used 
as  manure,  as  they  contain  a  small  percentage  of  nitrogen,  but 
this  use  is  very  limited. 


F. — Bee  Management, 
Classes  of  Bees. 

Bees  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  (i)  the  Queen  bees, 
(2)  the  Drones,  and  (3)  the  Workers. 

The  Queen  Bee  is  longer,  tapers  more  at  the  extremity,  and 
has  a  back  of  a  darker  and  glossier  hue  than  the  ordinary  bee. 
Her  wings  are  small  proportionately,  and  her  sting  is  curved 
instead  of  being  straight.  She  is  not  provided  with  any  means 
of  extracting  the  honey  of  flowers,  her  only  function  being  to 
produce  eggs.  As  a  rule  the  queen  bee  lives  longer  than  her 
subjects,  being  known  to  live  for  five  or  six  years.  When  old, 
and  unfit  for  breeding,  she  is  generally  killed  by  the  bees,  and  one 
of  the  princesses  takes  her  place. 

The  Drones  are  the  male  bees.  They  are  somewhat  cylindrical 
in  form,  not  so  long  as  the  queen  bee,  but  larger  than  the 
workers.  Their  colour  is  a  deep  brown,  and  they  are  very  hairy. 
Their  wings  are  large  and  strong,  and  their  eyes  very  powerful. 
Drones  are  not  capable  of  taking  the  nectar  of  flowers,  and  hence 
have  to  depend  upon  the  food  stored  up  by  the  other  bees. 
They  are  produced  in  considerable  numbers  every  year,  and 
have  as  their  function  the  fertilization  of  the  queen,  an  act 
which  only  requires  to  be  done  once  in  her  life.  They  have 
been  said  to  be  of  use,  in  the  summer,  in  producing  heat  in  the 
hive  in  the  absence  of  the  honey-gathering  workers.  In  the 
autumn,  when  all  the  bees  return  to  the  hive,  the  drones  are  con- 
sidered useless,  and  are  accordingly  pushed  out  of  the  hives,  and 
soon  die. 

The  Workers,  sometimes  called  Neuters,  are  females  with 
undeveloped  reproductive  organs.  They  are  much  smaller  than 
the  two  former  varieties,  and  very  rarely  engage  in  reproduction. 
In  a  few  cases  a  worker  has  been  noticed  to  lay  eggs,  but  these 
are  extremely  rare  exceptions  to  the  general  rule.  As  seen  from 
their  name,  this  is  the  working  class  of  bees.  Their  functions  are 
extremely  varied,  but  among  them  may  be  mentioned  the  gather- 
ing of  pollen  and  honey,  building  of  comb,  nursing  young  bees, 
ventilating  the  hive.  These  will  be  referred  to  more  fully 
later  on. 


598  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Life  of  the  Bee. 

The  eggs  are  produced  by  the  queen  bee.  If  starting  for 
the  first  season,  when  a  few  days  old,  the  queen  leaves  the  hive 
on  what  is  called  her  "  wedding  flight."  It  is  her  endeavour  to 
meet  a  male  or  drone,  and  thus  get  fertiHzed.  This  fertilization 
can  only  take  place  on  the  wing,  and  it  is  because  of  the  chances 
of  missing  each  other,  that  such  a  large  number  of  drones  are 
produced.  On  meeting,  fertilization  takes  place,  and  the  queen 
returns  to  the  hive  with  the  male  organs  of  generation  attached 
to  her  abdomen.  The  male  generative  fluid  is  stored  up  in  a 
small  round  case,  called  the  *' spermatheca,"  situated  near  the 
Y-shaped  ovary,  and  opening  into  the  lower  part  of  it.  A  few 
days  after  this  act  takes  place,  the  queen  commences  laying  eggs. 
She  deposits  one  in  each  cell  (which  are  of  hexagonal  shape)  by 
inserting  her  abdomen  into  the  cell,  then  a  slight  muscular  move- 
ment forces  the  egg  out  of  her  ovary.  She  then  withdraws  herself, 
and  the  egg,  rarely  more  than  one,  will  be  found  attached  to  the 
walls.  The  queen  is  very  rapid  in  performing  this  act,  a  thousand 
to  two  thousand  being  generally  laid  in  a  day.  The  time  of  greatest 
activity  is  from  April  to  May;  through  the  rest  of  the  year  they 
are  laid  in  less  abundance, — except  in  the  three  winter  months, 
when  reproduction  ceases.  The  eggs  are  of  a  pearly  colour,  about 
one-fourteenth  of  an  inch  long  and  one-seventieth  broad.  If 
intended  for  workers,  they  each  receive  a  drop  of  the  male 
genital  fluid  when  passing  out  of  the  ovary;  when  for  drones, 
this  does  not  take  place. 

The  eggs  are  taken  charge  of  by  the  nurses,  which  keep 
them  warm  by  the  heat  of  their  bodies.  In  three  days  the 
grub  is  developed.  It  is  extremely  small,  incapable  of  motion 
or  sight,  and  with  a  very  rudimentary  mouth.  As  they  are  not 
able  to  feed  themselves,  the  nurses  prepare  a  food  in  their 
own  bodies,  composed  of  water,  pollen,  and  honey.  This  they 
pour  over  the  larva  until  it  floats  in  it.  One  side  of  the  body  is 
always  kept  dry,  in  order  that  it  may  absorb  air  through  the 
breathing-pores  placed  along  its  side.  Their  food  is  very  nourish- 
ing, and  causes  them  to  grow  rapidly.  The  pollen  is  the  chief 
tissue-former,  and  is  rich  in  phosphates  ;  the  honey  produces  the 
energy  required  for  its  various  movements.  When  it  fills  about 
two-thirds  of  its  cell,  it  begins  to  spin  a  cocoon  round  itself,  while 
the  nurses  close  up  the  entrance  to  the  cell  with  a  cover, 
composed  of  wax  shreds  and  pollen  grains  cemented  together  by 
a  sticky  substance  called  "  propolis."  These  covers  are  of  convex 
form,  and  darker  than  the  rest  of  the  comb  ;  hence  it  is  easy  to 
distinguish  between  the  brood  cells  and  those  containing  honey. 


BEES.  599 

Soon  after  changing  to  the  pupa  state,  many  important  alterations 
take  place.  The  segments  of  the  body  form  into  three  parts, 
the  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen.  The  nervous  system  is  altered 
from  chains  of  ganglia  into  masses  situated  in  the  head  and  at 
the  insertion  of  the  wings  and  legs.  Antennae  and  eyes  form  on 
the  head,  and  the  mouth  becomes  more  fully  developed.  Wings 
and  legs  are  formed,  and  may  be  seen  closely  folded  against  the 
body.  The  outer  covering  also  hardens,  and  becomes  of  a  dark 
grey  colour.  When  these  changes  are  complete,  the  perfect 
insect  comes  out  of  the  cell.  The  queen  bee  occupies  sixteen 
days  in  passing  from  the  egg  to  the  perfect  state,  the  workers 
nineteen  to  twenty-two  days,  and  drones  twenty-four  days.  The 
bee  then  has  all  the  remains  of  the  cocoon  taken  off  it,  and 
takes  as  its  first  work  the  nursing  of  some  of  the  young  ones. 
After  a  few  days  it  begins  to  try  its  wings,  and  soon  is  engaged 
in  getting  honey. 

Every  year  several  princesses  or  young  queens  are  formed,  for 
two  reasons  :  (i)  to  take  the  place  of  the  queen  if  she  dies,  (2)  to 
act  as  queens  to  new  broods  if  the  inhabitants  of  the  hive  become 
too  many.  The  eggs  from  which  they  come  are  laid  in  an 
ordinary  worker's  cell,  from  which  they  are  removed  to  the  royal 
cells  by  the  nurses.  The  royal  cells  are  pear-shaped,  and  are 
much  larger  than  the  ordinary  kind,  thus  allowing  the  abdomen 
to  be  fully  developed.  The  young  grubs  are  fed  with  what  is 
known  as  **  royal  jelly,"  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  honey  and 
partly  digested  pollen,  and  very  stimulating  in  character.  The 
princesses  come  out  of  their  cells  in  a  shorter  time  than  their 
subjects.  If  allowed  to  have  her  own  way,  the  old  queen  will 
now  destroy  her  rivals,  from  a  desire  to  reign  supreme.  Should 
there  be  any  necessity  for  swarming,  she  is  restrained  from  doing 
this  by  the  other  bees,  otherwise  she  kills  them  all.  The  same 
spirit  of  enmity  is  displayed  by  the  princesses,  the  first  one 
developed  generally  tearing  open  the  cells  of  the  others  and 
killing  them.  Only  on  occasions  like  these  do  the  queens  use 
their  stings. 

Functions  of  Bees. 

The  functions  of  bees  are  numerous,  and,  as  the  workers  are 
not  divided  into  special  classes,  one  bee  learns  to  do  its  part  of 
all  the  necessary  work.  Of  course  this  does  not  apply  to  the 
queen  and  drones,  who  are  solely  engaged  in  reproduction.  For 
convenience  we  may  divide  their  work  into  (i)  indoor  and  (2) 
outdoor. 

Indoor   Work   includes   nursing,  ventilating,   comb-building, 


600  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

cleaning,  etc.  We  have  already  referred  to  nursing  under  the 
heading  of  "  Life  of  the  Bee."  Ventilating  is  carried  on  greatly 
in  summer.  The  operation  requires  two  sets  of  workers,  one 
just  without  and  the  other  just  within  the  hive.  The  former,  by 
fanning  with  their  wings,  force  fresh  air  into  the  hive  ;  the  latter, 
by  a  similar  mode  of  procedure,  get  rid  of  the  foul  air.  It  should 
be  said  that  there  are  no  soldiers  set  to  watch  the  hive,  and  those 
which  fly  out  on  disturbance  are  probably  ventilators. 

Comb-building, — The  wax  of  which  the  combs  are  formed, 
is  derived  chiefly  from  honey,  though  a  little  pollen  is  also  needed. 
The  former  is  a  carbohydrate,  but  the  latter  is  albuminous,  and 
hence  is  needed  for  the  repair  of  tissues.  When  the  combs  have 
to  be  built,  great  numbers  of  the  workers  gorge  themselves  with 
honey  and  pollen,  and  then  hang  in  festoons  from  the  roof  of  the 
hive.  There  they  remain  for  a  considerable  time  in  an  apparent 
state  of  inactivity.  The  nourishing  matters  they  have  taken  are 
digested,  and  absorbed  into  the  blood,  and  taken  to  all  parts  of 
the  body.  These  matters  are  then  used  up  by  the  protoplasm 
of  the  cells  of  those  organs  which  require  them,  and  made  into 
fresh  protoplasm  varying  with  the  proportion  of  matters  supplied 
by  the  food.  The  bees  form  the  wax  by  the  metabolism  of  this 
protoplasm,  during  which  operation  unusual  heat  is  produced.  The 
material  is  then  exuded  from  sacklets  on  the  under  surface  of  each 
of  the  four  intermediate  ventral  segments  of  the  abdomen.  There 
are  two  sacklets  to  each  of  these  segments  ;  they  are  trapeziform 
in  shape,  and  mould  the  plates  they  exude  into  this  form.  On 
being  exposed  to  the  air,  the  wax,  which  has  hitherto  been  almost 
liquid,  thickens  considerably.  It  then  is  withdrawn  by  the  hind 
feet  of  the  bee,  and  carried  by  the  fore  feet  to  the  mouth.  There 
it  is  worked  up  with  a  little  saliva  and  softened  ready  for  use. 
The  bees  then  deposit  their  wax,  after  thorough  mixing  with 
saliva,  against  the  top  of  the  hive,  making  first  little  perpendicular 
lines.  They  are  then  succeeded  by  other  bees,  which  mould  the 
wax  into  the  proper  shape  of  the  cell.  More  wax  is  supplied 
and  used  up  until  the  cells  are  finished.  They  are  in  the  shape 
of  hexagonal  prisms  with  pyramidal  ends.  The  cells  slope  down- 
wards slightly  from  the  mouth,  and  thus  are  better  able  to  hold 
honey,  etc.  They  are  white  at  first,  but  soon  turn  to  a  darker 
hue.  The  size  of  the  cells  varies  somewhat,  but  on  an  average 
the  ends  of  nineteen  drone  cells  or  twenty-seven  worker  cells 
occupy  a  square  inch. 

The  formation  of  wax  is  voluntary,  and  controlled  by  the  bees' 
nervous  system.  Bees  are  said  to  consume  twenty  pounds  of 
honey  and  pollen  in  order  to  make  one  pound  of  comb,  and  from 
this  we  see  the  benefit  of  supplying  artificial  or  old  comb.  Not  only 


BEES.  60I 

is  the  honey  saved  of  which  the  bees  would  have  formed  the 
wax,  but  the  time  occupied  in  building  would  be  more  profitably 
spent  in  getting  honey.  The  combs  taken  out  of  the  hive  should 
always  be  kept,  disinfected  after  removing  the  honey,  and  returned 
to  the  hive  at  the  proper  time. 

Substances  gathered  by  the  Bee,  and  their  Uses. 

The  outdoor  work  of  the  bees  consists  in  gathering  up  certain 
materials  for  the  use  of  the  community  to  which  it  belongs.  Chief 
among  these  is  honey,  which  we  will  now  consider. 

Honey. — This  is  a  carbohydrate  composed  chiefly  of  two  sugars, 
one  closely  allied  to  grape  sugar  (glucose),  and  crystallizable  on 
coming  in  contact  with  the  air ;  the  other  will  not  crystallize,  and 
generally  contains  small  quantities  of  mucilage  and  colouring 
matter.  It  is  derived  mainly  from  the  nectar  of  flowers  ;  lesser 
amounts  are,  however,  obtained  from  the  juices  of  ripe  fruits  and 
from  what  is  called  *'  honey  dew."  There  are  two  kinds  of 
"  honey  dew,"  the  one  being  a  viscous  exudation  from  the  leaves 
of  particular  trees,'  such  as  the  oak ;  and  the  other  a  secretion  of 
several  aphides.  The  second  kind,  though  capable  of  being 
employed  as  food  by  the  bees,  almost  spoils  the  honey  for  human 
use.  The  white  Dutch  clover  and  the  heath  blossoms  give  the 
best  honey.  The  bees  may  sometimes  gather  poisonous  substances 
with  the  honey,  which,  though  harmless  to  the  insects,  are  injurious 
to  human  beings.  The  honey  collected  in  early  summer  is  the 
best,  and  that  got  late  in  autumn  the  poorest. 

Bees  take  the  nectar  from  its  receptacle,  generally  situated  at 
the  bottom  of  the  flower,  by  means  of  their  long  flexible  tongues. 
With  these  they  suck  up  the  nectar  into  the  first  stomach,  which 
is  an  expansion  of  the  gullet.  According  to  some  authorities  it 
undergoes  a  slight  chemical  change,  and  part  of  it  is  sometimes 
taken  into  the  true  stomach,  where  it  is  absorbed  as  food.  The 
main  part,  however,  is  carried  to  the  hive,  and  regurgitated  into 
one  of  the  cells  of  the  comb.  When  any  of  the  cells  are  full,  they 
are  covered  over  by  a  coat  of  propolis.  A  portion  of  the  water 
the  honey  contains  is  soon  evaporated,  and  the  solidifying  which 
takes  place  is  known  as  ripening. 

Pollen. — This  is  derived  from  the  pollen  dust  of  flowers. 
When  gathering  honey,  they  get  well  dusted  with  the  pollen 
grains,  produced  by  the  anther  lobes  of  the  stamens  (the  male 
part  of  the  flower).  Some  of  this  they  deposit  on  other  flowers, 
causing  fertihzation,  referred  to  later  on.  On  taking  flight,  they 
rapidly  clear  themselves  of  the  pollen  dust  by  rapid  combings  of 
their  wings.     They  then  roll  it  up  into  small  pellets,  which  they 


662  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

deposit  in  the  pockets  on  their  hind  legs.  In  the  hive,  the  pollen 
is  kneaded  up  into  a  paste,  and  then  stored  away  in  the  worker 
cells.  In  order  to  preserve  it  from  fermentation,  a  layer  of  honey 
is  spread  over  the  pollen,  and  the  entrance  to  the  cell  is  then 
covered  over.  The  greatest  amount  of  pollen  is  collected  in 
April  and  May,  when  the  plants  begin  to  blossom. 

Pollen  is  very  useful  as  food  for  the  bees,  as  it  is  the  chief 
tissue-forming  substance ;  the  larvae  are  fed  chiefly  upon  it.  The 
queen  bee  requires  plenty  of  this  substance,  owing  to  the  rapid 
waste  of  her  tissues,  caused  by  her  functions.  In  winter,  when 
this  substance  is  not  obtained  from  outside  sources,  a  substitute 
should  be  supplied  in  the  form  of  pea  meal  or  rye  meal. 

Propolis. — This  substance,  which  has  not  yet  been  of  any  use 
except  to  the  bees,  is  derived  from  certain  trees,  such  as  the  alder, 
birch,  chestnut,  fir,  and  willow,  or  nearly  any  resinous  tree.  It  is 
chiefly  got  from  the  leaf-buds,  and  is  carried  to  the  hive  in  a  similar 
manner  to  pollen.  It  is  mixed  thoroughly  with  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  wax,  and  then,  if  not  to  be  used  immediately,  it  is  stored 
up  in  outer  pentagonal  cells.  It  is  used  for  stopping  up  chinks, 
cementing  bodies  together,  fastening  the  comb  to  the  walls  of  the 
hive,  and  also  for  covering  any  obnoxious  body  which  may  have 
got  into  their  place  of  abode. 

Relation  of  Bees  to  Flowering  Plants  and  the  Produc- 
tion OF  Fruit. 

Bees  and  other  insects  are  the  means  by  which  most  plants  get 
fertilized.  Grasses  and  the  gymnosperms  have  their  pollen  carried 
from  one  to  another  by  the  wind,  and  hence  are  called  anemo- 
philous.  The  others  are  entomophilous.  When  the  bee  visits- 
the  flower  for  the  honey,  it  gets  well  dusted  with  pollen.  This  it 
carries  to  other  flowers,  and,  in  the  attempt  of  the  insect  to  get 
the  nectar,  some  of  the  pollen  becomes  attached  to  the  stigma,  and 
fertilizes  the  ovule.  By  this  means  only  is  the  perfect  seed  pro- 
duced. The  act  of  fertilization  seems  to  stimulate  the  surrounding 
tissues  to  renewed  activity  and  growth.  The  walls  of  the  ovary 
and  other  parts  become  succulent,  and  store  up  sugar  and 
vegetable  acids.  When  a  flower  contains  more  stigmas  than 
one,  as,  say,  the  apple,  which  has  five,  they  must  all  be  fertilized 
to  produce  the  perfect  fruit.  Should  an  apple  be  fertilized  in  less 
than  five  segments,  the  fruit  appears  withered  and  imperfectly 
developed,  and  it  will  also  be  more  Hable  to  be  blown  off  by  the 
wind.  It  can  easily  be  seen  that  it  will  pay  any  fruit-grower  to 
have  a  few  hives  of  bees  in  his  orchard. 

Hives. — There  is  no  necessity  to  go  into  descriptions  of  the 


BEES.  603 

various  kinds  of  hives.  They  should  afford  warmth  and  protection 
)'rom  all  weathers  to  the  bees.  As  a  rule,  the  simpler  hives  are 
much  better  than  the  elaborate  arrangements.  They  should  all  be 
on  the  bar  system.  The  hive  is  in  two  parts,  in  the  lower  one  of 
which  breeding  is  earned  on,  and  where  the  bees  pass  the  winter. 
In  the  upper  part  supers  are  placed ;  these  are  small  oblong  cases 
without  back  or  front.  They  fit  closely  against  one  another,  and 
are  taken  out  as  soon  as  filled,  being  then  ready  for  sale.  The 
bees  build  their  comb  in  these,  beginning  at  the  top.  When 
honey  is  to  be  extracted,  bars  are  used  on  the  top  in  the  place  of 
the  supers. 

Natural  and  Artificial  Swarming. 

Swarming  takes  place  when  the  number  of  bees  in  the  hive  are 
so  numerous  as  to  interfere  with  the  work.  A  considerable  number 
in  consequence  issue  forth,  with  a  queen  at  their  head,  in  search 
of  a  new  home.  This  generally  takes  place  in  May  or  June.  It 
is  always  the  old  queen  which  sets  out  with  the  swarm  ;  this  being 
on  account  of  her  desire  to  find  a  home  where  she  may  reign 
supreme,  when  not  allowed  to  kill  the  princesses.  Before  starting, 
the  bees,  which  are  the  older  ones,  load  themselves  with  honey,  so 
as  to  be  prepared  in  case  any  want  of  food  may  be  experienced. 
They  usually  swarm  between  10  a.m.  and  i  p.m.,  on  a  fine  morn- 
ing. The  distance  which  the  bees  travel  varies  greatly,  but  on  the 
lighting  of  the  queen,  which  usually  takes  place  on  the  bough  of  a 
tree,  they  all  cluster  around,  forming  a  dense  living  mass.  The 
operator  now  covers  his  head  and  neck  with  a  large  loose  veil, 
generally  worn  attached  to  the  brim  of  a  straw  hat.  His  hands 
are  also  protected  by  a  pair  of  thick  gloves.  He  takes  a  dome- 
shaped  straw  skep  in  his  hand,  and  gently  shakes  the  swarm  off 
the  bough  into  it.  They  usually  drop  in  a  mass  into  the  skep, 
and  do  not  fly  about  much.  The  bees  are  then  taken  to  an 
empty  hive,  and  put  in.  If  the  hive  is  a  straw  one,  it  is  inverted 
and  the  floor-board  taken  off.  The  bees  are  then  rapidly  jerked 
into  it,  the  floor-board  replaced,  and  the  hive  put  into  position. 
It  is  well  to  have  one  side  slightly  raised  for  some  time,  so  as  to 
allow  any  stray  bees  to  rapidly  enter.  When  the  bees  are  to  be 
placed  in  a  bar-framed  hive,  the  top  of  it  is  removed,  and  sheets 
of  guide-comb  placed  in  the  frames.  The  insects  are  collected  as 
before,  and  shaken  into  the  hive,  the  top  of  which  is  then  replaced. 

It  sometimes  happens,  when  two  or  three  princesses  are  left  in 
the  hive,  that  a  second  or  after  swarm  takes  place.  As  a  rule,  the 
stock  left  after  the  first  swarm,  are  strong  and  numerous,  v/hen  this 
happens.     Should  there  be  only  a  weak  stock,  the  young  queen  is 


604  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

allowed  to  kill  her  royal  sisters.  The  after  flights  may  take  place 
later  in  the  day  than  the  first  one,  and  are  usually  less  numerous. 
Unless  very  strong,  it  is  not  advisable  to  allow  them  to  make  a 
separate  colony.  In  some  cases  there  are  two  or  three  after  flights, 
but  these  generally  weaken  the  parent  stock  greatly. 

Should  there  be  two  separate  swarms  near  the  same  time,  they 
should  be  amalgamated.  They  are  both  collected  by  the  skep,  and 
one  put  into  the  hive  while  the  other  is  emptied  out  on  a  table. 
The  hive  is  then  placed  a  little  above  those  on  the  table.  The 
bees  soon  ascend  into  the  hive,  and  the  two  swarms  are  thus  united. 
The  two  queens,  for  there  is  a  queen  to  every  swarm,  will,  however, 
fight  for  the  supremacy  until  one  is  killed. 

The  process  just  described  may  be  called  natural  swarming. 

Artificial  Swarming. — This  is  much  better  than  the  last,  being 
done  more  expeditiously  and  at  a  time  suita.ble  to  the  owner. 
Instead  of  much  time  being  wasted  by  the  bees  flying  about  in 
search  of  a  fresh  home,  they  are  put  into  their  new  quarters 
quickly,  and  their  work  of  gathering  honey,  which  is  usually 
plentiful  at  the  time,  is  not  stopped.  Swarming  should  take 
place  a  few  days  before  it  would  occur  naturally.  Of  course, 
swarms  should  only  be  taken  from  strong  stocks.  The  chief 
methods  of  artificial  swarming  are  by  driving,  which  may  be 
"open  "  or  "close." 

Close  Driving. — In  this  method  a  few  puffs  of  tobacco  smoke 
are  first  blown  into  the  hive.  This  causes  the  bees  to  rush  to  the 
combs  and  gorge  themselves,  after  which  they  are  much  more 
tractable.  The  operator,  who  has  on  his  veil  and  gloves,  now  takes 
the  hive  off  its  foot-board,  and  inverts  it  in  a  pail  partly  full  of 
water,  to  steady  it.  Another  empty  hive,  of  nearly  equal  dia- 
meter, is  placed  upon  the  first,  and  around  the  junction  of  their 
rims  a  cloth  is  tied,  so  as  to  prevent  any  bees  from  flying  away. 
The  lower  hive  is  then  drummed  continuously  with  a  stick  or 
the  hands,  thus  causing  the  bees  to  ascend  into  the  upper.  The 
queen,  with  about  three-quarters  of  her  subjects,  take  up  their 
abode  in  the  new  hive,  which  is  placed  in  the  old  position,  and 
thus  is  reinforced  by  the  workers  returning  from  the  fields.  The 
old  hive,  containing  the  comb,  eggs,  larva,  young  bees,  and  a  fev/ 
old  ones,  is  placed  at  a  short  distance  from  the  other.  One  of  the 
infant  princesses  is  quickly  matured,  and  thus  the  stock  receives 
a  head,  while  it  is  rapidly  strengthened  by  the  workers  developed 
from  the  larva. 

Open  Driving  is  very  similar  to  the  last,  except  that  the  hive 
into  which  they  ascend  is  placed  over  the  other  at  an  angle,  and 
only  resting  on  it  for  three  or  four  inches.  It  is  supported  in  this 
position  by  skewers  and  iron  wires,  thrust  through  both  hives 


BEES.  605 

where  they  meet,  while  others  prop  it  up  in  front.  This  leaves 
the  hands  of  the  operator  free,  and,  there  being  no  cloth  around, 
he  is  able  to  observe  the  passage  of  the  queen,  and  also  to  tell 
when  enough  insects  have  passed  into  the  hive  to  form  a  fairly 
strong  colony.  Of  the  two  systems,  the  open  is  the  better,  for 
reasons  before  stated. 

The  above  remarks  apply  chiefly  to  bees  in  straw  skeps. 

The  following  precautions  should  be  observed  in  artificial 
swarming : — 

(i)  Drones  should  be  fairly  numerous  when  swarming  is 
attempted,  unless  a  fertile  queen  is  to  be  given  to  the  new  colony. 
If  this  is  not  the  case,  the  new  queen  may  run  the  chance  of  not 
getting  fertilized. 

(2)  Honey  should  be  abundant  at  the  time,  or  the  bee-keeper 
will  have  to  feed  the  swarm  for  some  time. 

(3)  Swarms  should  be  taken  only  from  strong  stocks. 

(4)  A  swarm  without  a  fertile  queen  must  be  supplied  with 
ready-formed  comb,  or  it  will  only  produce  drone-comb  itself. 

(5)  When  swarming,  it  is  well  to  place  an  empty  hive,  into 
which  a  little  syrup  has  been  sprinkled,  near  the  old  stand  during 
the  operation.  This  will  divert  the  attention  of  workers  returning 
from  the  fields  for  a  time,  and  prevent  them  from  attacking  the 
the  operator.  They  may  afterwards  be  allowed  to  go  into  the  hive, 
among  their  old  companions. 

General  Management  of  Bees. 

Winter. — It  is  in  winter  that  the  bees  will  require  most  atten- 
tion. As  soon  as  cold  weather  is  about  to  commence,  the  hives 
should  be  well  protected  by  some  covering.  Owing  to  the  pollen 
and  honey,  which  are  the  natural  food  of  the  bees  in  winter,  being 
removed  in  autumn,  it  is  necessary  to  give  some  substitute.  This 
is  usually  given  in  autumn.  Syrup  is  a  common  food,  either  in 
its  ordinary  form,  or  made  by  boiling  about  5  lbs.  of  sugar  with 
with  2^  pints  of  water,  and  adding  a  little  vinegar,  salicylic 
solution,  and  a  few  grains  of  salt;  a  little  pea  meal  may  be 
added,  to  take  the  place  of  pollen.  The  vinegar  prevents  the 
syrup  from  crystallizing,  while  the  salicyHc  acid  is  an  antidote  to 
the  disease  "  foul  breed,"  and  also  helps  to  preserve  the  syrup. 
The  syrup  is  put  into  a  feeder,  which  is  placed  near  the  top  of  the 
hive.  The  feeders  are  of  diff"erent  kinds  ;  one  of  the  simplest  con- 
sists of  a  glass  jar  placed,  mouth  downwards,  on  a  block  of  wood, 
which  has  a  hole  cut  in  it  to  receive  its  neck.  Over  the  mouth  of 
the  bottle  is  placed  a  piece  of  fine  muslin,  fastened  round  the 
neck  after  the  syrup  has  been  put  in.     Over  the  hole  is  a  piece  of 


6o6  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

perforated  zinc  with  very  fine  meshes.  The  bees  can  readily  suck 
up  the  syrup  they  want,  while,  if  the  bottle  is  only  small,  there  will 
not  be  much  fear  of  the  syrup  flowing  out  of  the  feeder.  The 
box  feeder  is  the  best  for  bar-framed  hives.  The  following  is  a 
description  of  a  simple  form.  The  bottom  extends  from  one  end 
to  within  about  one  inch  of  the  other ;  here  an  upright  partition 
is  placed,  being  slightly  lower  than  the  two  ends.  The  bees  enter 
the  feeder  at  the  bottom,  between  the  partition  and  the  end,  and 
crawl  over  the  partition  into  the  compartment  containing  the 
syrup.  A  perforated  stage  should  float  on  the  syrup.  The  feeder 
should  be  fitted  with  a  sliding  glass  top,  and  is  placed  on  the  top 
of  the  bars.  A  hole  is  cut  in  the  covering  to  allow  the  bees  to 
pass  from  the  bars  to  the  feeder. 

Instead  of  syrup,  what  is  called  "sugar-cake"  may  be  used. 
It  is  made  by  adding  a  pint  of  water,  in  which  is  a  little  vinegar, 
to  six  pounds  of  loaf  sugar,  and  then  heating  it  over  a  steady  red  fire. 
A  scum  forms,  which  should  be  removed.  When  all  the  water  is 
evolved,  the  mixture  is  allowed  to  cool  in  shallow  dishes.  It  is  after- 
wards placed,  in  small  amounts  at  a  time,  on  the  top  of  the  frames. 

During  the  middle  of  winter  little  albuminous  food  is  needed, 
that  used  in  heat-giving  only  being  required.  Towards  spring, 
however,  the  queen  begins  to  lay  her  eggs,  and  the  nurses  are 
actively  engaged  in  preparing  food  for  her  and  for  the  grubs. 
Albuminoids  are  needed  for  this,  and  in  a  state  of  nature  would 
be  supplied  by  the  pollen.  As  this  substance  has  to  be  taken 
away  with  the  comb,  some  substitute  is  usually  given.  The  best 
is  pea  meal ;  rye  meal  or  wheat  flour  may  be  used  instead,  but  are 
not  so  valuable.  It  is  not  advisable  to  leave  any  pollen  in  the 
hive  in  autumn,  as  it  is  apt  to  mould.  A  mixture  of  pea  meal  and 
syrup  should  be  made,  well  stirred  up,  and  of  such  a  consistency 
as  to  admit  of  being  held  upon  a  knife.  It  is  then  pressed  with 
the  blade  into  the  cells  of  some  of  the  extracted  comb,  which  is 
then  put  back  into  the  hive.  The  bees  soon  begin  to  feed  upon 
the  mixture,  which  is  very  nutritious. 

Spring. — Feeding  may  be  continued  well  into  the  spring,  and 
plenty  of  the  artificial  pollen  should  be  given,  as  it  stimulates  the 
bees  to  greater  activity.  The  floor-boards  of  the  hives  should  be 
removed,  and  fresh  ones  put  in,  or  the  old  ones  should  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  and  replaced.  All  mouldy  or  injured  comb 
should  be  removed,  and  towards  the  end  fresh  comb  may  be  put 
in,  if  there  is  not  suflicient.  If  stocks  have  to  be  transferred  from 
one  hive  to  another,  it  is  often  done.  Swarming  may  take 
place  from  strong  hives  as  early  as  April.  The  process  has  been 
described  previously. 

Summer. — During  the  season,  the  bees  quickly  increase  their 


BEES.  607 

food  stores,  and  breeding  also  goes  on  rapidly.  The  hives  should 
be  placed  in  such  a  position  that  they  may  not  have  to  go  long 
distances  for  the  honey,  and  thus  waste  valuable  time.  It  is 
on  this  account  that  hives  are  often  taken  to  heather-clad  moors. 
Secondary  swarming  should  be  prevented,  if  likely  to  take  place. 
It  should  be  seen  that  the  hive  is  well  supplied  with  comb.  If  it 
has  not  got  much,  artificial  comb  may  be  added,  but  the  bees 
should  not  be  allowed  to  manufacture  their  own. 

Autumn. — In  autumn,  part  or  whole  of  the  honey  is  generally 
removed.  In  a  bar-frame  hive  the  small  boxes  are  usually 
removed  as  they  get  full.  Often,  however,  the  whole  of  the 
honey  is  in  large  combs,  and  cannot  be  removed  in  such  an  easy 
manner.  In  order  to  make  the  bees  more  tractable,  they  generally 
get  a  little  smoke  puffed  in  by  means  of  a  fumigator  (a  small  pair 
of  bellows  burning  rags,  fungi,  brown  paper,  etc.).  If  the  hive  be 
a  straw  skep,  it  is  inverted,  and  rested  in  a  pail,  and  then  as  much 
comb  is  taken  out  as  needed.  The  comb  near  the  outside  of  the 
hive  contains  purer  honey  than  the  rest  The  honey  is  either  sold 
in  the  comb,  or  extracted.  The  latter  operation  should  be  per- 
formed as  soon  as  possible  after  the  comb  is  removed  from  the 
hive,  as  the  honey  rapidly  thickens.  The  comb  may  be  sliced  with 
a  sharp  knife,  and  then  strained  through  muslin  into  a  jar.  For 
quicker  despatch,  an  extractor  is  used.  This  consists  of  a  small 
cylinder,  into  which  fits  a  rectangular  frame  with  two  upright 
wire  cages,  each  holding  a  large  piece  of  comb.  The  frame  is 
turned  round  rapidly  by  a  handle  at  the  top,  and  the  centrifugal 
force  causes  the  honey  to  fly  out  against  the  walls  of  the  cylinder, 
down  which  it  trickles.  From  the  bottom,  which  is  of  conical  form, 
it  runs  away  through  a  tap  into  any  suitable  vessel.  The  amount 
of  honey  varies  greatly,  but  as  much  as  forty-five  pounds  may  be 
taken  from  a  strong  hive.  Honey  is  subject  to  a  vinous  fermenta- 
tion, and  this  is  taken  advantage  of  in  the  preparation  of  mead. 

In  autumn,  the  bees  receive  small  amounts  of  the  food  on 
which  they  have  to  live  through  winter.  It  is  made  some- 
what liquid  in  character.  The  hives  are  also  well  clothed  when 
cold  weather  commences.  It  is  often  advisable  to  unite  two 
stocks,  if  not  very  strong  ones,  as  the  heat  of  the  hive  is  better 
kept  up  by  a  large,  than  by  a  small,  number  of  bees.  Before  the 
union,  both  hives  should  be  smoked.  One  lot  is  then  emptied 
out  on  a  table,  and  sprinkled  with  sugared  ale.  The  other 
smoked  hive  is  inverted,  and  the  inhabitants  slightly  sprinkled 
with  the  ale.  The  foot-board  is  removed,  and  the  bees  swept 
into  the  hive,  after  which  it  is  returned  to  its  original  position. 
It  is  best  to  remove  one  of  the  queens,  if  both  hives  are  possessed 
of  one,  and  thus  prevent  a  royal  battle. 


6o8  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
dairying. 

The    Dairy. 

Cleanliness. — Strict  cleanliness  in  the  dairy  and  everything  ap- 
pertaining to  it  is  essentially  necessary  for  success  in  butter- 
making.     Regulation  of  temperature  is  also  of  vital  importance. 

The  Dairy  should  usually  consist  of  two  rooms,  one  of  which 
should  be  used  for  no  other  purpose  than  the  storing  of  butter  or 
milk ;  with  a  smaller  one  for  washing  up,  hot-water  boiler,  and  stove. 

Situation. — Upon  a  gravelly  subsoil  if  possible,  with  a  northern 
aspect,  and,  if  unattached  to  the  farmhouse,  the  southern  and 
western  sides  should  be  protected  from  the  sun.  Air  should 
circulate  freely  around  it,  and  all  source  of  smell  must  be  removed 
from  its  vicinity,  viz.  piggeries,  cow-byres,  stables,  etc.  No  cesspool 
should  be  near  the  dairy,  for  milk  takes  in  all  odours,  as  well  as  the 
germs  of  every  ferment  that  is  blown  across  its  surface.  To  save 
time  and  labour,  it  should  be  conveniently  situated  for  water- 
supply  and  receiving  the  milk. 

Construction. — The  walls  should  be  hollow,  with  an  air-space 
between  them,  to  guard  against  variation  of  temperature ;  best 
bricks,  well  pointed,  those  facing  inward  being  glazed,  plastered, 
tiled,  or  cemented,  with  a  polished  surface,  so  that  they  can  be 
easily  cleaned.  Roof  of  best  tiles,  or  perforated  Staffordshire 
tiles.  A  thatched  roof  gives  the  most  uniform  temperature, 
summer  and  winter. 

Ceiling. — Of  tiles,  plaster,  or  polished  cement,  with  air-space 
between  it  and  roof.     There  should  be  a  ventilator  in  the  centre. 

Floors. — A  slightly  inclined  plane  of  concrete,  Victoria  stone, 
glazed  tiles,  or  flags,  well  laid,  and  carefully  cemented  in  the  joints. 

Drains. — Open  gutters,  to  carry  the  water  outside  the  building, 
falling  into  a  trapped  drain. 

Note. — There  should  be  no  drains  in  the  dairy  or  ufider  it. 

Ventilation. — There  must  at  all  times  be  ample  ventilation. 
Ventilators  at  each  end  of  the  dairy  near  the  floor,  and  one  in  the 


DAIRYING.  609 

centre  of  the  ceiling,  to  conduct  a  continual  flow  of  fresh  air 
through  the  chambers. 

Light. — Not  too  strongs  as  too  strong  a  light  falling  upon  the 
milk  set  for  cream  causes  specks  in  the  butter.  Two  good 
windows,  double,  and  well  glazed,  are  necessary.  Dust  and  insects 
are  kept  out  by  inside  blinds  of  fine  gauze  wire. 

Temperature. — The  greatest  attention  must  at  all  times  be 
paid  to  temperature,  which  should  be  as  equable  as  possible,  and 
under  ready  control.  To  attain  this  object,  a  good  reliable 
thermometer  should  be  hung  up  in  the  dairy,  and  the  dairy  con- 
structed in  such  a  manner  that  the  heat  can  be  shut  out  in 
summer^  and  the  temperature  raised  in  winter  by  the  aid  of  hot- 
water  pipes  or  a  stove. 

Note. — The  dairy  must  not  be  too  dry^  or  a  hard  crust  will 
form  on  the  cream ;  nor  too  cold^  or  the  milk  will  absorb  im- 
purities from  the  atmosphere.  The  ideal  temperature  all  the 
year  round  is  from  55°  to  60°  F. 

Water  Supply. — A  plentiful  supply  of  pure  cold  water,  whose 
source  is  reliable  and  protected  from  contamination. 

Hot  Water. — Provided  by  a  boiler  in  a  small  outer  room 
adjoining  the  churn-room,  to  which  hot-water  pipes  may  be 
attached  to  raise  temperature  of  dairy  in  winter. 

Shelving. — Of  slate,  marble,  or  stone. 

Equipment. — For  small  dairy,  of  not  more  than  twenty  cows, 
will  depend  very  much  on  the  accompanying  circumstances,  and 
either  of  the  following  appliances  will  be  necessary  for  raising  the 
cream : — 

1.  Set  of  shallow  pans  for  open-air  setting. 

2.  Jersey,  Dorset,  or  Richmond  creamer. 

(A^ote. — These  pans  are  great  improvements  on  the  old  shallow- 
pan  system). 

^.  Swartz  cans  1  t-      j 

4.  Cooley  cans  }  ^°'  deep-setting  systems. 

5.  Mechanical  separator. 

A  Dairy  of  more  than  Twenty  Cows  is  best  equipped  with  a 
separator,  and  small  steam  or  gas  engine.  This  power  can,  at  the 
same  time,  turn  the  churn  and  butter-worker,  which  should  be 
connected  with  the  shaft  by  means  of  pulleys. 

Where  there  is  a  sale  for  skim  milk  and  fresh  cream,  a  separator 
is  invaluable. 

Small  Dairies. — Where  butter-making  is  the  primary  object, 
and  the  skim  milk  used  on  the  farm,  either  of  the  deep-setting 
systems  or  the  Jersey  creamer  will  give  very  good  results,  if 
properly  carried  out. 

Churns, — Well  made  of  oak,  no  inside  fixtures,  easily  cleaned, 

2   R 


6lO  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

large  openings  glass  in  lid,  and  ventilator.  Desideratum  of  a 
churn  is  maximum  of  concussion  and  minimum  of  friction.  Brad- 
ford's **  Diaphragm  "  or  *  Charlemont,"  Llewellyn's  "  Triangular," 
and  Hathaway's  "  End-over-end "  churns  are  excellent  in  this 
respect,  for  hand  or  power. 

Butter-worker.  —  Bradford's  "Arch  Albany,"  with  helical 
roller  ;  or,  ior  power,  the  "  Armentine,"  with  helical  roller. 

Butter-board. — For  making  butter  up  on. 

Scotch  Hands. — For  making  up  butter,  which  should  never  be 
touched  with  human  hands. 

Refrigerator  (Lawrence's  "Capillary"). — For  aerating  and 
cooling  milk.  A  most  useful  process  for  preserving  milk,  as  soon 
as  it  leaves  the  cow,  when  required  to  be  sent  on  long  journeys 
by  rail. 

Butter  scoop. — To  hft  the  butter  from  the  churn. 

Skimmer. — For  creaming. 

Strainer  (with  wire-gauze  sides). — For  milk. 

Milk-ladder. — To  rest  strainer  on. 

Cream-crock  (Porcelain  or  Glass). 

Dairy  Thermometer  (of  Glass). — For  ascertaining  the  tempera- 
ture of  cream  and  milk. 

Salter's  Balance. — For  weighing  milk. 

Scales  and  Weights  (of  china).— For  weighing  butter. 

Cream-testers. — For  showing  percentage  of  cream  in  the  milk 
of  each  cow. 

Creamometer. — For  showing  percentage  of  cream.  . 

Lactometer. — Showing  specific  gravity  of  milk ;  to  be  used 
with  Creamometer  in  testing  the  quality  of  milk. 

Milk  and  Cream-pails.— Tinned  steel  and  enamelled  sheet  iron. 

Milk-measures. 

Temperature  Cans. — For  regulating  temperature  of  cream  in 
winter  and  summer. 

Butter-cloth  and  Litmus  Paper. 

Cream-raising  and  Management. 

Cream  is  made  up  of  fat  globules,  extremely  small  in  size,  which, 
being  lighter  than  the  serum  or  watery  part  of  milk,  rise  to  the 
surface  when  the  milk  is  at  rest,  and  form  cream. 

Raising  Cream. — The  form  and  size  of  utensils  and  appliances 
for  separating  the  cream  from  the  milk  must  have  reference  to 
the  accompanying  circumstances,  and  strict  attention  must  be 
paid  to  general  rules,  whichever  method  is  adopted  to  accomplish 
successfully  complete  and  effectual  separation. 

Systems  of  Setting  for  Cream,— The   open-air  shallow-pan 


DAIRYING.  6ll 

system  is  the  most  common,  but  does  not  give  the  best  results,  for, 
in  order  to  get  the  largest  quajitity  of  cream,  the  milk  has  to  stand 
too  long,  and  thus  the  quality  of  the  butter  is  endangered.  Cream 
rises  more  rapidly  in  a  falling  temperature.  The  '*  Jersey," 
"  Dorset,"  and  "  Richmond "  creamers  are  constructed  on  this 
principle  :  the  pans  have  double  sides  and  bottoms,  and  are  fitted 
with  lids  that  assist  the  rising  of  the  cream.  By  the  use  of 
boiling  and  cold  water  in  the  spaces,  the  temperature  of  the  milk 
is  raised  and  lowered  as  desired. 

The  Jersey  Creamer. — The  temperature  of  the  milk  is  first 
raised  about  50°  F.  above  that  of  the  water  used  for  cooling, 
e.g,  water  60°  F.,  milk  110°  F.  As  a  steadily  falling  tem- 
perature is  necessary  to  the  success  of  this  system,  the  cooling 
must  not  be  too  rapid^  and  the  cold  water  should  be  allowed  to 
circulate  around  the  pans  until  the  temperature  of  the  milk  has 
fallen  to  that  of  the  water.  The  effect  of  this  treatment  will  be 
to  bring  all  the  cream  to  the  surface  in  twelve  or  fifteen  hours, 
the  cream  and  skim  milk  being  both  fresh  and  sweet,  which  is  a 
great  advantage.  These  creamers  are  sound  in  principle  and 
effective  in  operation. 

Cooley  System. — The  apparatus  consists  of  a  tank  of  water 
with  inlet  and  overflow  pipes.  In  this  tank  the  milk-cans  are 
totally  submerged.  The  cans  used  are  about  twenty  inches  long 
and  eight  and  a  half  inches  diameter,  fitted  with  syphon  tubes,  and 
holding  about  sixteen  quarts.  These  are  fitted  with  lids,  which  are 
fastened  down,  the  air  under  the  rims  of  the  covers  preventing  the 
passage  of  any  water  into  the  milk.  The  apparatus  is  very  simple, 
takes  up  little  room,  produces  uniform  results,  and  raises  the  cream 
in  the  shortest  possible  time.  This  method  gives,  also,  sweet  cream 
and  sweet  skim  milk,  and  can  be  employed  with  best  results  in 
small  dairies. 

Swartz  Cans. — Oval  cans,  two  feet  deep,  which,  when  filled,  are 
placed  in  a  brick,  stone,  or  cement  tank,  the  depth  of  the  cans 
\i.e,  two  feet),  and  supplied  with  iced  or  running  cold  water.  If 
the  temperature  of  this  water  can  be  kept,  summer  and  winter, 
at  40°  F.  to  50°  F.,  the  cream  rises  in  twelve  hours.  The 
success  of  these  systems  is  dependent  upon  regulation  of  tem- 
perature, and  a  plentiful  supply  of  cold  water,  40  to  50°  F. 
If  this  can  be  accomplished,  first-class  results  may  be  obtained. 

Devonshire  System. — This  system  is  an  advantage  in  small 
dairies  and  in  hot  or  "thundery"  weather,  when  the  milk  should  be 
scalded  immediately  after  milking.  If  the  milk  be  allowed  to  boil, 
the  butter  will  not  be  so  good,  but  rough  to  the  tongue  and 
flavourless.  If  the  milk  is  in  the  slightest  degree  sour,  heat  will 
cause  it  to  turn  to  curds  and  whey. 


6l2  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Clotted  Cream  is  generally  associated  with  Devonshire 
dairying,  and  "Devonshire  cream"  is  noted  for  its  delicious 
flavour.  It  can  easily  be  produced,  and  profitably  sold  in  little 
glazed  earthenware  jars. 

The  method  is  to  set  the  milk  in  pans,  from  four  to  six  inches 
deep,  upon  a  stove  specially  designed  for  the  purpose,  and 
gradually  hesit  to  170°  F.,  the  time  occupied  being  two  hours  and 
a  half.  When  a  blister  ring  appears  on  the  surface,  the  pans  are 
removed,  and  set  in  a  shallow  tank  of  running  water  for  twelve 
hours  longer.     When  skimmed  the  cream  is  rich  and  thick. 

Mechanical  Separation. 

The  Separator. — Where  a  large  quantity  of  milk  has  to  be 
dealt  with,  there  is  no  better  method  than  mechanical  separation  : 
perfectly  fresh  cream  and  equally  fresh  skim  milk  can  be  immedi- 
ately obtained  by  its  use ;  space,  time,  and  labour  being  all 
greatly  economized,  and  a  larger  percentage  of  butter  fat  being 
obtained  from  the  milk  than  by  any  other  method  of  separation. 
These  machines  have  been  brought  to  the  greatest  perfection,  and 
provision  is  made  for  regulating  the  thickness  or  thinness  of  the 
cream  (a  matter  of  much  importance).  The  names  of  some  of 
the  best  are  the  "  Laval,"  "  Alexandra,"  "  Victoria,"  and  ''  Danish." 
They  all  act  upon  the  same  principle  (viz.  centrifugal  force),  and 
the  separators  mentioned  are  excellent  for  the  simplicity  of  their 
mechanism  and  uniformity  of  results. 

Method  of  using. — The  milk  is  fed  into  a  drum  or  cylinder 
revolving  on  a  spindle.  The  velocity  with  which  this  drum 
rotates  causes  the  fat  or  cream  to  separate  from  the  watery  part  of 
the  milk,  which,  being  the  heavier,  flies  to  the  outside  of  the 
cylinder,  while  the  lighter  part  (the  cream)  gathers  to  the  centre. 
Fresh  milk  enters,  and,  being  separated,  forces  that  already 
separated  to  make  its  escape,  which  it  does  by  means  of  two 
tubes,  one  for  the  cream  and  one  for  the  separated  milk.  If  the 
cream  has  to  be  sent  away,  it  should  be  immediately  passed  over 
one  of  Lawrence's  refrigerators,  and  the  separated  milk  should 
either  be  scalded  and  then  cooled  by  a  refrigerator  or  passed  over 
a  refrigerator  at  once.  The  qua?itity  of  milk  separated  depends 
upon  the  size  of  the  machine  and  speed  at  which  it  is  driven. 
Their  capacity  for  separation  ranges  from  20  to  90  gallons  per  hour 
for  hand  separators ;  to  350  gallons  per  hour,  power  machines. 
The  successful  management  of  the  separator  is  subject  to  certain 
rules  of  temperature  and  speed,  and  if  these  rules  be  neglected, 
separation  will  not  be  complete  or  satisfactory.  A  correct  and 
even  speed  must  be  maintained  with  proper  control  of  milk 
supply,  and  regulation  of  the  temperature  of  the  milk. 


DAIRYING.  613 

Cream  Cheese. — Cream  cheese  is  easily  made;  there  is  less 
skill  in  making  it  than  any  other  cheese :  but  success  does  not 
always  attend  the  first  trial  of  its  manufacture.  It  is  made  from 
thick  fresh  cream,  carefully  drained,  pressed,  and  ripened.  It 
resembles  the  soft  cheeses  of  France  in  appearance  and  con- 
sistency. Where  there  is  a  demand,  its  manufacture  will  be 
attended  with  considerable  profit,  a  given  quantity  of  cream 
yielding  more  cream  cheese  than  butter.  Cream  cheese  contains 
a  portion  of  casein,  which  adds  to  the  profit,  whereas  butter  should 
contain  no  casein  at  all. 

Cream  Ripening. 

The  Term  "Ripening  "  is  used  to  denote  a  certain  mellowing  of 
the  cream,  attained  by  keeping  it  some  time  before  churning. 
Whatever  system  of  creaming  is  adopted,  it  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance that  the  cream  should  be  perfectly  sweet  when  taken  from 
the  milk;  but,  in  order  to  obtain  a  large  quantity  of  butter,  it  is 
best  to  ripen  the  cream  by  keeping.  The  full  flavour  is  developed 
and  the  butter  keeps  longer. 

Causes  of  Ripening. — The  ripening  of  cream  is  caused  by  the 
presence  of  minute  living  organisms  called  "  bacteria,"  which  attack 
the  milk  and  cream,  and  produce  chemical  changes  which  are 
very  powerful  in  affecting  dairy  operations,  and,  up  to  a  certain 
point,  very  useful ;  but  great  care  must  be  taken  to  stop  the  work 
of  these  ferments  at  the  proper  stage,  ue.  when  the  cream  is  in 
the  most  desirable  state  for  churning.  The  action  of  one 
organism  is  to  attack  the  lactose  or  milk  sugar,  and  convert  it 
into  lactic  acid;  and  of  another,  to  attack  the  casein,  or  curd  of  the 
milk,  decompose  it,  and  make  it  soft  If  ripening  goes  too  far, 
putrid  decomposition  commences.  These  organisms  work  and 
multiply  best  at  a  temperature  of  97°  F.  The  duration  of 
their  life  is  thirty-six  hours,  and  after  that  time  other  ferments  take 
their  place,  acting  on  the  fats  contained  in  the  cream  globules, 
to  the  detriment  of  the  cream,  by  changing  the  butyrine,  the  chief 
ingredient  of  the  volatile  oils  that  give  the  delicious  flavour  to 
butter,  into  butyric  acid.  It  is  for  this  reason  that,  when  cream 
is  allowed  to  be  kept  too  long,  the  butter  becomes  rancid,  and  will 
not  keep.     The  necessity  for  churning  often,  is  obvious. 

In  hot  weather,  "ripening"  may  be  retarded  by  placing 
the  cream-crock  in  cold  or  iced  water  in  a  cool  place,  whenever 
the  temperature  of  the  air  is  above  55°  F. ;  if  kept  at  40°  F. 
to  50°  F.,  ripening  will  proceed  very  slowly;  at  65°  to  70°, 
very  rapidly  ;  60°  F.  is  the  best  temperature  for  ripening  cream. 


6l4  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Butter-making. 

To  obtain  good  butter  we  must  have  good  cream,  and  good 
cream  depends  upon  good  milk  and  its  proper  management. 
The  quality  of  milk  depends  upon  the  breed,  individuality, 
feeding,  and  treatment  of  the  animal. 

Butter-making  is  an  art  that  needs  the  application  of  sound 
principles,  and  must  be  pursued  from  beginning  to  end  with 
system,  regularity,  watchfulness,  intelligence,  and  attention  to 
trifling  details.  They  say  "  trifles  make  the  sum  of  human  happi- 
ness or  woe,"  so  trifles  just  as  inconsiderable  make  or  mar  success 
in  butter-making.  Objections  will  be  raised,  and  many  may  say 
that  butter  could  be  made  quicker  and  with  less  trouble  on  the 
old  system  ;  but  the  monetary  value  of  dairy  produce  is  greatly 
increased  by  its  superior  quality.  Time  and  labour  is  usefully 
expended  when  we  can  compete  profitably  with  the  foreigner, 
and  raise  our  profits  on  a  level  with  his.  This  should  be  a  great 
inducement  for  the  better  manufacture  of  butter.  MecJianical  aids 
to  bictter-making  are  of  great  value,  and  there  is  as  great  a  neces- 
sity for  having  a  dairy  pt'operly  equipped  as  there  is  for  the  employ- 
ment of  time-  and  labour-saving  implements  in  other.branches  of 
agriculture. 

The  necessity  for  the  greatest  cleanliness  in  everything  apper- 
taining to  the  dairy  and  the  operations  of  butter-making  cannot 
be  too  emphatically  dwelt  upon,  and  regulation  of  temperature 
with  the  use  of  a  thermometer  is  a  vitally  important  point.  Good 
butter-makers  know  that  the  question  of  temperature  has  a  most 
essential  bearing  upon  successful  butter-making. 

It  may  appear  unnecessary  to  point  out  that  slight  differences 
in  temperature,  the  speed  of  churning,  the  keeping  of  the  cream, 
and  the  quality  of  the  milk,  make  vast  diflerences  in  the  quality 
of  the  butter.  The  system  we  propose  describing  is  one  that  has 
been  perfected  by  those  who  have  carefully  studied  and  worked 
it  out  in  its  smallest  details,  by  comparison  with  home  and  foreign 
manufactures,  by  skilled  and  scientific  labour,  with  time,  oppor- 
tunity, science,  and  money  to  assist  in  the  investigation.  To  give 
an  idea  of  the  merits  of  this  system,  it  is  necessary  to  call  attention 
to  three  important  points  on  butter-making:  (i)  The  necessity 
of  removing  as  completely  as  possible  the  casein,  or  curdy  matter ; 
for  if  any  portion  of  this  matter  remains  in  the  butter  it  aff'ects 
its  keeping  qualities,  the  casein  being  the  first  to  decompose. 
(2)  The  preservation  of  the  grain.  Any  injury  to  the  grain  of  the 
butter  takes  away  the  fine  flavour  which  should  characterize  it, 
and  injures  its  appearance  and  keeping  qualities.  The  third 
important  point  is  to  salt  the  butter  properly  and  uniformly.     These 


DAIRYING.  615 

are  the  three  most  important  points,  and  the  system  described 
will  show  how  to  reach  the  maximum  degree  on  these  points. 

Old  Method. — The  old-fashioned  way  of  making  butter  is  to 
churn  it  into  a  lump;  but  by  this  means  a  large  quantity  of 
butter-milk  is  gathered  in  the  butter,  contrary  to  the  first  requisite 
in  butter-making,  which  is  that  we  should  have  it  as  free  as 
possible  from  casein  or  cheesy  matter. 

In  the  process  of  churning,  the  fat  globules  are  brought  into 
close  contact,  and  united  together  to  form  small  grains,  con- 
tinually increasing  in  size  as  the  churning  proceeds.  Now,  the 
chief  object  is  to  get  away  the  fat  without  having  any  casein  in 
it,  but  by  churning  the  butter  into  a  lump  a  large  quantity  of 
butter-milk  and  casein  is  included.  The  watery  part  may  be 
worked  out,  but  not  the  casein ;  and  if  the  cream  has  been  in 
any  way  tainted,  the  taint  will  remain  in  the  butter  instead  of  in 
the  butter-milk.  Nor  does  the  mischief  rest  here,  for  the  dairy- 
maid is  obliged  to  work  the  butter  considerably  with  the  hands 
before  she  can  squeeze  out  the  excess  of  moisture.  Two  evils 
result  from  this.  First,  the  grain  is  injured  by  excessive  working ; 
secondly,  the  butter  is  tainted  by  coming  in  contact  with  the 
perspiring  hand.  Again,  to  salt  the  butter  evenly  when  it  is 
gathered  into  a  lump,  it  must  be  spread  out  in  layers  and  worked 
again,  and  thus  further  injury  is  done  to  its  quality  and  keeping 
properties. 

Improved  Method. — According  to  the  improved  method, 
notice  is  taken  as  soon  as  the  cream  "  breaks,"  and  the  churning 
is  continued  a  little  until  the  butter  resembles  meal  and  water. 
The  churn  is  then  stopped,  and  a  small  quantity  of  cold  water 
added,  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  the  butter  at  that  stage 
when  it  is  most  required,  and  to  prevent  the  gathering  of  the 
granules  into  lumps.  By  keeping  them  separate  they  are  more 
easily  freed  from  the  butter-milk,  and  the  grain  is  much  improved. 
The  plan  of  adding  cold  water  at  this  stage  was  pursued  long  ago 
by  many  of  the  most  successful  butter-makers,  who  kept  it  a 
profound  secret.  The  churning  is  then  continued  carefully  until 
the  butter  is  in  a  granular  form,  like  pin-heads  or  mustard  seed, 
when  the  churn  is  finally  stopped,  and  the  butter-milk  drawn  off. 

In  this  fine  condition  the  butter  can  be  most  readily  freed 
from  its  casein,  or  cheesy  matter,  by  washing.  The  butter  is 
also  in  its  best  form  for  salting  by  brine,  as  each  granule  of 
butter  can  have  its  own  thin  coating  of  salt.  And  now  the  three 
most  important  points  in  butter-making  have  by  this  method  been 
arrived  at,  i.e. — 

1.  The  removal  of  the  casein. 

2.  The  preservation  of  the  grain. 


6l6  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

3.  Uniformity  of  salting. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  to  know  that  many  of  those  who  have 
been  most  successful  in  obtaining  prizes  at  agricultural  shows  do 
7iot  ivash  their  butter  at  all.  Such  butter  retains  a  far  better 
flavour  for  a  few  days,  but  soon  becomes  rancid. 

Preparation  of  Utensils.— ^^^r^  use.  (i)  Wash  with  cold 
water;  (2)  with  boiling  water;  (3)  scrub  with  salt;  (4)  rinse 
with  cold  water  in  summer  and  warm  in  winter. 

After  use.  (i)  Rinse  with  cold;  (2)  with  boiling;  (3)  leave 
dry,  well  exposed  to  the  air.  In  the  case  of  a  churn,  the  lid 
must  be  left  off. 

Preparation  of  Cream. — i.  Take  temperature  of  cream  with 
glass  dairy  thermometer,  and  compare  it  with  one  hanging  up  in 
the  dairy  which  registers  the  temperature  of  surrounding  air. 
2.  Decide  temperature  at  which  to  churn  by  that  of  surrounding 
air.  The  ideal  temperature  of  the  churning-room  all  the  year 
round  is  58°  Fahr,  The  higher  the  temperature  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, the  lower  the  temperature  of  the  cream  must  be  for 
churning.     Thus  : — 


Temperature  of  Air. 

Temperature  of  Cream. 

66°  F.        .. 

54°  F. 

64° 

55° 

62° 

56° 

60° 

57° 

58° 

58° 

56° 

59° 

54° 

60° 

52° 

61° 

50° 

62° 

Should  the  cream  be  thin  and  sweet,  it  may  be  churned  at  a 
higher  temperature  than  when  thick  and  ripened.  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  cream  to  be  churned  should  not^  under  any  circum- 
stances, exceed  64°,  or  be  below  53°. 

To  lower  the  temperature  of  cream,  (i)  place  the  vessel 
holding  the  cream  in  a  tank  or  cistern  of  cold  water  the  night 
before,  if  the  temperature  be  below  55°,  and  the  cream  above 
60°  Fahr. ;  (2)  further  reduce  it  by  means  of  a  temperature-can 
filled  with  iced  or  cold  water  stirred  about  in  the  cream,  or  place 
the  vessel  containing  the  cream  in  another  containing  cold  or 
iced  water. 

To  raise  the  temperature,  (i)  place  the  vessel  holding  the 
cream  in  another  containing  hot  water,  and  gradiially  heat  it  to 
the  desired  temperature,  always  keeping  the  cream  stirred,  or  use 
a  temperature-can  filled  with  hot  water. 

Carefully  thin  the  cream  with  a  little  water  if  it  be  very  thick 
and  rich. 


DAIRYING.  617 

After  regulating  temperature,  strain  the  cream  through  a 
rausUn  tied  over  a  cream-can,  stirring  gently  and  squeezing 
through  with  Scotch  hand,  allowing  a  degree  or  two  for  loss  of 
heat,  according  to  temperature,  during  the  process. 

Churning. — All  preparations  being  completed,  pour  the  cream 
into  the  churn  (never  more  than  half  filling  it),  and  begin 
churning  slowly. 

During  the  first  five  minutes  ventilate  the  churn  by  pressing 
the  vent,  or  removing  the  plug  at  every  ten  or  twelve  revolutions. 
This  lets  out  the  gases  set  free  by  the  concussion,  and  expanded 
by  rise  of  temperature,  which,  if  retained,  will  interfere  with  the 
churning. 

Increase  the  speed  after  the  first  five  minutes  to  a  steady 
uniform  motion,  regulating  the  speed  according  to  the  size  and 
nature  of  the  churn.  A  steady,  uniform  motion  is  best  for  all 
purposes,  as  concussion^  wot  friction^  should  be  the  aim  of  churning, 
otherwise  the  delicate  flavouring  oils  of  the  butter,  which  are 
volatile,  will  escape,  and  the  butter  suffer  in  consequence.  The 
object  of  churning  is  to  obtain  the  butter-fat  granules,  free  of 
caseous  viatta;  and  whole,  or  nearly  so.  This  constitutes  the  grain 
of  butter,  and  in  this  condition  it  has  its  best  flavouring  and 
keeping  quaHties. 

The  churn  should  be  stopped  as  soon  as  the  butter  granules 
begin  to  be  visible^  and  can  be  seen,  on  the  glass,  resembling  oat 
meal  and  water.  The  lid  should  be  removed,  and  temperature  of 
churn  taken.  Pour  in  cold  water  :  quantity — one  quart,  more  or 
less  (according  to  the  temperature  of  the  churn),  for  each  gallon 
of  cream.  In  winter,  if  the  temperature  of  the  air  be  below  52° 
F.,  the  temperature  of  the  water  added  should  not  be  below  48° 
or  5o°F.  ;  in  summer,  not  above  45°F.  if  the  air  be  above  6o°F. 

After  the  addition  of  the  water,  replace  the  lid,  and  churn  on 
most  carefully  until  the  butter  granules  are  about  the  size  of  pin- 
heads  or  turnip  seed. 

Draw  off  the  butter-milk,  using  a  hair-sieve  to  catch  any  stray 
particles  of  butter  that  may  escape  with  it,  and  return  them  to  the 
churn. 

Proceed  to  wash  the  butter,  the  temperature  of  water  used 
being  in  summer  45°F.,  and  in  winter  not  lower  than  5o°F. ;  if  the 
air  be  below  5  2°F.,  use  for  each  washing  rather  more  water  than  you 
had  cream  in  the  first  place,  and  dissolve  half  a  pound  of  pure  dairy 
salt  in  the  first  washing,  to  get  rid  of  the  butter-milk  and  solidify 
the  granules  of  butter.  Strain  the  water  through  a  muslin  strainer. 
Gently  oscillate  the  churn,  or  turn  five  or  six  times,  and  draw  off 
the  water,  using  a  hair  sieve.  Wash  until  the  water  runs  off  quite 
clear :  three  washings  should  suffice.     Great  care  must  be  taken 


6l8  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

not  to  over-wash  the  butter  ;  over-washing  will  injure  the  delicate 
flavouring  and  colour. 

Salting  the  Butter  with  Brine. — Make  a  brine  sufficient  to 
cover  the  butter.  The  proportion  of  salt  for  each  quart  of  water 
put  into  churn  : — 

Ordinary  salting,  ^  lb.,  leave  on  30  minutes. 
Heavy  „         i  lb.,         „         30        ,, 

Light  „         i  lb.,        ,,  4        „ 

In  removing  the  butter  from  the  churn  never  touch  it  with  the 
hands.  Do  not  let  off  the  brine  before  removing  the  butter 
on  to  the  worker  with  a  wooden  scoop  and  hair  sieve. 

Working  the  Butter.— Proceed  to  work  (being  careful  not  to 
overload  the  worker)  by  pressing  gently  and  firmly  on  2cci^  forward 
the  form  carrying  the  roller ;  at  the  same  time  turn  the  handle  of 
the  roller,  avoiding  a  rubbing,  grinding,  or  sUding  motion. 
Reverse  the  handle,  making  the  butter  into  a  roll,  and  collect  any 
stray  particles  with  a  small  pad  of  the  butter.  Wipe  the  roller 
and  board  with  a  clean  muslin  when  the  moisture  ceases  to  run 
off  the  table.  Be  careful  not  to  ^z;^^-work  or  under-^oxk.  the 
butter.  To  ascertain  if  the  butter  be  sufficiently  worked,  press 
one  end  'gently  with  a  Scotch  hand.  If  moisture  does  not  exude, 
if  it  is  free  from  hollows  and  cavities,  and  breaks  quite  short  with 
a  granular  fracture,  it  is  sufficiently  worked. 

Weighing. — Remove  from  worker  to  butter-board  (which 
carefully  wipe  with  a  damp  cloth),  and  weigh  into  quantities  re- 
quired on  scale  with  slab  made  of  marble  or  glazed  earthenware. 

Making  up. — If  the  butter  be  not  quite  firm^  do  not  attempt  to 
make  up^  but  let  it  remain  in  a  refrigerator  o:  cool  place  for  some 
hours,  and  then  proceed  to  mould  the  butter*  with  a  pair  of  Scotch 
hands ^  upon  a  butter-board.  {Note, — Never  touch  with  the  hands.) 
Be  careful  not  to  grind  or  rub  the  butter  on  the  board,  but  keep 
turning  it  over  and  over,  avoiding  any  unnecessary  roughness  or 
slapping.  Hold  the  Scotch  hands  firmly  and  low  down.  A  little 
practice  will  give  great  deftness,  and  a  number  of  pretty  designs 
may  be  made  with  the  Scotch  hands,  or  the  butter  may  be  stamped 
and  moulded.  Rolls  and  bricks  are  most  convenient  for  packing. 
Whatever  form  is  chosen  for  moulding  the  butter,  it  should  be 
neat  and  distinctive. 

Packing  Butter. — The  packing  of  butter  should  be  neat, 
efficient,  and  pleasing  to  the  eye,  as  it  will  greatly  enhance  its 
market  value. 

Vegetable  parchment  paper  and  small  boxes  of  wood,  per- 
fectly free  from  smell  and  flavour,  are  the  best  for  wrapping 
butter  in  for  sale.     In  packing  butter  for  sale,  it  is  necessary  to 


DAIRYING.  619 

guard  (i)  against  it  receiving  diWy  foreign  taste  or  infection  from  the 
vessel  in  which  it  is  packed;  (2)  against  the  effects  of  unfavour- 
able temperature ;  (3)  against  damage  and  loss  by  soakage. 

Bradford's  small  wooden  butter-boxes  are  a  great  convenience, 
and,  whilst  preserving  the  print,  prevent  the  butter  from  getting 
soft ;  and  the  more  tasty  and  pleasing  the  form  in  which  butter 
can  be  put  in  the  market,  the  greater  the  price  it  will  bring.  The 
only  objection  is  the  extra  weight  for  postage. 

Rancidity  and  Bad  Flavour  in  Butter. — The  causes  are : — 

1.  The  decomposition  of  the  casein,  left  in  the  butter.  The 
casein  should  be  removed  when  making  the  butter,  by  washing  at 
the  granular  stage. 

2.  The  formation  of  lactic  acid  from  fermentation  of  lactose 
derived  from  the  milk.  The  bacteria,  causing  the  fermentation, 
may  be  killed  by  scalding  the  milk.  Also  wash  the  butter  well, 
and  keep  in  a  cool  place. 

3.  Bad  flavour  may  be  imparted  by  such  foods  as  roots ;  to 
prevent  this,  boil  the  roots. 

4.  Tainting  may  be  caused  by  contamination  with  sour  milk, 
and  by  proximity  to  substances  with  disagreeable  odours. 

Points  for  judging  Butter. 

Flavour, — Nutty,  aromatic,  sweet      . .         . .  . .         , .         , ,  25 

Keeping. — Slow  to  change  its  good  qualities  . .  . .  ..  20 

Solidity. — Firm,  not  melting  easily  nor  softening   ..  ..  ..  10 

Texture. — Closeness  oi grain,  granular  fracture,  not  greasy         ..  25 

Colour. — Natural  and  even     ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  10 

3Iake. — Cleanliness,  freedom  from  moisture,  salting,  nicely  put  up  10 

100 

Scale  of  Points  for  Butter- making  Competitions. 

British  Dairy  Farmers'  Association. 

Preparation  of  cream           ..  ..  ..  ..  4 

Preparation  of  utensils         . .  . .  . .  . .  6 

Ventilation  of  churn             . .  . .  . .  . .  4 

Judgment  and  skill  in  churning 15 

Use  of  strainer          ..          .,  ..  ..  ..  4 

Washing  butter  in  churn     ..  ..  ..  ..  10 

Use  of  thermometer . .          . .  . .  . .  . ,  7 

Use  of  butter- worker           ..  ..  ,.  ..  7 

Salting           ..          ..          ..  ..  ..  ..  5 

Making  up     ..          ..          ..  ..  ..  ..  15 

Rapidity  and  cleanliness     . .  . .  . .  . .  5 

Flavour  and  colour  of  butter  . .  . .  . .  7 

Texture  and  freedom  from  moisture  . .  .  -  7 

Cleaning  of  utensils             ..  ..  ..  ..  4 

100 


620  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Cheese. 

While  butter  consists  almost  entirely  of  various  fats,  cheese  is 
a  nitrogenous  substance,  consisting  of  the  casein  of  the  milk,  with 
more  or  less  butter-fat. 

Composition  of  P.utter.  Composition  of  Cheese. 

Old  Stilton.  Cheddar. 

Water    11-15  per  cent.  ..  20  ..  33 

Fat     83-87          „  ..  44  •■  33 

Casein   06-1           ,,  ,.  29  ..  28 

Milk  sugar  o'2-o7         ,, 

Ash   01-3           ,,  ..  4  ••  4 

Manufacture  of  Cheddar  Cheese.— We  will  here  briefly 
describe  the  manufacture  of  Cheddar  cheese ;  the  principles  are 
the  same  for  most  classes  of  cheese. 

The  milk  is  placed  in  a  large  vat  and  heated  up  to  86°  F. 
This  is  done  either  by  having  a  jacket  around  the  vat,  and  pass- 
ing steam  between  the  two  walls  (the  Canadian  or  Scotch 
method),  or  by  taking  out  a  certain  amount  of  milk,  heating  it  to 
a  few  degrees  above  the  required  temperature,  and  then  returning 
it  to  the  bulk  in  the  vat  (English  or  Harding  method).  Rennet  is 
then  added,  at  the  rate  of  4  ozs.  to  100  gallons.  The  milk  is  stirred 
a  little,  and  allowed  to  curdle  for  from  45  to  60  mins.  The  curd 
is  next  cut  with  curd-knives,  and  then  left  for  10  mins.  more,  after 
which  the  stirring  and  breaking  proceeds  for  about  40  mins. 
The  mass  is  then  scalded,  the  temperature  being  raised  gradually 
at  the  rate  of  about  1°  in  4  mins.,  until  it  reaches  ipo°-io3°. 
Stirring  is  continued  until  the  curd  is  hard  and  falls  quickly  to 
the  bottom  of  the  vat  j  on  squeezing  it  with  the  hand  it  should 
readily  fall  in  pieces  again.  After  settling  for  about  10  mins., 
it  is  pressed  in  the  vat  for  the  same  time,  then  cut  a  little, 
collected  together,  and  pressed  again.  The  whey  is  now  drawn 
off,  the  weights  removed,  and  the  mass  cut  into  blocks.  The 
curd  is  then  wrapped  up  in  clean  muslin,  the  rack  and  weights 
are  replaced,  and  the  whole  stands  for  20  mins.  It  is  then 
turned  twice  or  thrice,  cut  into  cubes  of  about  2  inches  edge, 
tied  up  in  the  cloth,  and  pressed  once  more.  In  this  state  it 
must  be  kept  warm  for  approximately  20  mins.,  and  is  then 
ground  to  a  fine  condition.  After  stirring  for  15  mins.,  it  is 
salted,  the  salt  being  added  at  the  rate  of  2  per  cent.  The  mass 
is  pressed  in  moulds  for  some  time,  and  is  then  allowed  to  ripen, 
which  takes  about  three  months. 

Cheese  should  be  ripened  at  a  temperature  not  exceeding  70° 
F.  A  considerable  loss  of  water  occurs  during  the  operation, 
and  also  of  fat  and  casein,  if  growth  of  mould  takes  place.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  no  part  of  the  casein  is  changed  into 
fat  during  ripening. 


(      621      ) 


CHAPTER    IX. 

WOODS   AND   PLANTATIONS. 

Forestry  does  not  enter  largely  into  the  work  of  the  ordinary 
agriculturist,  but  still  a  small  plantation  is  often  found  on  the 
farm. 

Uses  of  Forests. 

Trees  are  planted  for  three  primary  reasons :  {a)  profit,  {b) 
shelter,  {c)  ornament 

{a)  They  are  our  sources  of  timber  and  lumber,  and  are  also 
one  of  our  chief  sources  of  fuel.  There  is  a  very  great  demand 
every  year  for  timber,  for  building  and  other  purposes,  necessita- 
ting a  large  importation  from  Canada,  Russia,  and  several  other 
countries.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  a  farmer  could  meet  this 
demand,  but  still  there  are  many  large  waste  tracts,  as  in  the 
North  of  Scotland  and  many  hilly  districts  in  England,  which 
would  return  a  good  profit  if  planted  with  suitable  trees. 

Charcoal  is  obtained  from  the  wood  in  some  places.  The 
branches  are  piled  up  into  large  heaps,  covered  over  well  with 
turf,  and  then  set  on  fire.  Various  gases  are  given  off,  and  an 
impure  mass  of  carbon  remains. 

The  leaves  and  young  twigs  of  trees  are,  to  a  certain  extent, 
a  source  of  potash  salts.  When  burned  they  leave  these  com- 
pounds behind  in  the  ash,  ft-om  which  they  can  be  obtained  by 
lixiviation. 

(b)  Trees  are  the  natural  protection  from  storms.  If  planted 
in  suitable  positions,  such  as  the  most  exposed  sides  of  the  farm, 
they  protect  the  crops  from  cold  freezing  winds,  and  hence  enable 
them  to  get  through  the  winter  much  better.  On  mountain  sides, 
plantations  of  hardy  trees  may  be  made  with  advantage.  Not 
only  are  they  profitable  in  themselves,  but  they  prevent  cold 
blasts  from  sweeping  down  through  the  valleys,  and  thus  assist 
vegetation  to  a  more  vigorous  growth.  On  exposed  sea-coasts, 
plantations  of  trees,  commencing  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  yards 


6.22  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

from  high-water  mark,  are  of  great  use  in  sheltering  the  land, 
and  binding  sandbanks. 

It  is  very  often  advisable  to  have  a  ring  of  trees  around  the 
homestead,  and  thus  all  stormy  winds  are  kept  off.  On  hillsides 
with  little  protection,  good  sheep-folds  may  be  formed  by  planting 
a  circular  band  of  trees.  The  sheep  can  be  driven  in  here  at 
nights  for  shelter  if  required. 

{c)  Nothing  increases  the  beauty  of  a  landscape  more  than 
plenty  of  well-formed  trees.  This  is  one  reason  why  they  should 
be  planted  about  every  mansion  or  farmhouse.  They  may  also 
be  grown  along  the  sides  of  roads,  when  they  will  afford  a 
pleasant  shade.  It  is,  however,  not  always  advisable  to  have 
rows  of  trees  along  the  fence  line.  Their  roots  spread  out  for 
considerable  distances  on  each  side,  and,  in  consequence,  drain 
away  the  plant-food,  which  would  have  been  more  profitably 
used  up  by  the  crop.  The  shade  of  the  trees  also  causes  the 
plants  to  be  of  less  vigorous  growth.  For  these  reasons  very  few 
trees  should  be  grown  in  arable  fields,  though  on  pastures  they 
form  a  useful  shade.  In  fields  with  permanent  fences  the  best 
places  for  them  are  the  corners. 

Forests  have,  however,  several  other  uses.  They  affect  the 
climate  of  a  country  favourably  in  summer,  causing  the  tempera- 
ture during  night  and  day  to  be  more  even.  They  retard  the 
evaporation  of  water  from  the  soil,  thus  keeping  it  always  moist. 
Showers  are  also  more  frequent,  though  the  annual  rainfall  is  not 
much  increased.  To  a  certain  extent,  the  trees  purify  the  air, 
taking  in  carbonic  acid  gas  and  giving  out  oxygen  during  the 
day  time.  Forests  are  the  principal  sources  of  our  streams,  and 
they  also  cause  them  to  flow  steadily.  The  rain,  when  descending, 
is  more  or  less  checked  in  its  fall  by  the  leaves.  Part  is 
evaporated  from  the  leaves,  but  most  is  absorbed  into  the  loose, 
friable,  vegetable  soil,  through  which  it  readily  percolates  into 
the  streams.  The  humidity  of  the  air  causes  frequent  falling  of 
rain,  and  hence  the  brooks  run  regularly,  and  are  not  so  much 
affected  by  drought. 

When  trees  are  totally  removed  from  the  land  there  (i)  is  a 
greater  liability  to  excessive  dryness  of  the  soil,  (2)  greater  ex- 
tremes of  temperature,  (3)  more  destruction  by  winds. 

Classes  op  Trees. 

The  different  kinds  of  trees  are  divided  into  two  classes — the 
Deciduous  trees  and  the  Conifers.  The  former  shed  their  leaves 
in  autumn ;  the  latter  are  evergreen.  Deciduous  trees  are,  again, 
split  up  into  Hard-wooded  and  Soft-wooded  trees. 


WOODS  AND   PLANTATIONS. 


623 


Hard-wooded  Trees. — The  chief  genera  of  these  are  given  in 
the  following  list : — 


Common  Name. 

Botanical  Name. 

Natural  Order. 

Oak 

Quercus 

Cupuliferae. 

Elm 

Ulmus 

Ulmacae. 

Beech 

Fagus 

CupuliferjK, 

Ash 

Fraxinus 

Oleaceae. 

Sycamore,  or  Maple 

Acer 

Acerineoe. 

Birch 

Betula 

Betulacege. 

Alder 

Alnus 

Betulacese. 

Hawthorn 

Crataegus 

Rosacea?. 

Holly 

Ilex 

Ilicineoe. 

Walnut 

Juglans 

Amentaceae. 

There  are  very  many  varieties  of  these  trees ;  thus  there  are 
above  sixty  distinct  species  of  the  oak. 

Soft-wooded  Trees. — These  are  much  quicker  in  growth  than 
the  last,  but  much  less  durable.     The  chief  genera  are — 


Common  Name. 

Botanical  Name. 

Natural  Order. 

Horse-chestnut 
Willow 
Poplar 
Lime  Tree 

^sculus 
Salix 
Populus 
Tilia 

Sapindaceoe. 
Salicaceae. 
Salicace^e. 
Tiliaceje. 

Conifers. — The  trees  of  the  genus  Pinus  are  the  chief  in  this 
division.     They  are  very  numerous,  as  may  be  seen  from  any  list. 


Common  Name. 

Botanical  Name. 

Natural  Order. 

Scotch  fir 

Pinus  sylvestris 

Coniferse. 

Black  Austrian  pine 

,,     austriaca 

Red  pine 

„     resmosa 

)) 

Cluster  pine 

,,      pinaster 

Stone  pine 

„     pmea 

,9 

Siberian  pine 

, ,      cembra 

Weymouth  pine 

, ,     strobus 

)) 

Norway  spruce  fir 

Abies  excelsa 

)) 

Black  spruce  fir 

„      nigra 

Douglas  fir 

,,      Douglasii 

}f 

Common  silver  fir 

Picea  pectinata 

Common  European  larch 

Larix  Europea 

It 

Cedar  of  Lebanon 

Cedrus  Libani 

Common  yew 

Taxus  baccata 

,, 

Cypress 

Cupressus 

624  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

We  will  now  consider  a  few  points  about  the  principal 
trees. 

The  Oak. — Grows  very  slowly.  Develops  best  on  deep, 
heavy  soils.  It  is  raised  from  the  acorns,  which  are  sown  in 
autumn.  Transplant  when  one  year  old.  The  timber  is  very 
hard  and  durable,  and  of  great  use  for  house-building,  agricultural 
erections,  and  implements.  It  is  a  very  profitable  crop,  and  the 
demand  for  the  timber  is  unlimited. 

Elm. — Requires  a  deep,  rich,  dry  loam.  Propagated  by 
suckers  from  old  roots,  or  by  layering.  Grows  rapidly,  and 
attains  a  good  height.  The  timber  is  much  used  in  agriculture 
for  troughs,  and  various  purposes.  It  is  strong  in  what  is  called 
lateral  fibre,  but  is  deficient  in  longitudinal  adhesion.  Good  for 
pulley  blocks,  naves  of  wheels,  and  short  frameworks. 

Beech. — Grows  well  on  dry  chalky  soils.  The  seeds  are  stored 
through  winter  and  sown  in  March,  in  rows  a  good  distance  apart. 
Transplanted  when  two  years  old,  in  some  fine  weather  between 
November  and  March.  The  young  shoots  are  very  slender ;  the 
leaves  are  of  light  colour;  the  bark  very  smooth.  It  is  very 
hardy.  The  timber  is  of  little  value,  being  brittle  and  short- 
grained. 

Ash. — Suits  a  loam  best.  It  should  be  planted  in  somewhat 
sheltered  positions,  though  it  is  a  hardy  tree.  The  wood  is  very 
tough  and  elastic ;  used  for  carriage-building.  Greatest  value  of 
timber  when  from  fifty  to  sixty  years  old.  Propagated  from  seeds 
(samara),  which  are  stored  in  sand  for  eighteen  months,,  to  rot  off 
the  outer  coat.  Sow  in  March ;  one  seed  to  three  square  inches. 
Transplant  to  nursery  rows  the  next  spring,  from  which  they  are 
removed  to  the  forest  in  two  or  three  years. 

Maple. — Suits  all  classes  of  soil,  if  fairly  free  from  water.  The 
timber  is  very  good.  Propagated  from  seeds,  sown  about  October. 
Transplanted  to  nursery  when  one  year  old,  where  they  remain 
two  years. 

Birch. — Grows  well  on  cool  moist  soil,  and  is  very  hardy.  It  is 
not  very  durable ;  the  timber  soon  decays  ;  used  for  small  turnery 
work,  butter-barrels  and  clog  soles. 

Alder. — Does  well  on  any  soil,  so  long  as  there  is  an  abundance 
of  moisture.  The  timber  is  of  use  for  clog  soles,  charcoal,  and  a 
few  less  important  articles.  Propagated  chiefly  from  seed,  but 
also  from  cuttings  and  layers  of  young  wood.  The  seed  is  dried 
for  two  or  three  days  in  the  sun,  and  then  the  scales  rubbed  of! 
with  the  hands.  Sown  in  March ;  remains  a  year  in  the  seed-bed 
and  one  to  two  years  in  the  nursery  rows. 

Walnut. — Requires  a  deep  dry  loam.  The  young  wood  is 
soft,  white,  and  of  little  value.     When  the  tree  gets  to  be  about 


WOODS   AND   PLANTATIONS.  625 

sixty  years  old,  the  timber  is  dark-coloured,  solid,  beautifully 
veined,  and  takes  a  high  polish.  The  fruit  also  is  of  some  value. 
Grown  from  seed. 

Hawthorn. — Grows  best  on  rich  dry  soil.  It  is  very  hardy. 
The  wood  is  of  a  yellowish-white  colour,  fine-grained,  and  can 
be  finely  polished.  It  is  not,  however,  obtained  in  very  large 
quantities.  The  hawthorn  is  very  useful  for  hedges  ;  indeed,  it 
is  very  often  the  only  material  employed.  The  seed  should 
be  gathered  when  perfectly  ripe,  and  allowed  to  lie  in  heaps, 
mixed  with  fine  dry  sand,  until  the  pulp  has  rotted  off.  After 
about  fifteen  months  the  seed  is  sown  in  beds  of  good  mould,  at 
the  rate  of  one  seed  to  one  or  two  square  inches.  Cover  with 
about  half  an  inch  of  earth.  Remove,  when  two  years  old,  to 
the  nursery,  where  they  are  planted  in  rows  twelve  inches  apart, 
with  two  inches  between  each  plant.  After  two  years  here  they 
may  be  removed  to  the  hedges. 

Holly. — Needs  a  good  dry  loam,  containing  plenty  of  organic 
matter.  The  little  wood  obtained  is  used  for  cabinet-making. 
Usually  grown  from  seed. 

Horse-chestnut. — Requires  a  good,  rich,  dry  loam,  in  a  sheltered 
position.  The  wood  is  soft,  and  is  only  occasionally  used,  chiefly 
for  flooring,  bottoms  of  waggons,  etc.  It  is  very  ornamental. 
Grown  from  seed,  which  is  sown  about  October.  The  young 
plants  are  transplanted,  when  a  year  old,  into  rows,  in  which 
they  remain  for  about  a  year. 

Willow. — Should  have  a  good,  deep,  moist  soil,  and  requires 
to  be  sheltered.  The  wood  is  white,  tough,  and  durable,  and 
very  useful  for  making  carts,  as  it  does  not  readily  split.  It  is 
propagated  from  cuttings,  which  are  planted  in  spring,  and  trans- 
planted in  autumn  into  the  forests. 

Poplar. — The  soil  suitable  is  a  good  strong  loam,  deep  and 
moist.  It  grows  rapidly  and  attains  a  large  height.  The  wood 
is  light  and  durable.  Propagated  from  cuttings,  layers,  and 
suckers. 

Lime  Tree. — Thrives  best  on  strong  deep  loam  ;  requires  to  be 
sheltered.  The  wood  is  white  in  colour,  of  soft  and  close  nature. 
Grown  from  layers,  which,  when  a  year  old,  are  removed  from  the 
parent  stock  and  remain  in  the  nursery  about  two  years. 

Scotch  Fir. — Grows  best  on  dry,  sandy  soils,  and  is  very  hardy. 
The  wood  is  of  great  value,  and  is  used  for  a  very  large  number 
of  purposes.  Propagated  from  seed.  The  cones  are  gathered  in 
December,  and  dried  in  a  timber-kiln  at  iio°F.,  taking  care  not  to 
go  above  this.  Remove  after  heating  twelve  hours,  when  the  scales 
will  be  found  to  readily  separate  from  the  seed.  Store  in  a  dry 
cool  place   till  sowing,  which   is  done  on  a  piece  of  fine  light 

9  S 


626  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

ground,  at  the  rate  of  two  seeds  per  square  inch.  After  a  year 
the  young  plants  are  transplanted  into  the  nursery  rows,  and, 
when  from  two  to  three  years  old,  they  are  taken  to  young  plan- 
tations. 

Black  Austrian  Pine. — Suits  a  dry,  light  soil.  Very  hardy, 
and  is  well  adapted  for  sheltering  other  trees.  The  timber  is 
valuable.     Grown  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  Scotch  fir. 

Red  Pine. — Requires  a  hght,  gravelly,  well-sheltered  soil.  The 
wood  has  a  close  compact  grain,  and  is  very  resinous.  It  makes 
very  good  timber,  largely  used  in  America  in  house-building. 
Propagated  from  seed,  similar  to  Scotch  fir. 

Cluster  Pine. — Requires  a  deep,  dry,  sandy  soil,  situated  near 
the  sea.  The  timber  is  soft,  not  durable,  and  of  little  value.  It 
is,  however,  very  hardy,  and  hence  is  very  useful  for  protection, 
especially  along  the  sea  coast.  Obtained  from  seed ;  sown  in 
April,  transplanted  when  a  year  old,  and  again,  after  another  year, 
transplanted  in  May.  When  three  years  old  they  are  planted  in 
their  permanent  positions. 

Stone  Pine. — Needs  deep,  light,  dry  soils,  well  sheltered.  It 
cannot  bear  close  planting.  The  timber  is  not  very  useful,  and 
the  tree  is  only  cultivated  for  effect. 

Siberian  Pine. — Hardy,  and  grows  on  nearly  any  soil.  The 
timber  is  not  of  great  value,  but  the  tree  answers  well  as  a  nurse. 

Weymouth  Pine. — Suits  a  deep,  dry  loam.  The  timber  is 
largely  used  in  house-building,  though  it  is  not  so  durable  as  the 
red  pine.     It  grows  to  a  great  height.     Propagated  frorn  seeds. 

Norway  Spruce  Fir. — Grows  best  on  cool,  moist,  sheltered 
land.  The  timber  is  very  valuable,  being  nearly  equal  to  the 
Scotch  fir.     It  is  propagated  in  a  similar  manner  to  that  tree. 

Black  Spruce  Fir. — Suits  the  same  soil  as  the  Norway  spruce. 
The  wood  is  strong,  light,  elastic,  and  durable.  The  seed  is 
sown  in  April,  remains  for  two  years ;  then  transplanted,  and 
after  from  two  to  four  years  they  may  be  planted.  It  is  advisable 
to  frequently  transplant  during  that  time. 

Douglas  Fir. — Grows  on  nearly  any  soil,  if  porous  and  moist 
enough.  The  timber  is  of  good  quaHty,  grows  very  rapidly,  and 
the  tree  is  very  ornamental.    Sown  in  a  similar  manner  to  Scotch  fir. 

Silver  Fir. — Requires  a  well-sheltered  loam.  It  should  not  be 
allowed  too  much  room,  or  the  wood,  which  should  be  fine  and 
close-grained,  becomes  open  and  soft.  Propagated  similarly  to 
the  spruce  fir. 

Larch. — Grows  best  on  deep,  porous,  fairly  dry  soil,  especially 
those  with  a  gentle  slope.  The  larch  is  very  hardy,  and  thus  suits 
high  land.  The  wood  is  durable  and  tough,  even  when  young, 
and  is  extensively  used  in  agricultural  work,  especially  for  fences, 


WOODS   AND  PLANTATIONS.  627 

The  trees  are  reared  from  seed  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  Scotch 
fir. 

Cedar. — Requires  a  dry  open  soil ;  it  is  very  hardy.  The 
timber  is  usually  soft,  and  of  very  little  value,  except  when  grown 
in  its  native  place.  It  is  very  ornamental,  and  the  wood  is 
often  used  in  carving.  The  cones,  which  do  not  fall  off  the  tree 
for  a  very  long  time,  are  gathered  in  spring,  and  the  seeds  taken 
out  immediately.  Sow  in  April,  and  transplant  in  the  same  way 
as  the  Scotch  fir. 

Yew. — Does  best  on  a  sheltered  strong  loam.  The  wood  is  hard, 
close,  and  fine-grained ;  elastic,  splits  readily,  and  is  very  durable. 
Propagated  from  seeds,  which  are  gathered  in  October,  washed 
free  from  the  pulp  which  surrounds  them,  stored  among  sand  for 
twelve  to  fifteen  months,  and  then  sown.  Transplant  in  nursery 
rows  when  two  years  old. 

Cypress. — There  are  very  many  varieties  suiting  different  kinds 
of  soil.  The  trees  do  not  usually  grow  large  enough  to  be  of  use 
as  timber.  It  is,  however,  ornamental,  and  is  readily  propagated 
from  cuttings. 

Methods  of  Propagating  Forest  Trees. 

The  three  principal  methods  are  :  (i)  from  the  seeds,  (2)  from 
parts  of  living  trees,  such  as  cuttings,  layers,  etc.,  (3)  from  young 
plants,  obtained  from  nurseries,  where  they  have  been  reared  by 
the  two  last  ways,  or  from  forests,  where  they  have  grown 
naturally  from  the  seed. 

1.  From  Seed. — When  trees  grow  in  a  state  of  nature,  they,  as 
a  rule,  spring  from  seed.  This  method  is  often  employed  in 
nurseries.  The  seed  should  only  be  gathered  from  good  healthy 
mature  trees,  at  a  fairly  dry  time,  as  moisture  is  apt  to  spoil  the 
seed.  The  following  table  (p.  629)  gives  much  useful  infor- 
mation about  sowing. 

The  ground  in  which  the  seeds  are  sown  should  be,  as  a  rule, 
light,  well  cultivated,  fine  and  dry.  It  should  be  turned  once  or 
twice  in  the  autumn,  and  the  seeds  planted  about  January.  In  a 
nursery,  about  one  hardwood  should  be  planted  to  about  thirteen 
larches  and  five  pines.  The  ground  should  be  well  hoed  between 
the  rows,  and  no  weeds  ought  to  be  allowed.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  hurt  the  young  plants  when  hoeing. 

2.  Cuttings. — In  this  method,  a  suitable  young  shoot  is  cut 
off  from  the  parent  stock,  and  then  put  into  the  soil,  which 
should  be  kept  moist  for  some  time.  The  willow  is  the  chief 
tree  propagated  in  this  manner. 

Layers. — This  process  is  often  employed  in  propagating  the 


628  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

elm.  Young  trees  are  planted  in  the  nursery,  and,  when  three  or 
four  years  old,  are  cut  down  to  within  about  four  buds  off  the 
ground.  From  these,  young  shoots  soon  grow  out,  which,  when 
about  a  year  old,  are  gradually  bent  down  and  covered  with  earth. 
This  part  of  the  operation  takes  place  in  autumn.  The  shoots 
soon  grow  up  out  of  the  ground,  and  bear  leaves  and  roots  them- 
selves. In  about  a  year  the  part  nearest  the  stump  is  gently  cut 
through,  and  the  young  plants  transplanted.  The  remainder  of  the 
branch  should  be  cut  off,  and  shoots  will  again  grow  from  the  places. 

3.  By  Transplanting. — The  age  at  which  trees  should  be 
transplanted  varies  somewhat  according  to  the  kind  of  tree. 
They  should  be  transplanted  for  the  first  time  in  spring,  when  the 
ground  is  fairly  dry.  The  dead  of  winter  is  the  worst  period  in 
all  the  year.  The  young  tree  should  be  lifted  out  of  the  soil  as 
carefully  as  possible,  taking  care  not  to  leave  behind  any  of  the 
fibrous  roots,  if  possible.  It  should  then  be  put  in  the  ground 
again  quickly,  as  long  exposure  to  the  air  causes  an  injurious 
loss  of  moisture.  It  has  been  found  that  a  light  porous  soil  causes 
the  number  of  fibrous  roots  to  increase  greatly.  The  ground 
should  be  kept  very  clean,  and  the  trees,  as  a  rule,  should  be  well 
apart.  Some  trees,  such  as  the  willow,  would  not  grow  to  any 
height  if  planted  with  too  much"  room.  In  these  cases,  the  thick 
planting  causes  them  to  grow  up  straight  and  tall.  Other  trees, 
such  as  the  oak,  ash,  elm,  will  need  to  be  transplanted  several 
times  before  removing  to  their  permanent  places.  This  frequent 
transplanting,  if  carefully  done,  greatly  increases  the .  number  of 
fibrous  roots,  and,  consequently,  the  capability  of  the  tree  for 
obtaining  nourishment  from  the  soil. 

Modes  of  Planting. — When  the  land  is  tolerably  even,  and 
capable  of  being  ploughed  and  tilled,  some  definite  order  should 
be  observed  in  planting.  This  allows  the  young  trees  to  be  easily 
attended  to,  and  also  enables  more  to  be  grown.  The  two  chief 
orders  of  planting  are  the  Square  and  the  Quincunx.  In  the 
former  the  trees  are  set  in  rows,  so  that  each  is  at  the  corner  of 
a  square.  This  does  not  mean  that  only  squares  of  a  particular 
tree  are  made.  For  example,  a  large  square  of  oaks  may  be 
planted  together  with  the  ash,  so  that  in  the  rows  oaks  and  ashes 
alternate.  In  the  centres  larches  or  Scotch  firs  maybe  planted  in 
the  same  order.  They  act  as  nurses,  growing  rapidly,  and  thus 
protecting  the  young  oaks,  which,  on  arriving  at  early  maturity, 
are  given  more  room  by  the  cutting  down  of  the  nurses.  In  the 
second  order  a  similar  manner  is  followed,  but  a  tree  of  the  same 
kind  as  those  at  the  corners  is  planted  in  the  centre. 

In  the  manner  of  inserting  the  young  trees  into  the  ground, 
two  systems  are  followed.     The  first  is  by  planting  in  pits,  and  is 


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630  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

employed  for  nearly  all  hardwoods,  and  any  other  trees  above  two 
and  a  half  years  old.  The  pits  are  dug  by  the  spade,  and  are  from 
nine  to  fifteen  inches  deep,  and  of  a  similar  breadth.  The  young 
trees  are  put  in  these,  generally  exactly  in  the  centre,  or  against 
the  side.  The  earth  is  then  pressed  firmly  around  the  tree,  taking 
care  not  to  get  it  too  hard.  The  turf  is  then  replaced.  The 
second  system  is  by  Notching ;  a  slit  is  made  in  the  ground  with 
a  spade,  and  into  it  the  tree  is  carefully  inserted.  The  edges  of 
the  split  are  then  pressed  together.  This  method  is  chiefly  em- 
ployed in  planting  very  young  trees,  and  is  only  suitable  for  such. 

The  distance  apart  of  the  trees  in  planting  varies  greatly.  On 
mountainous  land,  two  and  a  half  or  three  feet  is  quite  enough ; 
but  on  sheltered  parts,  hardwoods  may  be  planted  at  ten  feet 
apart,  with  nurses  at  three  or  four  feet  from  each  other. 

Planting  on  Low-lying  Ground. — The  chief  thing  to  remember 
in  this,  is  to  have  the  ground  well  drained.  Hardwoods  are 
especially  suitable  for  these  districts.  The  planting  should  be 
done  in  a  regular  order. 

Planting  on  Rocky  and  Mountainous  Land.— No  regular  order 
can  generally  be  observed.  When  planting  on  a  regular  hill- 
side, the  trees  should  be  set  in  rows  parallel  to  the  crown  of  the 
hill,  as  this  tends  to  prevent  the  earth  being  washed  away.  Large 
forests  are  usually  best,  as  then  the  trees  gain  more  protection. 
Scotch  firs,  larches,  Norway  spruces,  and  other  conifers  are 
most  suitable  for  these  districts.  The  plants  should  always 
be  strong  healthy  ones,  as  weak  ones  would  soon  die  when 
exposed  to  the  cold  mountain  blasts. 

Planting  for  Shade. — For  this,  only  occasional  trees  can  be 
grown,  and  no  masses  except  sometimes  in  the  corner  of  a  field. 
The  trees  suitable  are  the  oak,  elm,  ash,  beech,  and  linden.  The 
walnut  may  sometimes  be  grown  near  a  house. 

Planting  for  Ornament. — If  planted  in  a  park,  they  are 
arranged  in  no  regular  order.  The  trees  suitable  are  the  oak, 
elm,  chestnut,  beech,  birch,  cedar,  Norway  spruce,  silver  fir. 
In  towns,  the  trees  are  planted  both  for  ornament  and  shade. 
The  distance  apart  varies  greatly,  they  should  be  protected  with 
a  wooden  or  iron  guard.  The  best  trees  are  the  elm,  chestnut, 
poplar,  maple,  and  several  others  which  do  not  spread  too  much. 
These  trees  also  suit  for  planting  along  private  roads  or  public 
highways.  In  this  case  the  land  should  be  well  cultivated  for 
one  season,  and  levelled  suitably.  A  proper  roadway  is  left;  the 
ground  on  each  side  is  sown  with  grass,  and  then  one  or  two  rows 
of  trees  planted. 

Planting  to  Hide  Objects. — Trees  are  often  planted  for  this 
purpose,  some  quick-growing  and  leafy  kind  being  selected.     The 


WOODS   AND    PLANTATIONS.  63 1 

maple,  sweet  chestnut,  Douglas  fir,  Norway  spruce,  Austrian  fir, 
the  mammoth  tree  {Sequoia  gigantea),  poplar,  Corsican  pine,  and 
Scotch  fir  are  most  suitable. 

Planting  of  Wind-breaks. — Wind-breaks  consist  of  lines  of 
trees  of  varying  thickness  placed  so  as  to  protect  the  land 
from  the  wind  as  much  as  possible.  They  are  very  valuable  for 
this  purpose.  Of  course,  only  the  hardy,  quick-growing  trees 
should  be  used.  Among  deciduous  trees  may  be  mentioned  the 
elm,  ash,  and  maple.  The  conifers  are  most  suitable ;  the  Norway 
spruce  and  the  Scotch  fir,  but  especially  the  former,  answer  very 
well.  The  trees  should  be  planted  as  thickly  as  possible,  and, 
wlien  several  kinds  are  used,  the  Norway  spruce  should  be 
placed  in  the  most  exposed  position.  If  possible,  at  least  three 
or  four  rows  of  trees  should  be  planted,  but  it  is  best  to  have 
the  windbreak  much  thicker  than  this.  The  trees  will  thus 
become  more  largely  developed,  and  any  weak  ones  may  be 
readily  removed  and  fresh  ones  introduced.  The  ground  should 
be  well  ploughed  and  tilled  about  a  year  before  planting.  The 
trees  are  then  planted,  in  rows  if  possible,  and  the  soil  between 
the  rows  kept  clean  and  loose  until  the  trees  are  several  feet  high. 

Planting  near  the  Sea. — Trees  are  very  important  in  protect- 
ing land  from  the  storms.  A  wall,  about  five  or  six  feet  high,  or 
a  fence,  is  first  made.  The  fence  consists  of  a  turf  dyke,  four 
feet  high,  on  the  top  of  which  are  wooden  rails  with  fir  branches 
interlaced.  The  land  should  be  drained,  and  the  trees  may  be 
planted  in  April,  in  pits  three  feet  apart.  A  belt  about  two  hundred 
yards  broad  should  be  planted.  The  most  suitable  trees  are  the 
cluster  pine,  Norway  maple,  sycamore,  elm,  birch,  black  Austrian 
pine,  with  the  sea-buckthorn,  broom  and  furze  for  underwood.  The 
trees  should  be  kept  fairly  well  thinned,  as  otherwise  they  only 
grow  into  low  thick  bushes.  When  this  belt  has  become  well 
developed,  other  trees  of  less  hardy  character  may  be  grown  on 
the  inside. 

General  Management  of  Trees. — Trees  do  not  generally 
require  much  attention.  The  plantations  should  be  kept  clean 
and  all  dead  branches  removed.  The  leaves  should  not  be 
allowed  to  accumulate  in  large  heaps,  and  all  undesirable  under- 
growth, weeds,  etc.,  should  be  taken  away.  The  weak  trees  and 
the  nurses  are  gradually  removed.  Under  twenty-five  years  of 
age,  thinning  should  be  slight,  and  confined  to  the  regulation  of 
the  trees,  so  that  they  do  not  interfere  with  each  other's  growth ; 
close  rank  should  be  aimed  at,  so  as  to  gradually  kill  off  the 
bottom  branches,  whilst  preserving  an  unbroken  canopy  of  top 
over  the  whole  ground.  This  principle  should  be  observed  at  all 
stages,  whether  the  trees  are  removed  as  thinnings  or  timber. 


632  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Pruning  will  seldom  require  to  be  performed.  The  aim 
should  be  to  remove  all  unnecessary  branches,  to  get  a  large 
number  of  good  young  shoots,  and  to  improve  the  appearance  of 
the  tree  as  much  as  possible.  No  large  branches  should  ever  be 
cut  off  a  mature  tree,  for  very  important  reasons.  The  sap  exudes 
from  the  cut  surface,  and,  unless  there  is  a  considerable  length  of 
the  branch  left  bearing  leaves,  the  stump  rots.  The  vessels  in 
the  tree  which  lead  to  the  branch  are  filled  with  stagnant  sap, 
and  become  soft  and  dark-coloured,  spoiUng  the  value  of  the 
tree  for  timber  considerably.  When  pruning  is  performed  on  a 
young  tree,  this  does  not  take  place,  and,  properly  done,  the 
operation  is  of  great  use.  The  lower  branches  are  those  which 
chiefly  require  to  be  removed,  so  that  the  tree  may  grow  up  tall 
and  straight,  and  not  acquire  too  much  of  a  bushy  form.  Planting 
close  together  at  first,  and  then  judicious  thinning  as  required, 
causes  the  trees  to  grow  in  a  more  desired  form  than  almost 
any  amount  of  pruning.  No  more  injurious  course  could  be 
pursued  in  the  management  of  a  plantation  than  to  thin  severely 
and  at  random.  Sometimes  the  young  tree  dies  down  to  the 
ground,  and  shoots  spring  out  from  the  stump.  In  this  case  the 
strongest  and  straightest  should  be  selected,  and  the  rest  cut 
away.  The  pruning  may  be  done  with  a  knife  or  saw,  the  latter 
being  for  larger  branches.  With  the  saw  a  cut  of  about  an  inch 
is  first  made  on  the  under  surface,  so  that  when  the  bough  is 
nearly  cut  through  it  may  not  break  down  and  tear  away  the 
bark.  In  all  cases  an  inch  or  two  of  the  branch  should  be  left 
on  the  tree.  The  cut  branches  should  always.be  quickly  removed 
from  the  plantation. 

The  best  time  for  pruning  is  in  spring  and  early  summer,  as 
then  all  wounds  quickly  heal  up.  June  may  be  taken  as  the  best 
month.  When  the  trees  are  about  twelve  years  old  they  will 
scarcely  need  any  more  pruning. 

With  conifers  the  process  of  pruning  is  somewhat  modified ; 
they  never  require  pruning  unless  it  is  to  remove  a  double  leader. 
A  point,  which  needs  special  remembrance  when  dealing  with 
conifers,  is  to  never  allow  any  dead  branches  to  remain  upon  the 
tree.  They  prevent  the  proper  growth  of  surrounding  branches, 
they  are  unsightly,  and  to  some  extent  affect  the  health  of  the 
tree  injuriously. 

When  about  thirty  years  old,  all  the  nurses  will  have  been 
removed,  the  larches  being  generally  left  to  the  last.  At  about 
thirty-five  years  a  considerable  part  of  the  ash  trees  will  be  cut 
down  for  making  many  agricultural  articles,  as  handles  of  ploughs, 
etc.  Five  years  after,  most  of  the  sycamores  are  removed,  and 
at  forty-five  years  the  elms  will  follow.     A  few  trees  will  be  cut 


WOODS   AND   PLANTATIONS.  633 

down  during  the  next  forty  or  fifty  years  to  make  room  for  the 
greater  development  of  the  oaks.  At  a  hundred  years  the  best 
oaks  will  be  cut  down,  and  soon  the  rest  will  follow.  When  a 
tree  is  cut  down,  its  stump  will  need  to  be  removed,  and  at  last 
the  formation  of  a  fresh  plantation  will  commence  again. 

When  trees  are  planted  for  ornament,  as  in  a  park,  they  do 
not  require  to  be  cut  down  as  shown  above;  the  old  trees,  indeed, 
are  generally  the  most  picturesque. 

Plantations  of  conifers  do  not  need  to  be  thinned  so  much  as 
those  of  hardwoods.  The  chief  crop  is  cut  when  fifty  to  seventy 
years  old,  when  they  are  most  valuable,  but  they  may  often 
remain  till  a  hundred  years  of  age. 

When  trees  get  old,  they  sometimes  have  large  holes  in  them, 
filled  with  decaying  matter.  These  should  be  cleaned  well  out, 
as  they  injure  the  tree  and  also  harbour  insects.  They  ought 
then  to  be  coated  on  the  inside  with  tar. 

Coppices. — This  system  allows  of  a  rapid  return  of  capital. 
The  trees  are  left  till  about  eighteen  years  old.  They  are  then 
cut  down  close  to  the  ground,  and  the  stumps  soon  send  out 
shoots,  which  are  termed  coppice-wood.  The  nurses  are  removed 
from  the  plantation  when  about  fifteen  years  old,  and  five  to  ten 
years  after,  the  coppice-wood  is  fit  to  be  cut.  It  should  be 
endeavoured  to  get  the  trees  fairly  tall  and  with  a  good  regular 
width.  Coppices  must  be  kept  as  clear  of  weeds  as  possible. 
The  wood  is  used  (i)  by  coopers,  (2)  for  charcoal,  (3)  for  baskets. 
For  I,  the  oak,  elm,  ash,  hazel,  sycamore,  maple,  and  chestnut 
are  the  chief;  for  2,  hazel,  alder,  birch,  mountain-ash,  poplar 
and  lime  tree  ;  for  3,  willows.  The  bark  of  some  trees,  especially 
the  oak,  is  used  in  tanning.  Small  amounts  of  birch  and  larch 
bark  are  sometimes  used.  The  bark  is  usually  stripped  in  spring, 
as  then  it  separates  more  readily  from  the  stems.  As  a  rule, 
about  three  feet  of  the  bark  is  stripped,  the  operation  being 
performed  when  the  tree  is  still  in  the  ground.  A  light  cut  is 
made  round  the  stem  two  or  three  inches  from  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  in  order  to  prevent  the  bark  on  the  stump  being  torn 
away.  A  similar  cut  is  made  three  feet  higher,  and  the  bark  in 
this  interval  stripped  off.  The  stem  is  then  cut  down  at  the 
bottom  of  the  stripped  part,  generally  with  the  saw.  The  bark 
should  be  taken  off  in  one  strip,  if  possible,  and  in  order  to 
loosen  it  from  the  wood  of  the  smaller  branches  it  may  have  to 
be  beaten  with  a  mallet.  The  bark  should  then  be  dried  in  the 
open  air  or  in  an  airy  shed :  the  operation  takes  ten  to  fourteen 
days ;  the  quicker  it  dries  the  better.  It  is  then  stacked  until 
sold.  The  tannin  in  the  bark  is  the  essential  factor  in  the 
process  of  "tanning." 


634  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Osier  Plantations. — The  land  should  be  cool  and  moist,  and 
needs  to  be  cultivated  for  a  year  previously.  The  cuttings  (from 
fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  long)  are  planted  in  rows,  eighteen 
inches  apart,  with  fifteen  inches  between  the  sets.  The  shoots 
grow  about  eight  feet  long,  and  are  cut  every  year  or  alternate 
year.  The  land  requires  to  be  kept  free  from  weeds,  and  the 
stumps  need  cutting  down  occasionally. 

Underwood  in  Plantations. — Two  kinds  of  underwood  may 
be  mentioned  :  (i)  low  bushy  trees,  (2)  shoots  from  stumps  of 
large  trees  cut  down.  The  chief  kinds  planted  are  the  laurel, 
holly,  privet,  juniper,  rhododendron,  elder,  Scotch  rose,  hazel, 
snowberry,  dogwood,  sea  buckthorn.  These,  as  a  rule,  prefer 
a  loamy  soil,  though  they  vary  as  to  the  required  degree  of 
tenacity.  They  should  be  grown  in  masses  of  one  kind  with 
few  trees  around,  that  is,  if  for  ornament  or  cover.  The  uses 
of  underwood  are  :  (i)  they  help,  in  conjunction  with  large  trees, 
to  shelter  the  land,  and  prevent  cold  winds  from  sweeping  through 
the  forests ;  (2)  they  act  as  covers  for  game ;  (3)  they  give  a 
more  picturesque  appearance  to  a  forest.  The  disadvantages 
are  that,  if  close  to  the  trees,  they  do  not  allow  a  free  passage  of 
air,  and,  by  their  great  abundance  of  roots,  may  take  up  too 
much  plant-food. 

Grasses,  etc.,  in  Plantations.— The  chief  grasses  suitable  for 
growing  in  plantations  are  cocksfoot,  and  wood  meadow  grass, 
and  some  other  less  important  ones. 

Buckwheat  is  sometimes  grown  when  the  woods  are  fairly 
young.  It  is  much  liked  by  pheasants,  for  which  it  is  a  very 
good  food.  The  seed  is  sown  in  any  convenient  place,  and 
the  produce  is  eaten  by  the  birds  as  they  think  fit.  Rye  may 
also  be  used  in  the  same  way. 

Uses  to  which  Wood  is  put. — Most  of  the  trees  are,  to  some 
extent,  valuable  for  their  timber,  but  local  circumstances  should 
determine  greatly  the  trees  to  be  grown.  Ash  and  elm  are 
needed  in  coachbuilding,  and  for  handles;  larch  (three  to  six 
inches  diameter)  for  prop  wood  in  coal  mines ;  Scotch  fir,  larch, 
and  spruce  for  railway  sleepers  and  deals.  Oak,  pine,  elm  and 
ash  are  used  for  waggons,  and  other  purposes.  Elms  are  used 
for  coach  naves,  and  several  other  purposes.  The  trees  for 
coppice-wood  have  been  mentioned.  For  hop-poles  young  larches, 
about  twenty  feet  long,  are  needed. 

Timber. — The  trees  should  be  planted  rather  thickly  at  first, 
and  then  gradually  thinned.  This  causes  the  stems  to  grow  to 
a  good  height,  and  with  plenty  of  thinning  thickness  is  also 
secured.  A  dry  porous  soil  favours  root  distribution.  Enough 
room  must  always  be  given  for  the  full  development  of  the  tree. 


WOODS  AND  PLANTATIONS.  635 

It  must  be  remembered  never  to  remove  the  nurses  too  suddenly. 
All  the  conifers,  and  especially  the  larch,  require  plenty  of  room. 
The  forests  always  need  to  be  kept  clean  of  weeds,  dead 
branches,  etc. 

In  felling  timber  the  trees  should  be  cut  down  as  close  to  the 
ground  as  possible.  A  greater  amount  is  thus  obtained,  and  the 
surface  is  kept  even.  The  age  at  which  to  fell  has  been  stated 
before  (pp.  632,  633).  If  possible,  the  gi'ower  should  sell  the 
produce  to  the  timber-merchant  with  the  regulation  that  the  latter 
must  fell  it. 

The  timber,  soon  after  felling,  should  be  cut  up  at  the  saw- 
mill into  convenient  lengths  of  planks,  if  required.  These  planks 
are  then  stored  for  from  eighteen  months  to  two  years  in  a  dry 
airy  shed,  in  order  to  dry,  or,  as  it  is  called,  to  season,  as  when 
used  full  of  sap  it  is  softer  and  more  apt  to  decay.  When  for 
railway  sleepers  and  other  thick  articles,  it  should  be  cut  up  into 
the  proper  form,  and  dried  for  a  longer  time  than  stated  before. 

In  order  to  preserve  timber  better,  various  methods  are 
employed,  to  which  we  shall  briefly  refer.  A  great  tank  should 
be  filled  with  a  solution  of  slaked  lime  or  of  common  salt,  and 
into  this  the  planks  are  placed,  for  about  ten  or  twelve  days  in  the 
former  case,  and  a  week  in  the  latter.  The  following  method  is 
given  by  Dr.  Brown  : — Dissolve  i  lb.  sulphate  of  copper  in 
I  gallon  boiling  water,  add  5  gallons  cold  water,  mix  well,  and 
add  z  lb.  sulphuric  acid.  Steep  the  well-seasoned  timber  for 
about  twenty-four  hours  in  this.  Croggan's  black  varnish  is  also 
recommended  for  painting  the  timber  with.  Coal-tar,  creosote, 
and  carbolic  acid  (which  is  contained  in  the  other  two)  are  often 
used  for  preserving  wood.  It  is  well  known  that  palings  painted 
with  coal  tar  last  a  much  longer  time  than  without  it.  Posts, 
before  being  put  in  the  ground,  should  be  dipped  in  tar.  Not 
only  the  part  which  has  to  go  into  the  soil,  but  at  least  four  or  six 
inches  above  the  surface  may  be  thus  coated  with  advantage. 

Judging  Land  by  the  Trees.— Land  may,  to  a  certain  extent, 
be  judged  by  the  trees  found  growing  on  it,  and  this  is  especially 
useful  in  winter.  When  a  tree  is  seen  to  flourish  very  much,  it 
may  generally  be  taken  for  granted  that  it  is  growing  on  the  soil  most 
suitable  to  it.  The  elm,  oak,  sycamore,  ash,  walnut,  mulberry, 
and  hawthorn  grow  on  good  soils  only  to  their  average  height. 
The  beech,  Scotch  fir,  spruce,  birch,  poplar,  blackthorn,  alder^ 
indicate  poor  land  as  a  rule,  although  they  may  be  well  grown. 
These  observations  apply  chiefly  to  naturally  growing  trees. 

Marks  of  a  Failing  Tree.— When  the  foliage  is  of  a  dark  green 
colour,  and  of  a  fair  size,  the  branch-growth  extending  uniformly 
all  over  the  tree,  and  the  annual  terminal  growths  of  fair  lengths, 


636  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

the  tree  is  growing,  laying  on  timber  in  its  trunk,  and  increasing 
in  value ;  whereas,  if  the  tree  is  failing,  the  foliage  is  pale,  small, 
and  poor,  the  terminal  annual  growths  short  and  feeble,  and  the 
trunk  increases  at  a  very  slow  rate. 

When  the  extremities  of  the  branches  are  dying  off,  showing 
dead  twigs,  decay  has  set  in,  and  the  tree  is  then  either  standing 
still  in  value,  or  actually  losing  value  every  year. 

Valuing  Timber. — Many  proprietors  sell  their  timber  standing, 
to  save  risk  and  expense.  This  mode  of  sale  requires  very  careful 
valuation  on  the  part  of  the  seller,  in  order  to  find  the  cubical 
contents  of  the  lot  and  their  quality. 

All  trees  under  ten  cubic  feet  contents  are  classed  as  "  poles." 
These  are  too  little  in  girth  to  saw  up  usefully,  and  necessarily 
fetch  a  low  price. 

Poles  need  only  be  counted  and  their  contents  averaged. 
The  average  is  obtained  by  measuring  about  half  a  score,  chosen 
haphazard  in  different  parts  of  the  wood. 

Trees  should  be  set  out  one  by  one  by  some  one  in  a  book, 
which  is  ruled  in  columns  showing  the  number  ot  the  tree,  kind, 
length,  quarter  girth,  and  cubical  contents. 

Practical  foresters,  in  estimating  the  contents  of  a  fallen  piece 
of  timber,  take  the  length  and  the  quarter  girth  measured  about 
halfway  between  the  butt  and  the  small  end.  The  quarter  girth 
squared,  multiplied  by  the  length,  equals  the  cubical  contents. 

E.g.  Find  the  cubical  contents  of  a  piece  ot  timber  18  feet 
long,  and  whose  mid  girth  is  36  inches. 

Girth  =  9  in.  =  y^ft. 
Length  =  18  ft. 


Cubical  contents  =  /  ^^  X  -^  X  ~  |  cub.  ft 


\  cub.  ft. 

The  price  per  cubic  foot  varies  with  the  demand,  but  for  some 
thirty  years  back  good  sound  oak  of  fair  size  has  averaged  from 
2^-.  to  3^.,  many  times  even  4^-.,  per  cubit  foot  in  the  wood. 

Ash,  i^.,  2^.,  and  2s.  6d. 

Beech,  M.  to  i^. 

Birch,  gd.  to  is.  6d. 

Sycamore,  according  to  girth,  %d.  to  3^. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  stated  that  timber-growing  is  not,  at 
present,  considered  a  profitable  investment  in  England,  owing  to 
(a)  foreign  competition,  (b)  high  cost  of  production,  {c)  the  long 
period  that  must  elapse  before  returns  can  be  expected. 


(    ^Z7    ) 


CHAPTER  X. 

FRUIT   CULTURE. 

Fruit-growing. — It  is  well  known  that  enormous  quantities  of 
fruit  are  imported  into  this  country  yearly,  which  might  be  profit- 
ably grown  at  home.  As  a  rule,  farmers  pay  too  little  attention 
to  their  orchards,  and  allow  the  trees  to  become  overgrown  with 
moss  and  to  flourish  unpruned.  English  fruit,  properly  grown,  brings 
quite  as  good,  and  often  a  better,  price  than  that  from  foreign 
countries,  and  yet  the  supply  cannot  adequately  meet  the  demand. 
The  culture  of  fruit-trees  is  both  profitable  and  pleasurable. 

Kinds  of  Fruit. — The  apple  {Pyrus  mains)  is  most  largely 
grown,  for  both  table  or  kitchen  use  and  for  cider.  It  has  been 
derived  from  the  common  crab.  The  Pear  {Pyrus  communis)  is 
used  more  for  dessert.  The  Plum  (Prunus  domestica)  and  Cherry 
(^Prunus  sp.)  are  less  frequently  cultivated.  Peaches,  nectarines, 
and  such-like  fruit  are  only  grown,  as  a  rule,  in  private  gardens.  The 
term  "small  fruit,"  is  applied  to  the  Gooseberry  {Ribes grossula7'id)^ 
Raspberry  {Rubus  idcRus)^  Black  Currant  {Ribes  nigrum)^  Red  and 
White  Currants  {Ribes  rubruiti).  The  apple,  pear,  plum,  cherry, 
strawberry  {Fragraria),  and  raspberry  belong  to  the  Rosaceae, 
the  gooseberry  and  currants  to  the  Saxifragacese. 

Soil  and  Climate  suitable  for  Various  Fruits. — Each  kind  of 
fruit  has  usually  a  certain  soil  in  which  it  will  flourish  best.  A 
ie\w  particulars  about  these  are  given  below. 

Apples. — A  medium  loam,  with  a  clay  subsoil.  Soils  overlying 
the  chalk  are  suitable  if  there  be  three  or  four  feet  of  earth  above 
the  rock.  Low  or  wet  land,  near  to  large  bodies  of  water,  or 
much  exposed,  should  be  avoided. 

Pears. — If  grafted  on  a  pear  stock,  a  light  loam  with  gravelly 
subsoil  is  most  suitable ;  if  on  a  quince  stock,  medium  loam  and 
clay  subsoil. 

Plums. — Light  sandy  soil,  subsoil  light.  Do  well  on  chalk 
with  a  few  feet  of  strong  loam  above. 


638  ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 

Cherries. — Good  loam,  with  a  chalk  subsoil. 

Filberts  and  Cobs. — Good  porous  loam,  which  may  have  rocky 
surface.     Suit  shaded  places. 

Gooseberries. — Rich  sandy  loam,  with  a  somewhat  gravelly 
subsoil. 

Currants. — Light  to  heavy  loam,  subsoil  gravel  or  clay. 

Black  Currants. — Do  well  often  on  heavy  land,  even  when 
low-lying  and  wet. 

Raspberries. — Light  or  medium  loam,  with  open  gravelly 
subsoil. 

Strawberries. — Good  rich  loam  upon  cool  gravel  or  chalk. 
They  grow  very  poorly  on  a  dry  sandy  or  chalky  soil. 

Cold,  wet  soils  produce  unsized  fruit,  generally  much  spotted 
with  fungus.  Chalky  soils  will  only  do  for  bush  fruits  and 
cherries,  except  there  be  enough  top  loam  to  make  three  or  four 
feet  depth  of  soil.  Gravelly  soils  produce  fine  fruit  if  deep 
enough  and  not  too  sandy.  Loams  are  the  best  soils,  and  where 
it  is  mixed  with  stones  almost  all  fruits  do  well.  To  put  it  briefly, 
any  soil  that  will  grow  potatoes  well  will  grow  fruit  well.  With 
good  garden  cultivation  nearly  any  kind  of  soil  will  grow  fruit, 
but  in  growing  for  the  market  this  course  proves  very  expensive. 
For  cider,  the  fruit  from  limestone  and  chalk  soils  is  useless ; 
from  heavy  soils  and  from  ironstone  districts  it  is  best.  When 
an  orchard  is  at  the  bottom  of  a  valley,  the  frosts  often  cut  off  the 
early  blossoms. 

Preparation  of  the  Ground. — To  begin  with,  the  land  should 
first  be  well  drained,  the  lines  of  pipes  being  so  arranged  that  they 
come  about  midway  between  the  standard  trees.  They  are  thus 
least  liable  to  be  blocked  up  by  roots.  The  surplus  amount  of 
water  in  the  soil  does  not  allow  the  roots  to  spread  deeply,  and 
encourages  the  growth  of  moss  and  lichens  on  the  trees.  The 
land  should  be  well  stirred  up  with  a  cultivator,  but  before  this  it 
is  generally  best  to  plough  and  subsoil  plough.  The  breaking  up 
of  the  subsoil  gives  greater  room  for  the  extension  of  roots,  assists 
drainage,  and  allows  free  percolation  of  the  air.  Get  the  ground 
as  clear  of  weeds  as  possible,  as  it  will  save  much  trouble  after- 
wards. If  a  large  field  is  to  be  converted  into  an  orchard,  it  is 
best  to  take  a  root  crop  the  previous  year.  The  land  would  be 
clean,  and  contain  a  considerable  amount  of  manure. 

It  is,  as  a  rule,  best  to  select  ground  with  a  slight  slope  to 
the  south-west.  Steep  land  does  not  allow  of  as  many  trees  being 
grown,  and  is  generally  inconvenient.  Shelter  sometimes  has  to 
be  provided  by  a  Hne  or  two  of  trees  to  the  north  and  east,  at 
thirty  or  forty  feet  distance  from  the  fruit-trees. 

Manures. — A  good   dressing   of  farmyard  manure   may   be 


FRUIT   CULTURE. 


639 


ploughed  in  during  the  previous  autumn,  so  as  to  get  well  mixed 
with  the  soil.  The  application  of  slaked  lime  will  probably  prove 
beneficial.  Lime  is  by  far  the  most  important  ash  constituent 
of  the  tree,  and  a  considerable  amount  is  always  needed.  It 
Strengthens  the  stem,  shortens  the  period  of  growth  often,  and 
causes  the  fruit  to  ripen  earlier.  It  is  especially  useful  for  stone 
fruit,  such  as  the  cherry.  Nitrogenous  and  phosphatic  manures 
may  be  applied  to  poor  soils,  but  a  superabundance  encourages 
the  growth  of  rank  wood.  Ferrous  sulphate  in  small  quantities  is 
said  to  produce  a  brighter  colour  in  many  fruits. 

Fruit-trees  to  plant. —  Some  varieties  of  fruit-trees  may  be 
found  very  suitable  in  certain  districts,  and  prove  unprofitable  in 
others.  Before  selecting  fruit-trees  the  following  points  should 
be  considered : — 

1.  The  special  line  of  culture. 

2.  The  markets.     Grow  only  such  fruit  as  will  pay  well. 

3.  Whether  for  late  or  early  markets,  or  both. 

4.  Whether  growing  for  jam-making  or  other  preserve. 

5.  Varieties  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate. 

The  following  table  gives  a  few  characteristics  of  some  of  the 
principal  kinds  of  fruit.  By  "standard"  is  meant  the  large 
varieties  ;  "  bush  "  fruits  aire  not  so  tall. 


Variety. 

u*. 

Comparative 
Quality. 

Time  when 
used. 

Habit. 

General  Remarks. 

1 

4> 

Apples. 

(i)  Stafuiard. 

Blenheim  Orange    . . 

Cox's  Orange  Pippin 
Duchess    of    Olden- 
burg 
Ecklinville  Seedling 

Golden  Noble 
King  of  Pippins 
Norfolk  Beefing      . . 
Pott's  Seedling 
Warner's  King 

Wellington    . . 

(2)  Bush. 
Cellini            

Frogmore  Prolific  . . 
Keswick  Codlin 

Lord  Derby  . . 

K. 

K. 
K. 

K. 

K. 
K. 
K. 

K. 
K. 

K. 
K. 

K. 

T. 
T. 
T. 

T. 

T. 
T. 

Good 
Very  good 

Fair 
Good,  but 

soft 
Very  good 

Good 

Good,     very 

large 

Very  good 

Good 

Very  good 
Good 

Fair ;  green- 
ish colour 

Nov.  to  Feb. 

Oct.  to  Feb. 

Aug.to  Sept. 
Sept.  to  Oct. 

Oct.  to  Dec. 
Oct.  to  Jan. 
Nov.  to  July 
Aug.  to  Sep. 
Oct.  to  Dec. 

Dec.  to  April 
Sept.  to  Oct. 

Oct. 
Aug.  to  Sept. 

Nov. 

Spreading 

Spreading 

Spreading 
Upright 

Spreading 

Upright 

Upright 

Upright 

Spreading 

Spreading 

Takes   8    years   to 

come  to  bearing. 

Best  dessert  apples. 

Great  bearer ;  early. 
Hardy. 

Vigorous  grower. 
Good  bearer. 
Very  late. 
Vigorous  grower. 
Vigorous  grower. 

Very  late. 

Very  early,  but 
sometimes  can- 
kered. 

Vigorous  grower. 

Early  and  prolific 
bearer. 

Prolific  bearer. 

640 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


Variety. 


Use. 


Comparative 
Quality. 


Time  when 
used. 


Habit. 


General  Remarks. 


LordSuffield 

Lane's  Prince  Albert 
Stirling  Castle 


Pears. 
(i)  Standard. 
Beurre  Bosc . . 

Beurr€  Hardy 


Clapp's  Favourite  . . 
Conseiller  de  la  Coeur 
Glout  Morceau 


de 


Jersey  Gratioli 

Louise      Bonne 
Jersey 


Catillac 

St.    Germain    (Uve- 
dale's)        .. 
(2)  Bush. 
Doyenne  Boussoch.. 

Doyenne  du  Cornice 

Durandeau 
Pitmaston  \ 

Duchesse 5 

Marie  Louise  d'Uccle 

Williams'  Bon  Chre- 
tien . . 


Pl.UMS. 

(i)  Standard, 
Czar    .. 


Gisbome's  . . 
Early  Orleans 
Pond's  Seedling 

Prince  Englebert 
Victoria 

(2)  Bush. 
Early  Prolific 
Kirke's  Blue  , 

Greengage    . . 


T. 


Very  good 

Very  good 
Good 


Rich  and 

melting 

Rich  and 

juicy 

Good,  hand- 
some 
Rich  and 
melting 
Flesh  white, 
tender,  and 
juicy 
Rich, 
sugary 

Very  good 


\   Stewing 
)     pears. 

Fair  quality, 
handsome 
Very  good 

Very  good 
Very  good 
Very  good 


Very  good 


Good,  rich 

Fair 
Good 
Large, 

good 
Very  good 
Very  good 

Good 
Rich  and 

juicy 
Very  rich 


Aug.  to  Sept. 

Oct.  to  Jan. 
Sept. 


Oct.  to  Nov. 
Oct. 

Aug.  to  Sept. 
Oct.  to  Nov. 
Dec.  to  Jan. 

Sept.  to  Oct. 

Oct. 


Sept. 

Nov. 

Nov. 

Oct.  to  Nov. 

Oct. 

Aug.  to  Sept 


Spreading 
Upright 

Upright 

Spreading 

Spreading 

Upright 

Upright 


Bush 

Upright 

Upright 

Bush 

Pyramid 

Upright 


July  and 
Aug. 
Sept. 
Aug. 
Sept. 

Sept. 
Sept. 

July 
Sept. 

Aug. 


Upright 

Upright 

~  preadin 

pright 


Spreading 

Up  ■  ■ 


Upright 
Spreading 

Bush 
Pyramid 

Bush 


Very     good     tree 

except  on  thin  or 

heavy  soils. 
Gives     fine     large 

fruit. 
Prolific  and   early 

bearer. 


Large  pear. 

Vigorous    grower; 

medium -sized 

pear. 
Vigorous  grower. 

Vigorous  grower. 

Moderate  grower. 

Early. 


Handsome       fruit, 
good  bearer. 


Very  prolific. 

Moderate     bearer, 
butvery  fine  fruit. 
Large  fruit. 

Very  fine  pear. 

Hardy;  good 
bearer. 

Good  grower;  fine 
w  h  i  t  e  -  fl  e  s  bed 
fruit. 


Great  bearer. 

Great  bearer. 
Very  hardy. 
Good  grower. 

Great  bearer. 
Enormous  bearer. 

Great  bearer. 
Large  plums. 

Vigorous  grower. 


FRUIT  CULTURK 


641 


Variety. 

Use. 

Comparative 
Quality. 

Time  when 
used. 

Habit. 

General  Remarks. 

tS 

1 

Cherries. 

(i)  Standard. 

Bedford  Prolific      .. 

Frog^cre  Bigarreau 
Bigarreau  Napoleon 
Bigarreau  Kentish 

Governor  Wood 

(2)  Bush. 
Archduke 

Empress  Eugenie    . . 

May  Duke    .. 

Morello 

Kentish 

K. 

T. 
T. 

T. 

T. 

T. 

T. 
T. 
T. 
T. 

Large,  black, 
good 

Yellowish- 
red  ;  very 

good 
Large,  red, 
rich,  and 
tender 
Large, 
yellowish- 
red 
Large,  light- 
red,  good 

Dark-red, 

good 
Red,  large, 

good 

Red,  large, 

very  good 

Dark-red   or 

black,  large 

Red, 
medium  size 

July 

Middle  of 
June 

July  to  Aug. 

Late  in 
July 

Early  in 
July 

July 

End  of 

]t 

Aug.to  Sept. 
July 

Pyramid 

Pyramid 
Pyramid 
Pyramid 

Hardy. 
Great  bearer. 

Great  bearer. 

Good  bearer. 

Vigorous  grower. 

Good  producer. 

Gooseberries. 
Lancashire  Lad 

Crown  Bob  .. 

Warrington  .. 

Whitesmith   .. 
Whinham's  Industry 

- 

- 

Bright  red, 

large 

Red,  large, 

good  quality 

Very  good 

for  preserves 

White 

Dull  red, 

thick  skin 

- 

Upright 
Drooping 

Good  bearer. 

Good  bearer 

Great  bearer. 

Large,  fine  bush. 
Very  great   bearer, 

often    pulled 

green. 

Raspberries. 
Carter's  Prolific      . . 

Fastolff 

— 

_ 

Dull  red, 
large  and 

fine 
Medium ; 
bright  red 

— 

— 

Very  great  bearer. 
Hardy  grower. 

Black  Currants. 
Black  Naples 
Lee's  Prolific 

- 

- 

Large,  good 

Fine  and 

large,  rich, 

sweet 

- 

The    best    kind  of 
black  currant. 

Red  Currants. 
Huughton  Castle    . . 

La  Versailles 

- 

- 

Large 

bunches 
Very  large 

- 

""■ 

Fair  bearer,  sturdy 

grower. 
Moderate  grower. 

White  Currants. 
White  Dutch 

White  Grape 

- 

- 

Large  and 

Large, 
very  good 

- 

- 

Good  bu.sh. 

2  T 


642 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


Variety. 

Use. 

Comparative 
Quality. 

Time  when 
used. 

Habit. 

General  Remarks. 

j 

Strawberries. 
Elton  Pine    . . 

Laxton's  Noble 

Sir  Charles  Napier.. 

Sir  Joseph  Paxton  . . 

Vicomtesse  Hericart 
deThury  .. 

- 

^ 

Finely 

coloured 

Large  and 

fine 

Fine,  large 
Very  rich 

Fine  and 
large 

: 

- 

Good  for  preserv- 
ing. 

Early,  vigorous 
grower;  not  suit- 
able for  light 
land. 

Late,  abundant 
producer. 

Heavy  cropper ; 
packs  well. 

Good    for  preserv- 
ing :   stands  wet 
weather  well. 

Planting. — Before  planting,  a  sketch  should  be  made  of  the 
ground,  and  the  position  for  each  tree  exactly  determined.  The 
trees  should  always  be  in  rows,  running  north  and  south  if  possible, 
thus  getting  the  maximum  amount  of  sunshine  for  the  fruit.  Then 
mark  the  lines  carefully,  seeing  that  they  are  parallel,  and  deter- 
mine the  position  for  the  standards  first.  The  distances  apart 
of  the  fruit-trees  are  given  below. 

Standard  apples,  pear s^  or  plums  ^  24  feet.  This  allows  bush  trees 
to  grow  below.  On  poor  ground  the  branches  will  not  spread  so 
much,  and  they  may  be  grown  18  feet  apart,  with  gooseberries  or 
currants  below. 

Cherries^  on  good  ground,  30  feet  j  on  poorer  ground,  24  feet. 

Bush  trees,  beneath  the  standards,  may  be  6  to  8  feet  apart. 
The  former  distance  does  well  enough  for  a  few  years,  but  when 
the  standards  grow  extensively,  every  alternate  one  should  be 
removed. 

Gooseberries  and  currants,  5  or  6  feet  apart  when  among  other 
trees. 

Raspberries,  4  or  5  feet  between  rows,  12  to  15  inches  in  rows. 

Strawberries  are  planted  alone,  in  lines  30  inches  apart,  with 
15  to  20  inches  in  the  rows. 

In  planting,  dig  a  wide  and  fairly  shallow  hole  first.  Then  drive 
in  the  stake  in  the  middle.  These  should  be  at  least  seven  feet 
long  for  standards,  and  be  firmly  fixed.  Now  carefully  plant  the 
tree,  laying  out  the  roots  to  their  full  length,  cutting  off  coarse 
roots,  and  trimming  any  that  may  have  been  cut  with  the  spade  in 
getting  out.  In  cutting,  always  perform  the  operation  from  below, 
so  that  the  open  surface  rests  more  thoroughly  on  the  soil.    Next 


FRUIT  CULTURE.  643 

gently  add  some  very  fine  good  soil,  until  the  roots  are  thoroughly 
covered,  pressing  it  down  firmly.  Add  a  little  manure,  and  heap 
on  the  soil  until  it  reaches  the  mark  at  which  it  formerly  stood  in 
the  nursery.  Never  dig  a  deep  hole  in  the  ground  and  press  the 
tree  down  into  it  The  roots  are  all  turned  toward  the  surface, 
and  the  close  proximity  to  the  subsoil  is  often  injurious.  In  heavy 
soils,  if  a  hole  is  dug  into  the  solid  clay,  it  collects  water,  and  this 
soon  causes  the  roots  of  the  plants  to  rot. 

After  planting  the  standards,  the  bush  fruit  of  the  same  kind 
and  then  the  gooseberries  and  currants  are  put  in  in  a  similar 
manner.  Each  tree  should  then  be  carefully  labelled,  in  order 
that  it  may  be  easily  recognized. 

Planting  is  usually  begun  in  autumn  and  continued  through 
winter. 

Strawberries  are  not  generally  grown  beneath  any  of  the  fruit- 
trees.  The  land  must  be  well  broken  up,  cleaned,  and  manured 
heavily  with  farmyard  manure.  Plant  either  early  in  August  or 
in  March.  If  done  late  in  autumn,  they  are  liable  to  be  thrown 
out  of  the  ground  by  frost.  A  hole  is  simply  made  at  the  top 
of  the  ridge  with  a  dibbling  stick.  Press  in  the  plant  firmly,  and 
return  a  little  of  the  soil,  keeping  the  crown  clear.  Runners  are 
soon  thrown  out  in  the  spring,  and  these  are  usually  all  cut  off  the 
first  summer.  Keep  the  land  very  clean,  and  in  next  spring,  when 
the  plant  begins  to  bloom,  lay  clean  long  straw  between  the  ridges 
to  prevent  the  fruit  getting  dirty.  After  picking  the  fruit,  clear 
off  the  straw  and  apply  more  manure.  Cut  off  any  long  unneces- 
sary shoots,  and  after  six  years  the  plants  themselves  should  be 
taken  out,  as  by  that  time  they  will  be  spent. 

After  Cultivation  of  Fruit  Trees. — When  the  standards  are 
planted  on  arable  land  it  is  best  to  keep  the  land  very  clean, 
and,  after  a  few  years,  lay  it  down  to  grass.  This  grass  should 
not  be  left  to  be  cut  for  hay,  as  the  long  grass  shades  the  ground, 
and  allows  less  sunshine  and  air  to  get  about  the  roots.  It  is 
far  better  to  feed  it  off  with  sheep,  and,  by  giving  the  animals 
cake  or  corn,  valuable  manure  is  left  behind.  For  mixed  planta- 
tions, the  land  must  be  kept  clear  of  weeds,  and  this  has  frequently 
to  be  done  by  manual  labour. 

Pruning. — This,  of  course,  depends  largely  on  the  age  of  the 
plant.  For  standard  apples  it  is  well  to  cut  back  the  branches 
to  within  one-third  the  distance  from  the  stem.  If  the  tree  is 
very  young,  and  the  ground  not  so  rich,  prune  very  little,  but 
leave  till  next  year.  In  the  second  year  only  about  one-half  of 
the  young  growth  of  the  leading  branches  are  cut  off,  the  centre 
of  the  tree  being  kept  well  open  by  cutting  out  surplus  wood. 
Do  not  prune  very  hard  after  four  or  five  years,  remembering 


644  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

that  it  is  only  necessary  to  keep  the  tree  open  to  sunshine 
and  air. 

Standard  pears  and  plums  are  pruned  in  a  similar  manner  to 
apples.  Cherries  require  only  to  be  pruned  sparingly  for  the 
first  two  years,  and,  after  that,  need  very  little  application  of  the 
knife. 

Bush  apples,  especially  when  of  weak  growth,  need  a  lot  of 
cutting  back.  The  centre  must  be  well  opened,  and  many  ol 
the  leading  branches  should  be  cut  back  two-thirds  of  their  length 
to  a  terminal  bud.  When  about  five  feet  high,  the  leading  shoots 
need  close  cutting,  so  as  to  keep  them  from  getting  too  high. 
Their  shape  also  must  be  constantly  thought  of. 

Bush  pears  need  less  pruning.  Soon  after  planting,  the  shoots 
(about  six  in  number)  should  be  cut  back  to  within  one  foot 
from  the  trunk.  The  next  year,  shorten  the  leading  branches, 
and  cut  out  any  superfluous  ones.  Little  is  now  required  until 
the  tree  gets  to  its  proper  height.     Then  shorten  as  before. 

Gooseberries  should  have  a  considerable  number  of  their  shoots 
cut  off,  and  the  rest  shortened,  during  the  first  year.  Shorten 
the  side  growths  nearly  to  the  main  stem.  The  centre  needs  to 
be  kept  well  open  to  allow  the  fruit  to  be  easily  plucked.  Always 
prune  so  as  to  keep  the  branches  as  upright  as  possible,  and 
pluck  most  of  the  fruit  when  green  for  the  first  season  or  two, 
and  thus  prevent  exhaustion. 

After  planting  raspberries,  shorten  to  within  a  foot  of  the 
ground.  Cut  away  all  canes  that  have  finished  producing  fruit 
in  autumn,  and  in  winter  cut  down  the  young  canes  and  shorten 
the  rest  considerably. 

Red  and  white  currants  are  treated  similarly  to  gooseberries. 
They  need  to  be  much  more  open,  and  useless  side  growths 
should  be  cleared  off  early  in  summer.  During  winter  most 
branches  will  need  about  one-half  of  their  length  to  be  cut  away. 

Black  currants  do  not  require  so  much  pruning.  Cut  off  any 
poor  shoots,  or  old  branches,  and  allow  a  good  growth  of  young 
shoots. 

Pruning  should  be  done,  if  possible,  about  February ;  but  where 
the  orchards  are  extensive,  it  may  be  commenced  in  autumn  and 
continued  through  winter,  beginning  with  the  most  hardy  and  oldest 
kinds. 

The  operation  is  usually  done  by  means  of  hand  pruning-shears, 
but  there  are  often  some  branches  difficult  to  reach.  To  meet 
these  cases,  elongated  pruning  appliances  have  been  made,  the 
cutting  apparatus  being  on  the  end  of  a  long  pole  and  moved  by 
a  cord. 

Gathering  Fruit. — Apples  or  other  kinds  of  fruit  should  not 


FRUIT  CULTURE.  645 

be  knocked  off  the  trees  with  poles  or  shaken  off.  In  both  cases 
the  fruit  is  bruised,  and  will  not  keep.  Early  varieties  should  be 
gathered  as  soon  as  possible,  when  not  quite  ripe,  and  stored  a 
few  days.  Late  kinds  are  allowed  to  remain  till  fully  ripe,  as  they 
then  keep  much  better.  Cider  apples  are  picked  up  as  they  fall, 
and  the  remainder  knocked  off  with  poles  about  the  third  week  in 
September. 

In  gathering,  use  a  tall  step-ladder,  and  carefully  gather  the 
fruit  into  bags.  Small  baskets  will  do  quite  as  well.  Keep  each 
variety  of  fruit  by  itself,  picking  out  all  bruised  or  small  inferior 
ones.  The  rest  are  then  graded  according  to  their  size  and 
appearance. 

Sending  to  Market. — Fruit  should  always  be  sent  to  market 
in  a  tidy,  attractive  form.  Apples  are  made  into  *' sieves"  or 
"half  sieves."  The  best  dessert  pears  are  packed  in  single  rows 
in  shallow  boxes,  with  some  soft  material  at  the  bottom  and  top, 
and  also  a  little  between  the  fruit.  Very  fine  fruit  is  sometimes 
wrapped  individually  in  tissue  paper.  Wood  wool  is  very  good 
for  packing  fruit  amongst.  Gooseberries  and  other  soft  fruit  need 
to  be  gathered  as  soon  as  ripe.  The  best  specimens  are  packed 
neatly  in  punnets  or  in  small  square  chip  baskets.  The  poorer 
kinds  are  packed  in  larger  receptacles,  such  as  peck  baskets,  and 
generally  sent  to  some  jam  factory. 

Always  despatch  the  fruit  in  as  fresh  a  condition  as  possible, 
after  having  decided  which  market  will  pay  best.  By  grading  the 
fruit  a  much  better  price  is  often  obtained. 

Storing  Fruit. — Apples  are  best  preserved  at  a  low  tempera- 
ture, in  a  somewhat  moist  atmosphere.  A  barn  may  easily  be 
converted  into  a  good  apple-store,  by  putting  a  wooden  wall  all 
around,  about  a  foot  from  the  other,  and  filling  up  the  space 
between  them  with  sawdust.  The  room  should  be  well  ventilated, 
and  fitted  with  shelves  about  three  feet  wide  and  one  foot  apart. 
Pears  need  a  drier  and  warmer  room  than  apples,  and  require  more 
space.  The  temperature  may  easily  be  raised  to  the  proper 
pitch  by  hot-water  pipes.  In  both  cases  the  fruit  should  be 
handled  as  little  as  possible,  and,  after  the  room  has  been  emptied, 
it  should  be  well  washed  out,  a  coat  of  whitewash  given  to  the 
walls  and  roof,  and  fumigated  with  burning  sulphur. 

Grafting  and  Budding. — In  order  to  get  the  fruit  as  early  as 
possible,  pieces  of  the  required  tree  are  usually  grafted  upon  some 
suitable  stock.  The  stocks  themselves  are  raised  from  seed  or 
cuttings.  In  autumn,  when  large  enough,  they  are  lifted  out, 
their  roots  trimmed,  and  then  planted  in  rows  about  three  feet 
apart.  By  August  they  are  fit  for  budding,  or  for  grafting  in  spring. 
They  are  cut  down  to  within  six  inches  from  the  ground.     The 


646 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


scions  to  be  grafted  are  cut  in  February,  and  put  in  the  ground 
for  some  time  to  stop  the  flow  of  sap.  In  March  or  April 
the  operation  is  completed.  Make  a  clean  sloping  cut  just 
below  a  bud.  Then  nick  a  piece  out  of  the  cut  end  (Fig.  98,  a), 
and  make  similar  cuts  on  the  stock  (^),  and  fit  the  two  together  {c). 


Fig.  98.— Grafting,    a,  the  scion  ;  d,  the  stock  ;  c,  the  completed  operation. 

Then  bind  up  with  a  little  bass  matting,  and  cover  over  the 
wound  with  a  mixture  of  plastic  clay,  cows*  dung,  and  finely 
chopped  hay. 

In  "  approach  grafting  "  the  stock  is  left  to  grow  longer,  and 
a  piece  is  cut  as  deep  as  the  Cambium  Layer,  nearer  the  ground. 
A  similar  piece  is  cut  out  of  the  scion,  and  the  two  parts  bound 


a  i  e 

Fig.  99.— Budding,    a,  the  stock ;  6,  the  bud ;  c,  the  completed  operation. 

together  as  before.  The  end  of  the  scion  should  be  kept  in  a 
pot  of  earth. 

In  **  cleft  grafting  "  a  cut  is  made  in  the  crown  of  the  stock, 
and  the  wedge-shaped  end  of  the  shoot  inserted.  Then  bind 
round  and  plaster  over. 

"  Budding  "  (Fig.  99)  is  performed  in  August.    In  this  case  the 


FRUIT  CULTURE.  647 

stock  is  not  cut  down.  A  branch  is  cut  from  the  tree  it  is  intended 
to  propagate,  and  placed  in  water  for  a  short  while.  The  leaves  are 
then  cut  off,  and  then  the  buds  from  about  the  middle  of  the 
branch  taken.  This  is  a  delicate  operation,  and  requires  con- 
siderable skill.  With  a  sharp  knife,  cut  rather  deeply  into  the 
wood  a  little  above  the  bud,  and  come  out  with  a  long  gradual 
slope  below.  Now  carefully  lift  out  the  wood  from  the  small 
piece  of  bark.  Make  a  T-shaped  cut  in  the  bark  of  the  stock, 
and  raise  the  edges.  Insert  the  bud  in  the  cut  in  a  natural 
position,  and  bind  around  with  bass. 

Old  Orchards. — Sometimes  a  farmer  may  enter  a  steading  on 
which  is  an  old  orchard,  capable  of  paying  for  improvement.  One 
of  the  first  things  is  to  cut  out  all  superfluous  branches.  When 
cutting  a  large  bough,  the  saw  is  needed,  and  a  small  cut  should 
first  be  made  on  the  underside  to  prevent  the  bark  being  torn 
through  the  falHng  of  the  branch.  In  order  to  get  rid  of  lichens 
and  moss,  dress  the  trees  with  hot  lime,  slightly  slaked.  All  loose 
bark  should  be  scraped  off.  For  about  eight  feet  around  the  tree 
it  is  often  advisable  to  dig  up  the  surface  for  a  few  inches.  A 
little  soot  put  in  with  other  manures  does  great  good. 

Fairly  young  trees  may  be  found  with  a  tendency  to  form  wood 
rather  than  fruit.  In  this  case  open  up  the  soil,  cut  off  any  coarse 
roots,  and  sever  the  tap  root.  Put  fresh  soil  around  the  trunk. 
This  is  called  "root  pruning,"  and  acts  very  beneficially  by 
increasing  the  number  of  rootlets. 


648  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


CHAPTER   XI. 

METEOROLOGY. 

As  farming,  especially  with  regard  to  crops,  depends  so  much 
upon  the  weather,  a  few  remarks  upon  the  subject  of  meteorology 
will  not  be  out  of  place.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek, 
meaning  the  science  of  the  atmosphere. 

Temperature  needs  special  attention,  because  it  is  partly  on 
account  of  the  differences  in  it  that  so  much  variation  in  the 
productive  powers  of  soils  exists.  As  a  rule,  the  mean  tempera- 
ture will  be  found  to  get  less  the  farther  the  observer  is  from  the 
equator.  It  is  said  to  decrease  at  the  rate  of  1°  F.  for  iii 
miles.  Were  the  earth  perfectly  regular  in  form,  the  temperature 
of  any  place  might  be  easily  calculated;  but  there  are  many 
causes  which  modify  the  climate.  After  latitude  comes  longitude. 
The  western  coasts  of  the  British  Isles  are  warmer  than  the  corre- 
sponding parts  on  the  east  side.  The  reason  for  this  is  easily 
seen.  The  west  coasts  are  more  or  less  washed  by  the  warm 
Gulf  stream,  while  the  east  is  exposed  to  the  dry,  cold  winds 
sweeping  over  the  Continent  According  to  Lloyd,  the  tempera- 
ture decreases  from  the  west  to  the  east  at  the  rate  of  1°  F. 
for  every  sixty  miles.  ' 

Altitude  has  much  the  same  effect  as  latitude,  and,  as  a  rule, 
the  temperature  is  lowered  1°  F.  for  every  elevation  of  300 
feet.  From  this  we  see  that  an  increased  height  of  300  feet 
reduces  the  temperature  quite  as  much  as  an  advance  of  in 
miles  towards  the  pole.  Wheat  will  not  ripen  in  this  country 
at  greater  elevations  than  1200  feet,  and  at  1500  feet  our  hardiest 
cereal  crops  are  affected  in  their  growth. 

The  proximity  to  large  bodies  of  water  (as  the  sea,  lakes,  and 
rivers)  have  their  effect  upon  the  climate.  The  first-named  will 
exert  a  favourable  influence.  The  sea  is  not  so  readily  affected 
by  heat  and  cold  as  the  land,  consequently  a  greater  uniformity  is 


METEOROLOGY.  649 

preserved,  the  summers  being  relatively  cooler  and  the  winters 
warmer  than  at  inland  places.  Lakes,  rivers,  and  marshes  do  not 
always  give  such  good  results.  They  may  be  the  cause  of  fogs, 
referred  to  later  on. 

The  colour  and  texture  of  the  soil  influence  the  climate. 
Dark  soils  absorb  heat  best,  but  they  also  give  it  up  rapidly. 
White  soils  are  slow  to  rise  in  temperature,  and  hence  we  see 
why  chalky  land  is  usually  cool.  Sand  rapidly  takes  in  heat,  and 
also  is  very  retentive  ;  after  it,  with  regard  to  the  latter  power, 
comes  clay,  and  then  humus.  Clays  are  usually  of  a  cold  nature, 
and  often  cause  fogs. 

Aspect  and  slope  also  need  to  be  taken  into  consideration. 


Fig.  ioo.— Slope  as  affecting  temperature. 

For  farm  crops  a  south  or  south-west  aspect  is  almost  always  the 
best.  For  a  dairy  the  north  side  of  the  steading  should  be 
chosen,  as  it  is  generally  the  coolest.  Pastures  facing  the  north 
are  more  liable  to  be  overrun  by  moss  than  any  others.  In 
England  it  has  been  found  that  land  facing  the  south  and 
inclined  at  an  angle  of  25°  to  30°  receives  the  maximum  amount 
of  heat.  The  slope  influences  the  question  by  exposing  a  larger 
or  smaller  amount  of  surface  to  the  same  amount  of  light. 

The  above  diagram  (Fig.  100)  will  illustrate  this.  R  represents 
numerous  rays  of  light  from  the  sun  S,  falling  upon  three  differently 
inclined  planes.  AA,  BB,  and  CC  represent  respectively  the 
spaces  which  would  be  covered  in  each  case.     The  same  amount 


6so 


ADVANCED   AGRICULTURE. 


of  heat  is  received  by  A  A  as  by  CC,  and,  as  the  former  space  is 
the  least,  there  will  be  more  heat  per  square  inch. 

Shelter  also  affects  the  climate  of  districts.  When  absent 
naturally,  it  may  often  be  provided  by  planting  belts  of  trees.  Moun- 
tain-chains may  either  keep  off  cold  or  hot  winds,  according  to 
their  position.  On  exposed  positions  snow  will  be  found  to  lie 
longest,  and  the  fiercest  blasts  will  be  met  with  there. 

Of  the  months  of  the  year,  January  is  found  to  be,  on  an 
average,  the  coldest,  and  July  the  warmest.  The  following  table, 
showing  the  temperatures  of  each  month,  was  compiled  at  Green- 
wich, and  is  the  average  of  over  forty  years. 


Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Mean    tempera- ) 
ture  in  shade  j 

38-4 

39*5 

41-6 

46*0 

52-5 

58-9 

62-3 

56-5 

S7"o 

49'9 

«. 

39"8 

Daily  range   of) 
temperature     j" 

9*5 

ii'i 

i4'7 

i8-4 

20-4 

21 '0 

21 'o 

19-9 

i8-2 

14 '5 

11-4 

9 '3 

From  this  the  average  temperature  throughout  the  year  would 
be  48-8°  F. 

The  warmest  hour  of  the  day  is  2  p.m.  ;  the  coldest,  4  a.m. 
It  has  been  found  that  the  average  temperature  of  the  day  may  be 
found  fairly  correctly  by  taking  the  means  at  9  a.m.  and  p.m. 

Pressure. — A  description  of  the  barometer  has  been  given  in 
the  ^'  Agricultural  Engineering." 

The  height  of  the  barometer  varies  extremely  little  in  travelling 
from  south  to  north.  The  mean  pressure  is  about  29*87  inches; 
it  ranges  from  29*808  inches  at  Nairn  to  29*965  inches  at 
Plymouth.  The  barometer  is,  however,  found  to  fall  considerably 
according  to  its  elevation,  and  hence  all  results  should  be  reduced 
to  the  sea-level.  This  peculiarity  has  been  made  use  of  in  deter- 
mining the  heights  of  mountains,  etc.  The  differences  between 
the  barometrical  readings  at  the  nearest  point  on  the  sea-level 
and  the  other  place  are  taken  in  hundredths  of  inches.  This 
multiplied  by  nine  gives  the  difference  in  height  between  the  two 
points  in  feet.  Thus,  say  the  reading  of  the  barometer  was  28*8 
inches  at  an  elevated  situation,  when  it  was  29*85  inches  at  the 
sea-level,  then  1*05  x  100  X  9  =  945  feet  as  the  difference 
between  the  two  heights.  For  this  work,  the  aneroid  barometer 
is  most  convenient. 

It  is  found  that  the  pressure  varies  regularly  to  a  shght  extent 
according  to  the  hour  of  the  day.  The  barometer  is  highest 
about  9  a.m.  and  9  p.m.,  and  lowest  at  3  a.m.  and  3  p.m.   For  the 


METEOROLOGY. 


651 


months  of  the  year,  it  is  highest  in  May  or  June,  and  records 
the  smallest  pressures  in  October  and  November. 

A  curious  law  with  regard  to  pressure  is  that,  if  you  stand  with 
your  back  to  the  wind,  the  barometer  will  be  lower  at  places  on 
your  left  than  on  your  right. 

Rain. — Upon  this  important  subject  depends  to  a  great  extent 
the  subject  of  drainage. 

A  fall  of  rain  is  caused  by  the  cooling  of  some  cloud  saturated 
with  moisture.  As  the  temperature  is  lowered,  the  capacity  of  the 
air  for  holding  water  vapour  diminishes.  The  surplus  moisture 
condenses,  forming  drops  which  descend  as  rain. 

We  find  the  rainfall  varies  very  much.  Some  years  are  con- 
siderably drier  than  others,  and  at  Greenwich  a  variation  of 
eighteen  or  nineteen  inches  has  been  experienced  between  two 
years.  The  amount  of  rain  is  usually  between  twenty-five  and 
thirty  inches. 

The  rainfall  also  varies  according  to  the  month.  The  least 
amount  falls  in  February  and  March,  the  most  in  July  and 
October. 


Average  Rainfall,  in  Inches,  per  Month. 


Ja. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

April. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 
2-35 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

2-36 

Dec. 

1-99 

1-89 

i"57 

i'74 

1-98 

196 

2-50 

2*43 

2-76 

From  these  figures,  we  see  that  20  per  cent,  of  the  rain  falls  in 
spring,  23  per  cent,  in  summer,  31  per  cent  in  autumn,  and 
26  per  cent,  in  winter. 

The  amount  of  rain  is  found  to  vary  considerably  according 
to  the  longitude,  the  east  side  being  considerably  the  drier.  As 
stated  before,  the  west  coast  is  washed  by  the  Gulf  Stream.  This 
is  a  large  current  of  warm  water,  originating  near  the  equator. 
It  passes  through  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  then  crosses  the 
Atlantic  in  a  north-easterly  direction,  conferring  a  certain  degree 
of  warmth  upon  many  places.  The  winds  sweeping  across  the 
Atlantic  become  charged  with  moisture,  and  are  also  of  a  fairly 
high  temperature.  On  striking  the  western  coasts  they  are  cooled, 
and  rains  result.  Ireland  receives  the  first  showers,  and  the  high- 
lands of  the  Lake  district  and  Cornwall  also  cause  a  plentiful 
deposition.  As  the  wind  passes  across  the  island,  it  gradually 
loses  its  moisture,  and  is  able  to  deposit  very  little  on  the  east 
side.  Again,  the  east  winds  have  swept  over  vast  tracts  of  land 
in  Asia  and  Europe,  and  have  had  little  chance  of  taking  up 


652 


ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


water  vapour.  Hence  the  chief  causes  of  difference  between  the 
warm,  moist,  westerly  winds,  and  the  cold  dry  blasts  from  the 
east.  The  climate  of  the  latter  is  more  suited  for  corn-growing, 
and  the  former  for  stock-rearing. 

The  differences  between  the  rainfalls  of  the  two  parts  are  seen 
in  the  following  table  : — 


East. 


Average 


26| 


West. 


inches. 

inches. 

Greenwich     .. 

..      26 

Penzance,  Cornwall 

..     45 

Norwich 

..      27 

Gloucester 

..    31 

Lincoln 

..      24 

Llandudno     . . 

••     33 

North  Shields 

..      27 

Lancaster 

..     40^ 

Edinburgh     .. 

..      28^ 

Glasgow 

••     43 

Average 


38^ 


The  north-west  is,  on  an  average,  rainier  than  the  south-west. 
The  rainfall  in  the  north-west  may  be  taken  as  38  inches ;  in 
the  south-west  34  inches;  in  the  centre  28;  in  the  east  26 
inches. 

Local  circumstances  greatly  influence  the  amount  of  rain. 
As  a  rule,  hilly  districts,  by  condensing  the  clouds,  have  more 
showers  than  fiat  land.  Seathwaite  in  Cumberland  is  the  rainiest 
place  in  England;  224^  inches  have  been  recorded  there  in  a 
year. 

The  determination  of  the  amount  of  rain  needs  to  be  taken  in 
every  district.  The  operation  is  fairly  simple.  The  apparatus 
needed  consists  of  a  funnel,  either  five  or  eight  inches  wide,  fitted 
into  a  copper  can  below.  In  order  that  snow  may  be  retained  a 
vertical  cylinder  is  placed  on  the  top.  This  rain-gauge  is  placed 
in  an  exposed  position,  the  top  being  perfectly  level  and  one  foot 
from  the  ground.  At  a  fixed  time  each  day,  the  water  is  emptied 
out  of  the  can  into  a  cylindrical  measuring  glass.  This  may  have 
an  area  at  the  end  of  one  square  inch,  and  is  graduated  so  that 
the  amount  of  rain  is  easily  seen.  Of  course,  as  the  funnel  has 
a  much  wider  area  than  this,  the  number  of  inches  must  be 
reduced  proportionately. 

A  gallon  of  water  weighs  ten  pounds,  and,  if  the  rainfall  were 
one  inch,  this  amount  would  be  collected  on  two  square  feet.  An 
inch  of  rain  according  to  this  would  be  equal  to  97^  tons,  or 
roughly  100  tons  per  acre,  or  about  60,000  tons  per  square 
mile. 

Snow  consists  of  frozen  aqueous  vapour.  It  is  readily  seen 
to  be  made  up  of  beautiful  hexagonal  crystals.  Snow  can  be 
measured  by  the  rain  gauge,  care  being  taken  that  the  apparatus 


METEOROLOGY.  653 

is  properly  exposed,  and  not  in  a  place  where  drifts  are  likely  to 
occur.  Roughly,  one  foot  of  snow  equals  one  inch  rain.  When 
a  large  amount  is  collected  in  the  gauge,  it  may  be  thawed  by 
adding  a  measured  amount  of  hot  water. 

Hail  consists  of  frozen  drops  of  rain ;  many  of  the  little  hail- 
stones thus  produced  congeal  together  to  form  larger  ones. 
Hailstorms  are  most  frequent  in  summer,  the  amount  which  falls 
may  be  measured  in  the  same  way  as  rain. 

Dew  is  the  precipitation  of  moisture  without  any  visible  cloud, 
indeed  it  takes  place  best  on  nights  when  the  sky  is  perfectly 
clear.  On  those  nights  on  which  the  conditions  are  favourable, 
the  amount  of  heat  radiated  from  the  earth  is  greater  than  that 
received  from  the  atmosphere.  The  consequence  of  this  lower- 
ing of  temperature  is  that  the  lower  layers  of  air  are  chilled,  and 
deposit  the  water  vapour  they  contain.  As  this  moisture  has 
not  far  to  travel,  it  does  not  have  time  to  form  into  large  drops. 
The  point  at  which  dew  begins  to  separate  is  termed  the  dew- 
point.  It  is  not  fixed,  but  varies  according  to  circumstances. 
Clouds,  by  reflecting  back  the  radiated  heat  of  the  earth,  oppose 
the  formation  of  dew  ;  and  winds,  by  carrying  away  the  moisture, 
prevent  its  deposition.  As  the  air  comparatively  contains  most 
water  vapour  in  summer,  most  dew  falls  then. 

The  annual  amount  of  dew  deposited  may  be  taken  as  under 
1*5  inches.  If  the  dew-point  be  under  32°  E,  hoar-frost  is 
formed. 

Fogs  are  caused  by  the  sudden  cooling  of  warm  damp  bodies 
of  air.  This  may  occur  through  such  a  current  meeting  a  colder 
one,  or  by  passing  over  a  cold  surface,  as  a  bed  of  clay  or  an 
iceberg,  or  by  the  sudden  chilling  of  saturated  air  over  a  flowing 
stream.  Again,  when  dew  is  forming,  the  lower  strata  of  air  may 
be  left  saturated  with  a  reduced  temperature.  This,  by  mixing 
with  warmer  layers  above,  may  cause  a  fog.  Again,  a  cold  current 
may  give  a  like  result  by  flowing  down  into  some  hollow  or  valley 
already  filled  with  warm  moist  air. 

Mists  are  similar  to  fogs,  but  the  particles  of  vapour  are  of 
larger  size.     Clouds  are  really  elevated  mists  or  fogs. 

Wind. — On  the  direction  of  the  wind  we  have  seen  that  the 
rainfall  depends  to  a  certain  extent.  The  average  directions  for 
the  year,  taken  at  Greenwich,  are  as  follows  :  from  the  S.W.  104 
days,  N.E.  48  days,  N.  41  days,  W.  38  days,  S.  34  days,  N.W. 
24  days,  E.  22  days,  S.E.  20  days,  calm  34  days.  Total,  365 
days. 

The  velocities  of  various  winds  are  given  below  : — 


Light  breeze. 
Gentle  pleasant  wind. 
Pleasant,  brisk  wind. 


Strong,  high  wind. 


654  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Miles  per  Hour.  Pressure  in  Pounds  Description, 

on  a  Square  Foot. 

I  ..         ..        0*005      Hardly  perceptible. 

3     ::    ::    oZ\  j-'p-^p^we. 

4  ..  ..  o'oSo) 

5  ..  ..  0125  S 

6  ..  ..  o-i8oJ 

7  ..  ..  0-320  S 
10  ..  ..  0*500  \ 
15  ••  ••  i'i25j 

20  ..  .,  2'000  /      TT  u  •  1 

25  ..  ..         3-125  (    Very  brisk. 

30  ..         ..         4'5ool 

35  ..         ••        6-125  S 

Ts     ::    ::   .o:^}  ^^^^sh. 

50  ..  ..  12-500  Storm. 

60  ..  ..  i8*ooo  Great  storm. 

80  ..  ..  32*000  Hurricane. 

100  ..  ..  50-000  Tornado  sweeping  off  buildings. 

The  Relation  between  Sunspots  and  the  Weather. — When 
viewing  the  sun  through  a  telescope,  certain  spots  are  visible 
upon  its  surface.  These  spots  vary  in  position,  size,  and  form, 
and  are  not  fixed.  They  are  found  to  be  most  numerous  at 
intervals  of  between  ten  and  eleven  years,  and  also  have  points  of 
a  fairly  regular  character  when  very  few  are  to  be  seen.  These 
dark  spots,  by  extending  over  a  greater  or  less  space  on  the 
sun's  surface,  to  a  certain  extent  limit  the  amount  of  heat  the 
earth  receives.  The  rainfall,  storms,  etc.,  are  affected,  and  some 
relation  between  these  periods  and  years  of  famine  have  been 
traced.    The  subject  is,  however,  by  no  means  fully  worked  out. 


(    655     ) 


CHAPTER  XII. 

AGRICULTURAL   EXPERIMENTS. 

The  practice  of  agriculture  is  really  founded  upon  experi- 
ments, extending  usually  over  long  periods.  For  instance,  when 
turnips  were  first  introduced  they  were  grown  only  by  a  few 
farmers,  but,  being  found  to  answer  well,  their  cultivation  gradually 
extended,  until  now  there  are  comparatively  few  farmers  who 
have  not  some  of  their  land  under  this  crop.  What  is  this  but 
an  experiment  on  a  large  scale  ? 

Experiments,  as  conducted  now,  take  in  much  more  of  the 
science  of  agriculture,  and  many  important  results  are  at  present 
being  obtained.  The  two  most  important  experimental  stations 
are  Rothamsted,  in  Hertfordshire,  conducted  by  Sir  J.  B.  Lawes 
and  Dr.  Gilbert ;  Woburn,  belonging  to  the  Duke  of  Bedford, 
and  superintended  partly  by  Dr.  Voelcker.  Agricultural  experi- 
ments are  carried  on  also  by  the  Bath  and  West  of  England 
Society,  and  a  large  number  of  County  Councils  have  taken  the 
matter  up.  In  the  future,  we  may  possibly  see  an  experimental 
station  in  every  county.  An  entire  farm  is  not  needed  for  the 
purpose  ;  a  fairly  large  field  will  often  be  quite  sufficient. 

In  an  experiment  of  any  kind,  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken 
to  secure  a  correct  result.  Comparisons  can  only  be  fairly  made 
when  the  experiments  have  been  carried  out  under  similar  con- 
ditions. Thus,  for  instance,  should  the  effect  of  a  certain  manure 
be  tested  upon,  say,  wheat  in  a  dry  year,  the  results  obtained  with 
another  manure  upon  wheat  in  the  next  season  would  not  allow 
the  value  of  the  two  to  be  accurately  compared. 

Experiments  with  Live  Stock. — So  numerous  are  the  experi- 
ments, not  only  with  live  stock,  but  with  crops,  that  we  can  do 
very  little  more  than  indicate  them. 

Beginning  with  foods,  Lawes  and  Gilbert  have  worked  out 


656  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

their  comparative  digestibilities  with  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and 
pigs.  Then  comes  their  value  to  cattle,  as  regards  their  flesh- 
forming  or  milk-producing  qualities.  These  points  may  be 
worked  out  by  the  farmer  for  his  own  satisfaction,  but  they  have 
already  been  very  thoroughly  done  for  him.  The  plan  was  to 
select,  say,  two  lots  of  four  bullocks,  and  house  them  in  a  similar 
way  in  two  boxes,  byres,  or  yards.  Then  the  different  foods  were 
given,  the  progress  of  the  beasts  noticed,  and  the  weight  of  beef 
produced  at  the  end.  With  the  dairy  cows,  the  quality,  as  well  as 
quantity,  of  milk  must  be  noticed.  The  flavour  of  the  produce  is 
almost  as  important  as  the  amount.  Experiments  as  to  feeding 
in  open  and  covered  yards,  and  other  particulars  may  be  worked 
out.     Sheep  and  pigs  may,  in  like  manner,  be  dealt  with. 

In  performing  these  experiments,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  different  lots  of  animals  must  be  as  even  as  possible,  and  per- 
fectly healthy.  If  one  be  only  slightly  affected  with  some  com- 
plaint, it  might  not  lay  on  flesh  as  it  ought  to  do,  and  perhaps 
favour  the  opinion  that  the  food  was  not  so  good  as  that  which 
the  other  lots  received. 

Many  experiments  cannot  be  undertaken  by  the  ordinary 
farmer.  For  instance,  few  could  work  out  such  a  subject  as  the 
manurial  value  of  food.  In  the  ordinary  practice  of  farming,  how- 
ever, many  of  the  feeding  experiments,  just  mentioned,  may  be 
carried  out.  Again,  the  most  profitable  breeds  of  cattle,  sheep,  or 
pigs  can  well  be  found  out.  In  such  experiments  as  these,  regard 
must  be  paid  to  the  prices  of  food  stuffs,  etc. 

Experiments  with  Crops. — These  are  much  more  numerous 
than  the  preceding  class,  taking  in,  as  they  do,  the  wide  subject  of 
manuring.  The  feeding  of  live  stock  gives  fairly  uniform  results, 
but  crops  vary  greatly  according  to  the  soil  on  which  they  are 
grown.  The  results  obtained  at  Rothamsted  and  Woburn,  though 
of  very  great  general  value,  might  yet  not  be  applicable  in  every 
case,  on  account  of  local  circumstances.  This  points  to  the 
farmer  conducting  small  experiments  for  himself.  The  soil  at 
Rothamsted  is  a  heavy  loam,  resting  on  a  stiff  clay  subsoil,  which 
overlies  the  chalk.  It  is  suited  for  wheat,  but  not  very  well  for 
turnips  or  barley.  At  Woburn  the  soil  consists  of  a  deep,  sandy 
loam,  with  a  sandy  subsoil. 

Before  commencing  any  experiments,  a  field  of  uniform  character 
should  be  selected.  It  is  thoroughly  tilled,  and  then  divided  out 
into  rectangular  plots.  These  are,  at  Woburn,  one-sixth  to  one- 
fourth  of  an  acre  each  in  area,  but  plots  less  than  this  can  be  used. 
The  minimum  area  is  one-twentieth  of  an  acre  each ;  on  smaller 
pieces  a  slight  irregularity  as  to  the  amount  of  plant-food  present 
may  greatly  affect  the  results,  when  calculated  out  to  so  much  yield 


AGRICULTURAL   EXPERIMENTS.  657 

per  acre.  The  corners  of  the  plots  should  be  marked  in  a  per- 
manent manner,  and  a  path  about  two  feet  wide  should  go  around 
each  piece,  so  as  to  cut  it  off. 

If  possible,  the  experiments  in  each  subject  should  be  con- 
ducted for  more  than  one  season.  Some  at  Rothamsted  have 
now  gone  on  for  more  than  forty  years. 

It  is  not  often  advisable  to  attempt  any  complicated  experi- 
ments; a  few  simple  ones,  bearing  directly  upon  the  subject,  are 
of  more  practical  use. 

Taking  cereal  crops  to  commence  with,  we  must  first  consider 
what  the  plants  stand  most  in  need  of,  i.e.  nitrogen.  This  may 
be  taken  for  granted,  as  it  has  been  so  often  proved.  A  plot  is 
first  sown  which  has  not  been  manured  for  a  considerable  time  pre- 
viously ]  this  serves  as  a  standard  for  comparison.  The  next  plot 
receives  farmyard  manure,  say  at  the  rate  of  twelve  tons  per  acra 
The  effects  of  artificial  dressings  must  now  be  observed.  To  one 
piece  give,  say,  275  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda,  and  to  another  200  lbs. 
ammonia  salts,  so  made  up  that  both  contain  the  same  amount  of 
nitrogen.  Another  plot  may  get  nitrogenous  and  mineral  manures 
(say  2  cwts.  superphosphate,  and  i  cwt.  kainit).  Other  experi- 
ments, as  to  the  quantities  giving  best  results,  may  be  undertaken, 
if  there  be  enough  space.  Barley  and  oats  may  be  taken  under 
similar  conditions  to  wheat.  In  harvesting,  the  plots  should  be 
cut  at  the  same  time,  and  dried,  and  stacked  in  a  similar  manner. 
On  thrashing,  the  yields,  in  bushels  of  grain,  and  its  weight,  and 
the  amount  of  straw,  should  be  carefully  noticed.  It  is  almost 
needless  to  say  that  the  produce  of  each  plot  must  be  kept  by 
itself,  not  only  in  cutting,  but  also  in  stacking  and  thrashing.  The 
results  should  be  carefully  recorded. 

Another  part  of  the  field  may  be  set  apart  for  root  crops. 
Turnips  or  swedes  will  usually  occupy  the  most  prominent 
position.  The  first  plot  receives  no  manure ;  the  second,  say, 
15  tons  farmyard  manure;  the  third,  3  cwts.  superphosphate;  the 
fourth  has  i  cwt.  nitrate  of  soda  in  addition.  Another  may  get 
farmyard  manure  with  superphosphate  and  nitrate  of  soda.  A  plot 
similar  to  No.  4  may  receive  a  dressing  of  potash  salts.  The 
value  of  guano,  or  of  dissolved  bones  over  superphosphate,  may 
be  tried,  if  needed. 

Mangels  will  not  be  treated  exactly  the  same  as  turnips. 
Nitrogenous  dressings  are  here  of  greater  benefit,  and  common 
salt  may  be  used  in  the  experiments.  The  amounts  of  manures 
given  will  be  greater  than  with  the  last  crop. 

Experiments  with  potatoes  are  not  quite  so  common.  One 
or  two  plots  will  receive  potassic  dressings  with  or  without 
phosphates  and  nitrogenous  manures, 

2  U 


658  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

Fodder  crops  have  not  received  so  much  attention.  With 
clover  it  will  be  found  that  nitrate  of  soda  or  ammonium  sulphate 
alone  do  not  give  very  good  results.  Superphosphate  is  much 
better,  and  potash  salts  also  have  good  effects.  With  grasses, 
the  nitrogenous  dressings  give  the  greatest  crops,  and  hence,  on 
pastures,  when  grasses  and  clovers  mix,  numerous  experiments 
may  be  carried  out  as  to  the  relative  amounts  of  nitrogenous  and 
phosphatic  manures  in  mixtures  which  will  pay  best.  Again,  the 
kind  of  phosphatic  material  may  need  determining.  Will 
superphosphate,  dissolved  bones,  ground  bones,  or  basic  slag  be 
of  most  use  ?    These  questions  should  be  worked  out,  if  possible. 

For  information  as  to  the  results  of  these  and  other  experi- 
ments, we  would  refer  the  student  to  numerous  papers  by  Sir  J.  B. 
Lawes  and  Sir  J.  H.  Gilbert,  and  also  by  Dr.  Voelcker,  in  the 
Journals  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society^  and  also  to  those  by 
Dr.  Aitken,  Mr.  John  Speir,  Mr.  John  Milne,  and  others,  in  the 
Transactions  of  tJu  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society, 


(    659    ) 


QUESTIONS   SET  AT  THE   SCIENCE  AND   ART 
EXAMINATIONS    IN   AGRICULTURE. 

1891. 
Advanced  Stage. 

Six  questions  to  be  answered, 

21.  How  would  you  classify  soils  by  the  chemical  constituents  they 
contain,  and  by  their  physical  value  ?  How  do  these  influence  their  agri- 
cultural  value  ? 

22.  Describe  the  food  necessary  for  the  growth  of  cultivated  crops,  the 
sources  of  supply,  and  the  condition  in  which  plants  receive  their  nourish- 
ment. 

23.  Explain  the  influence  of  soil  and  climate  upon  the  degree  of  perfection 
obtainable  in  a  plant's  growth. 

24.  Explain  the  principles  regulating  the  selection  and  economic  use  of 
artificial  manures. 

25.  State  what  materials  are  used  for  returning  to  the  soil  the  mineral 
matter  removed  from  it  by  the  bones  of  animals  reared  upon  it  ?  How  are 
these  materials  prepared  for  their  most  economical  use? 

26.  Give  a  course  of  cropping  suitable  for  heavy  land,  and  another  course 
for  light  soils.  Show  the  relative  advantages  of  each  course,  and  state  your 
reasons  for  considering  them  suitable  for  these  soils  respectively. 

27.  Describe  the  practice  of  "bare-fallowing."  Explain  the  reasons  which 
have  led  to  the  growth  of  root -crops  instead  of  bare  fallows,  and  any  advantage 
so  gained. 

28.  How  would  the  system  of  husbandry  most  desirable  for  a  farm  be 
influenced  by  the  character  of  its  soil  and  climate  ? 

29.  What  changes  take  place  in  the  malting  of  barley  ?  What  are  the 
relative  merits  of  barley  and  malt  for  feeding  purposes  ?  and  how  should  they 
be  used  ? 

30.  What  circumstances  influence  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  milk  of 
cows  ?  and  how  may  the  duration  of  the  flow  be  influenced  ? 

31.  How  do  soil  and  climate  influence  the  quality  of  apples  for  table  use, 
and  for  the  manufacture  of  cider  ? 

32.  What  are  the  causes  of  butter  becoming  rancid  and  acquiring  a  bad 
flavour  ?  and  how  may  these  be  prevented  ? 

33.  What  are  the  qualities  we  seek  to  attain  in  breeding  poultry  for  table 
use  ?  and  how  are  these  best  secured  ? 

34.  Do  bees  increase  our  fruit  crops  ?  If  so,  how  is  this  result  accom- 
plished ? 


660  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 

1892. 
Advanced  Stage. 

21.  What  are  the  effects  of  a  top  dressing  of  nitrate  of  soda  upon  a  growing 
crop  of  wheat  ?  and  what  are  the  effects  upon  the  soil  ? 

22.  Why  should  nitrate  of  soda  be  applied  in  spring  ?  In  what  quantity 
is  it  usually  applied  per  acre  ? 

23.  Why  is  the  nitrogen  contained  in  farmyard  manure  slower  and  more 
permanent  in  its  action  than  the  nitrogen  contained  in  nitrate  of  soda  and 
ammonia  salts  ? 

24.  Why  does  wheat  generally  yield  well  after  a  crop  of  red  clover  ?  and 
why  does  it  not  thrive  so  well  after  Italian  ryegrass  ? 

25.  Give  rotations  suitable  for  light  and  for  heavy  soils. 

26.  Under  what  circumstances  ought  lime  to  be  applied  to  land  ?  What 
descriptions  of  rocks  may  be  used  as  sources  of  lime  ? 

27.  Why  is  it  now  thought  desirable  to  harvest  corn  crops  before  they  are 
dead  or  fully  ripe  ?  Why  is  barley  treated  differently  from  wheat  or  oats  in 
this  respect  ? 

28.  What  are  the  relative  values  of  fat,  starch,  sugar,  and  vegetable 
albumen  as  foods  for  stock  ?  Name  some  of  the  principal  commercial  foods 
from  which  these  substances  are  derived. 

29.  Under  what  circumstances  would  you  recommend  thick  or  abundant 
seeding  ?  and  under  what  circumstances  would  you  apply  less  seed  ?  What 
quantities  of  seed  per  acre  would  you  consider  thick  or  thin  seeding  in  the 
case  of  wheat,  oats,  and  barley  ? 

30.  Describe  a  good  bee-hive.  How  are  bees  best  fed  in  winter  ?  and  what 
are  the  proper  seasons  for  feeding  them  ? 

31.  How  may  early  and  abundant  laying  be  secured  in  the  poultry  yard? 
What  means  would  you  use  to  secure  the  best  results  from  sitting  hens  ? 

32.  In  what  respects  has  the  making  of  butter  been  improved  during  recent 
years  as  compared  with  the  older  methods  ? 

1893. 
Advanced  Stage. 

21.  What  are  the  indications  which  would  enable  you  to  distinguish 
between  a  fertile  soil  and  one  which  is  unproductive  ? 

22.  When  lime  has  to  be  applied  to  the  land,  how  would  you  determine 
whether  it  should  be  used  as  quick  or  caustic  lime  or  in  some  milder  form  ? 

23.  Describe  the  various  forms  of  phosphates  which  are  used  as  manure, 
and  show  how  to  select  the  best  and  most  economical  form  for  different  classes 
of  soil. 

24.  Give  the  rotation  of  crops  in  any  district  you  are  acquainted  with ; 
specify  how  each  crop  is  disposed  of,  and  suggest  any  desirable  alterations. 

25.  Under  what  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  are  oats  produced  of  the 
most  nutritive  character,  and  most  abundantly  ? 

26.  Describe  the  process  of  hay-making,  explaining  the  chemical  changes 
which  take  place. 

27.  Select  any  breed,  either  of  cattle  or  sheep,  and  show  how  these  have 
been  rendered  most  profitable  for  any  one  or  more  purposes. 

28.  Explain  the  cause  of  shelter  being  economical  and  beneficial  for  the 
production  of  meat  and  milk. 

_  29.  Describe  the  conditions  which    most  fully  favour  the  production  of 
milk  of  the  highest  value,  and  state  the  general  principles  involved  therein. 


EXAMINATION   PAPERS.  66l 

30.  Explain  the  best  system  of  dairy  management  in  any  district  you  may 
be  acquainted  with,  pointing  out  its  excellencies  and  deficiencies  (if  any). 

31.  Wherein  does  the  Harding  system  of  Cheddar  cheesemaking  differ 
from  the  Canadian  system  now  taught  and  practised  in  the  West  of  Scotland  ? 

32.  What  pasture  grasses  and  other  plants  are  most  desired  by  hill  farmers 
in  Scotland  on  their  sheep  grazings  at  different  parts  of  the  year  ? 

33.  Aberdeenshire,  and  the  north-west  of  Scotland  generally,  has  become 
celebrated  for  the  growth  of  the  turnip  crop.  Can  you  give  any  reasons  for 
this  other  than  the  system  of  farming  followed  ? 

34.  On  what  general  principles  does  the  successful  growth  of  poultry 
depend  ? 

35.  What  are  the  advantages  we  gain  by  keeping  bees  ?  and  how  are  these 
best  secured  ? 

1894. 
Advanced  Stage. 

21.  What  influence  have  sand,  humus,  and  clay  upon  the  tenacity  or 
heaviness  of  a  soil  ?  If  the  soil  is  too  heavy,  how  would  you  lighten  it  ?  If 
too  light,  how  would  you  increase  its  tenacity? 

22.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  nitrogenous  humic  matter  in  soils?  Under 
what  circumstances  will  it  increase?  Under  what  circumstances  will  it 
diminish  ? 

23.  What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  a  summer  fallow  ?  To 
what  soils  and  climates  is  the  practice  most  suitable  ? 

24.  Arrange  ordinary  farm  crops  in  two  classes — those  containing  much 
and  those  containing  little  nitrogen.  Mention  any  differences  in  the  source  of 
the  nitrogen  of  the  crops  you  have  named. 

25.  Describe  briefly  the  process  of  malting  barley,  and  state  the  principal 
changes  which  occur  in  the  structure  and  composition  of  the  grain. 

26.  What  is  the  usual  percentage  of  phosphoric  acid  in  the  manure  known 
as  basic  cinder,  or  Thomas's  slag?  What  conditions  are  necessary  for  its 
successful  use  ?     To  what  crops  is  it  specially  applicable  ? 

27.  Classify  farm  animals  according  to  the  dryness  or  wetness  of  their 
manure,  and  show  how  this  influences  the  amount  of  litter  required.  Classify 
sawdust,  straw,  and  peat-moss,  according  to  their  absorptive  power  as  litter. 
Which  of  these  litters  contains  most  nitrogen? 

28.  Name  the  principal  breeds  of  sheep  in  England  and  Scotland.  Point 
out  those  suitable  for  particular  climates  and  districts,  and  those  especially 
remarkable  for  wool  or  mutton. 

29.  W^hat  general  alterations — (i)  in  the  quantity  of  food  consumed  per 
day,  (2)  in  the  daily  gain  in  live  weight,  (3)  in  the  quantity  of  food  required 
to  produce  a  fixed  weight  of  increase — will  occur  while  a  pig  is  being  fattened  ? 

30.  In  what  forms  does  nitrogen  occur  in  foods  ?  Name  foods  in  which 
each  of  these  forms  a  prominent" constituent.  Mention  the  nutritive  value  of 
these  nitrogenous  compounds  to  the  animal. 

31.  Arrange  the  following  breeds  in  order  of  the  relative  richness  (butter 
contents)  of  their  milk :  Holstein,  Jersey,  Kerry,  Shorthorn.  WTiich  is 
generally  morning's  or  evening's  milk?  The  first  or  last  milk  leaving  the 
udder?  Explain,  if  you  can,  the  cause  of  the  variations  in  richness  last 
mentioned. 

32.  What  are  the  mixtures  usually  employed  for  spraying  fruit  trees,  in 
order  to  check  the  attacks  of  (i)  fungi,  and  (2)  insects? 

33.  Name  the  breeds  of  poultry  most  suitable  for  egg  production.  State 
how  you  would  obtain  the  greatest  productions  of  eggs  in  vrinter  time. 


662  ADVANCED  AGRICULTURE. 


189 1. 
Honours. 

Stx  questions  to  be  answered, 

41.  On  what  principle,  and  by  wliat  method,  would  you  calculate  the 
albuminoid  ratio  of  a  food  ?     Give  an  example. 

42.  Why  is  it  difficult  to  ascertain  correctly  the  albuminoid  ratio  of  turnips, 
swedes,  or  mangel  ? 

43.  Calculate  the  cost  of  maintaining  a  farm-horse  for  one  year.  Deduce 
from  this  calculation  the  cost  per  working-day,  to  the  farmer,  of  maintaining 
a  farm  horse.  In  answering  this  question,  you  must  include  all  incidental 
expenses,  such  as  shoeing,  saddlery,  depreciation,  risk,  etc.,  as  well  as  food. 

44.  Describe  suitable  mixtures  of  food  (stating  the  weights  of  each 
ingredient)  to  be  given  daily  to  a  fattening  bullock  of  about  a  thousand  pounds 
live  weight,  during  the  early ^  middle^  and  later  stages  of  fattening. 

45.  Describe  a  good  system  of  bringing  up  calves,  from  birth  to  weaning. 

46.  Mention  and  describe  six  breeds  of  British  sheep. 

47.  What  amount  of  capital  per  acre  would  be  required  to  enter  and  work 
a  tract  of,  say,  five  hundred  acres  of  arable  land,  of  average  quality  and 
medium  strength  ?  Mention  the  various  headings  into  which  the  sum  named 
would  be  divided,  and  the  proportionate  amount  required  under  each  heading. 

48.  Supply  information  on  the  following  points  connected  with  wheat 
cultivation,  supposing  the  wheat  to  follow  a  root  crop  : — (i)  Preparation  of 
ground.  (2)  Best  period  for  sowing.  (3)  Quantity  of  seed,  i^)  Treatment 
between  sowing  and  harvesting.     (5)  Harvesting. 

49.  Why  do  pastures  tend  to  improve  with  age  ?  Show  how  pastures  may 
be  exhausted  and  rendered  poor  by  dairying,  and  the  raising  of  young  stock. 
Point  out  the  best  methods  of  preventing  these  ill  effects.  Also  say  why  the 
sale  of  butter  would  be  less  likely  to  exhaust  land  than  the  sale  of  milk. 

50.  Upon  what  natural  laws  is  the  value  of  pedigree  in  domesticated 
animals  based?    Explain  their  action. 

51.  In  what  respects  do  our  improved  races  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  pigs 
differ  from  the  original  or  unimproved  races  from  which  they  were  derived  ? 

52.  Describe  the  composition  and  properties  of  cows'  milk. 

53.  Explain  why  the  drainage  of  wet  land  is  followed  by  an  improvement 
in  the  health  of  both  animals  and  plants. 

54.  How  may  rankuess  or  coarseness  (sourness)  in  pastures  be  best 
remedied  ? 

1894. 
Honours. 

41.  Describe  the  circumstances  and  conditions  which  favour  the  produc- 
tion of  farm  seeds  possessing  a  healthy  and  vigorous  character. 

42.  What  hidden  points  of  character  exist  in  seed  corn  of  which  we  have 
no  external  evidence,  and  which  render  a  judicious  "change  of  seed' 
desirable  ? 

43.  What  are  the  conditions  which  influence  the  feeding  value  of  hay? 
and  how  may  these  be  best  secured  ? 

44.  Describe  the  changes  which  take  place  in  "root  crops"  during  their 
ripening,  pointing  out  the  differences  observable  in  their  use  by  stock,  as  they 
are  more  or  less  matured. 

45.  What  principles  are  involved  in  the  management  of  a  flock  of  sheep, 
when  early  maturity  and  a  good  fleece  are  required  ? 


EXAMINATION   PAPERS.  663 

46.  Describe  the  formation  of  milk,  and  indicate  the  conditions  whereby 
the  flow  may  be  made  more  or  less  abundant. 

47.  How  does  the  breathing  of  impure  air  in  cow-houses  which  are  badly 
ventilated  influence  the  milk  produced,  and  the  products  manufactured  from 
such  milk  ? 

48.  Select  one  of  our  established  breeds  of  cattle  or  sheep,  and  show  the 
principles  involved — 

{a)  In  the  establishment  of  that  breed. 

{d)  In  securing  their  continued  fertility  and  high  quality. 

49.  Give  an  outline  of  the  economy  of  bee-hives,  tracing  the  development 
of  the  queens  and  workers  respectively. 

50.  Describe  the  structure  of  an  egg,  pointing  out  the  changes  taking  place 
during  incubation,  and  the  conditions  which  favour  healthy  growth. 


INDEX. 


Abortion,  260 
Aberdeen-Angus  cattle,  448 
Acids,  vegetable,  103 
Air-drains,  381 
Air,  pressure  of,  20,  650 
Albuminoid  ratios,  501 
Albuminoids,  vegetable,  103 
Albumins,  animal,  115 
Alkaloids,  105 
Alluvia]  soils,  9,  lo 
Alumina,  60 
Amides,  104 
Ammonia  fixers,  75 
Ammonium  chloride,  88 
Ammonium   sulphate,   88 ;    applica- 
tion, 360 
Anatomy  of  farm  animals,  210 
Anbury,  203 
Anchylosis,  226 

Animal  body,  composition  of,  114 
Apatite,  3 
Ashes  of  plants,  105 
Assimilation  of  plants,  109 
Atavism,  459 
Augite,  2 

Autumn  cultivation,  281 
Ayrshire  cattle,  451 
Azoturia,  239 


B 


Barley,  composition  of,  69 ;  cultiva- 
tion of,  309,  319,  339  ;  malting  of, 
no 

Basalt,  4 

Basic  slag  composition,  93 ;  applica- 
tion, 361 

Beans,  composition,  171 ;  cultivation, 
310,    320,    342 ;     duration,     168 ; 


habits,  168,  1 70  J  nutritive  value, 
172;  principles  of  cultivation,  172; 
requirements,  170;  ripening,  172; 
seed  formation,  170 

Beef-production,  464 

Bees,  classes  of,  597  ;  and  fruit,  602  ; 
functions  of,  599  ;  general  manage- 
ment of,  605  J  life  of,  598 

Berkshire  pigs,  568 

Bile,  121 

Black-quarter,  238 

Blood  manures,  89  ;  application,  360 

Bogs,  draining,  381 

Boilers,  23 

Bone  manures,  91,  92 ;  application, 
360 

Bones,  diseases  of,  225 

Bones  of  farm  animals,  212 

Border  Leicesters,  514 

Botany,  agricultural,  125 

Boxes  for  cattle,  511 

Braxy,  248 

Breeding,  principles  of,  458 

Brewers'  grains,  114 

Broadcast-sowing  machines,  38 

Broken  knees,  231 

Broom-rapes,  195 

Budding,  646 

Bunt,  209 

Eutter-making,  614 

Butter,  rancidity  of,  619 

Butyric  acid,  119 

Byres,  512 


Cabbage    crops,    composition,    147 ; 

duration,    146 ;   habits,    146,    147  ; 

nutritive  value,  148 ;  principles  of 

cultivation,  148  ;  requirements,  147 
Cabbages,  cultivation   of,   314,  326, 

345 


666 


INDEX. 


Cake-breakers,  52 

Cakes,   refuse,   87 ;    application    of, 

359 

Calcite,  3 

Calf-rearing,  467 

Calves,  management  of,  474 

Cane-sugar,  10 1 

Capped  hock,  232 

Carbohydrates,  100,  118 

Carbonic  acid,  action  of,  6 ;  in  soils, 
61 

Carnallite,  93 

Carrots,  cultivation  of,  314,  325,  344 

Carts,  46 

Casein,  116 

Cattle,  breeds  of,  437 ;  cost  of  feed- 
^i^g>  490  J  feeding,  498  j  housing, 
509  ;  management  of,  462  ;  on  a 
farm,  485 ;  on  clay  land,  495  ; 
rearing,  476  ;  rising  three,  manage- 
ment of,  482 ;  two-year-old,  man- 
agement of,  481  ;  selection  of,  462 

Cellulose,  loi 

Cereal  crops,  composition,  163  ;  culti- 
vation, 166;  duration,  158;  habits, 
158,^  }S9i  166  J  harvesting,  337  ; 
nutritive  value,  164  ;  requirements, 
162  J  ripening,  165 

Chaff-cutters,  51 

Chalk,  1 1 ;  as  manure,  96 

Cheese-making,  620 

Chemical  analyses  of  soils,  value  of, 
58 

Chemistry  of  manures,  68 

Cheviot  sheep,  527 

Chlorine  in  soils,  61 

Chlorophyll,  104 

Choking  of  animals,  241 

Clay,  56 

Clay-burning,  action  of,  67 ;  practice 
of,  292 

Claying,  295 

Cleveland  Bays,  418 

Clod- crushers,  33 

Clover  crops,  148;  cultivation  of, 
and  seeds,  330 

Clovers,  for  permanent  pastures,  405  ; 
leaves  of,  151 

Clydesdales,  412 

Coal  measures,  12 

Colic,  242 

Colostrum,  composition  of,  470 

Common  salt,  96 

Composts,  358 

Cooking  apparatus,  53 

Cooley  creamer,  611 


Coppices,  633 
Corals  as  manure,  95 
Corn-mills,  51 
Corn-screens,  50 
Cotswold  sheep,  518 
Covered  yards,  510 
Cream  cheese,  613 
Cream-raising,  610 
Cream,  ripening  of,  613 
Crimson  clover,  174 
Crops,  classification  of,  132 ;  experi- 
ments with,  656  ;  syllabus  for,  308 
Croskill  roller,  33 
Crossing  in  breeding,  461 
Crossing  of  seed,  183 
Curb,  232 


Dairy,  608 
Dairying,  464,  608 
Dartmoor  sheep,  533 
Dental  diseases,  25 1 
Dentition  of  cattle,  250 ;  horses,  249 
Devon  cattle,  442 ;  long  wools,  520 
Devonshire  cream,  611 
Dew,  653 
Dextrin,  loi,  118 
Diarrhoea,  246 

Digestion,  gastric,  120 ;  intestinal, 
122;    pancreatic,     121,;    salivary, 

."9. 

Digestive  organs,  anatomy  of,  214; 
diseases  of,  240 

Digging,  286 

Diorite,  4 

Dodders,  194 

Dolomite,  3 

Dominant  ingredients  of  crops,  72 

Dorset  horn  sheep,  532 

Drainage,  364 ;  advantages,  367 ; 
chemical  action  of,  67  ;  cost,  382  ; 
materials  for,  376  ;  of  various  soils, 
389  ;  practice  of,  375  ;  systems  of, 
372 ;  waters,  plant-food  removed 
by,  389 

Draining-plough,  383 

Drains,  after  -  management,  385  ; 
cutting,  379  ;  depth  of,  386  ;  length 
of,  388  ;  plug,  385  ;  reciprocal 
action  of,  385 ;  wedge-and-shoulder, 
384  ;  width  apart  of,  388 

Drills,  36 

Ducks,  591 

Dysentery,  246 


INDEX. 


66^ 


£ 


Ear-cockles,  278 

Early  maturity  of  cattle,  486 

Eggs,  585 

Elevators,  45 

Engineering,  agricultural,  18 

Epidermis  of  plants,  128 

Ergot  of  rye,  205 

Ewes,  barren,    539;   drafting,   534 

and  lambs,  management  of,  545 
Excreta  of  farm  animals,  349 
Excretion,  chemistry  of,  122 
Excretion,  epidermal,  123 
Experiments,  agricultural,  655 
Exmoor  sheep,  532 
Extractives,  104 
Eye,  diseases  of,  255 


F 


Fallowing,  280 

Fallows,  302 

Farm  crops,  132 

Farmyard  manure,  application,  349  ; 

composition,  75,  76  ;  fermentation, 

73;  value  of,  77 
Fats  and  oils,  102,  Il8 
Felspar,  2 
Felstone,  4 
Fertility,  signs  of,  17 
Fertilization  of  plants,  13 1 
Fever,  225 
Fibrin,  116 
Finger-and-toe,  203 
Fishery  refuse,  83 
Fish  guano,  84 

Flax,  cultivation  of,  317,  336,  348 
Flying  stock,  564 
Foaling,  422 
Fogs,  653 

Foods,    composition,     500;    digest- 
ibility,    499 ;      for     cattle,     507 ; 

mixing,  507  ;  water  in,  505 
Foot,  anatomy  of,  219 ;    diseases  of, 

227 
Foot  and  mouth  disease,  238 
Forage,    cereals,    174;    crops,    173; 

vetches,  174 
Forests,  uses  of,  621 
Fowls,  breeds,  582 ;   food  for,  590  ; 

treatment  of,  587 
Fractures  of  bones,  226 
Freybentos  guano,  84 


Friction,  20 

Fruit,  culture,  637  ;  gathering,  644 ; 

manures  for,  638 ;   preparation  of 

ground   for,  638  j    soils  for,  637  ; 

storing,  645 
Fruit  sugar,  102 
Fruit  trees,  planting,  642 ;  pruning, 

643  ;  varieties  of,  639 
Fungoid  diseases,  202 


Galloway  cattle,  450 

Gas-engines,  29 

Gas-lime,  94 

Gas-liqour,  composition,  88 ;  appli- 
cation, 360 

Gastritis,  242 

Gault,  II 

Geese,  592 

Geology,  agricultural,  i 

Germinating  seeds,  quality  of,  18 1 

Germination,  of  seeds,  177  ;  test  of 
seeds,  181 

Gimmers,  breeding  from,  555 

Glacial  drift,  10 

Gneiss,  5 

Gorse,  cultivation  of,  334 

Gorse-mills,  52 

Grafting,  645 

Grain-formation,  162 

Granite,  13 

Grape-sugar,  102 

Grass  crops,  composition,  155  ;  dura- 
tion, 148;  habits,  148,  149,  153; 
nutritive  value,  155  ;  principles  of 
cultivation,  156,  157;  require- 
ments, 152 ;  ripening,  154 

Grasses,  for  permanent  pastures,  402  \ 
poor,  405 

Green-crop  manuring,  85 

Greensand,  11 

Growing-point  of  plants,  127 

Grubbers,  32 

Grubbing,  286 

Grugite,  93 

Guano,  application,  356 ;  compo- 
sition, 79  ;  properties,  80 

Guernsey  cattle,  457 

Guinea-hens,  595 

Gypsum,  3  ;  as  manure,  95 


H 

Hackneys,  416 
Hair  and  wool,  219 


66S 


INDEX. 


Hammels,  510 

Hampshire  Down  sheep,  523 
Harrowing,  285 
Harrows,  32 
Hatching  eggs,  587 
Hay  and  straw-presses,  51 
Haymakers,  43 
Haymaking,  347 
Heart  and  circulation,  216 
Heat  of  animal  body,  217 
Heifers,  management  of,  483 
Hemp,  cultivation  of,  336,  348 
Herdwicks,  530 
Heredity  in  breeding,  460 
Hereford  cattle,  440 
Herefordshire  system,  493 
Hessian  fly,  274 
Hill-farming,  564 
Hives,  602 

Hoggs,  management  of,  550 
Hoose,  236 
Honey,  601 
Hop  mildew,  208 

Hops,  cultivation  of,  317,  335,  348 
Hornblende,  2 
Horn  dust,  84 
Horns,  structure  of,  213 
Horse-bots,  242 

Horse-forks,  44  ;  hoes,  40 ;  rakes,  43 

Horses,  410 ;  breaking,  424 ;  cost  of 

keeping,  427  ;   management,   419, 

432 
Human  egesta,  81 
Hummelers,  50 
Humus,  56 
Hypertrophy,  237 


Implements,  agricultural,  29 

Impervious  os,  260 

In-and-in  breeding,  460 

Incubators,  589 

Inflammation,  221  ;  of  bladder,  258 

Influenza,  239 

Insect  pests,  267 

Insects,  coleopterous,  269  ;  dipterous, 
274 ;  homopterous,  276  ;  hymenop- 
terous,  271 J  lepidopterous,  272 ; 
thysanopterous,  271 

Intestinal  diseases  of  horses,  242,  243 

Inulin,  loi 

Irish  cattle,  458 

Iron  in  soils,  60 

Iron,  sulphate  of,  96 


I  Irrigation,  391 ;  mode  of  action,  392 
soils  suitable,  392  ;  systems,  393 
Italian  rye-grass,  332 


J 


Jersey  cattle,  455 
Jersey  creamer,  611 
Jerusalem  artichoke,  336 
Joint-fellon,  249 


Kainit,   application,    361  ;   composi- 
tion, 93 
Kale,  cultivation  of,  315,  328,  346 
Kaolin,  2 

Kidneys,  diseases,  257  ;  structure,  218 
Kohl-rabi,  cultivation  of,  315, 327, 345 


Lambing-fold,  540 

Lambs,  house,  565  j  management  of, 

543,  545 

Leaf,  structure  and  functions,  130 

Leather  waste,  84 

Leguminous  forage  crops,  316 

Leicesters,  513 

Levers,  18 

Lias  clay,  12 

Lime,  in  soils,  60  ;  manures,  applica- 
tion, 362 ;  composition,  94 

Liming,  action  of,  67 

Lincoln  sheep,  516 

Liquid  manure,  application,  357  j 
composition,  82 

Liver,  diseases,  247  ;  structure,  216 

Live  stock,  410;  experiments  with, 

655 
London  clay,  11 
Longhorn  cattle,  447 
Lonks,  531 

Lucerne,  cultivation  of,  333 
Lungs  and  respiration,  217 
Lupines,  cultivation  of,  334 
Lymphangitis,  233 


M 

Magnesia  in  soils,  61 
Magnesian  limestone,  12 


INDEX. 


669 


Magnesic  manures,  97 

Magnetite,  2 

Maize,  cultivation  of,  334 

Malt  as  food,  112 

Malt-combings,  113 

Malting  barley,  167 

Malting  of  barley,  1 10 

Manchester  manure,  85 

Mangel-wurzel,   cultivation   of,  314, 

324,  344 

Manures,  application,  362 ;  artificial, 
87  ;  chemistry  of,  68 ;  classification, 
72,  98  ;  general,  73  ;  miscellaneous, 
94  J  mixing,  98  ;  nitrogenous,  87  j 
phosphatic,  89 ;  potassic,  93 ;  use 
of,  97 ;  vegetable,  85 

Mare  and  foal,  management  of,  423 

Marls,  95 

Meat-meal,  85 

Mesenteric  disease,  248 

Metastasis  of  plants,  1 10 

Meteorology,  648 

Mica,  2 

Milk,  composition  of,  470 

Milk  fever,  266 

Milk  sugar,  102,  1 18 

Millipedes,  278 

Millstone  grit,  12 

Mixing  soils,  295 

Mole-plough,  383 

Mountain  limestone,  13 

Mowing  machines,  40 

Mustard,  cultivation  of,  316,  334 

N 

Native  guano,  80 

Navicular  disease,  230 

Necrosis,  226 

Nervous  system,  anatomy  of,  218  ; 
diseases  of,  253 

New  Red  Sandstone,  12 

Night-soil,  application,  357;  com- 
position, 81 

Nitrate  of  potash,  87 

Nitrate  of  soda,  application,  359 ; 
composition,  87 

Nitrification,  641 

Nitrogen  in  soils,  61 

Nitrogenous  fats,  119 


Oats,   composition,   69;  cultivation, 

310,  320,  339 
Oil-engines,  27 


Old  Red  Sandstone,  13 
Olein,  ng 
Olivine,  3 
Oolite,  II 

Organic  matter  in  soils,  56 
Osier  plantations,  634 
Osteo  sarcoma,  226 
Oxford  Down  sheep,  525 
Oxygen,  action  of,  7 


Palmitin,  118 

Paring  and  burning,  294 

Parsnips,  cultivation  of,  326 

Parturition,  261 ;  of  sheep,  542 

Patella,  luxation  of,  232 

Peas,  cultivation  of,  311,  321,  342 

Pectose  group,  103 

Pedigree  seed,  182 

Pericarditis,  237 

Peritonitis,  246 

Permanent  pastures,  398  ;  after-culti- 
vation, 407  ;  grasses  for,  402  ; 
mixtures  for,  406 ;  seeding,  400 

Phosphates,  mineral,  90 

Phosphoric  acid  in  soils,  61 

Physics,  agricultural,  14 

Pigeons,  595 

Piggeries,  580 

Pigs,  breeds  of,  566;  castration  of, 
574 ;  fattening,  577  ;  food  for,  579  ; 
management  of,  571 ;  weaning, 
575  »  young,  management  of,  576 

Plants,  chemical  changes  in,  106 ; 
composition,  99 ;  organic  consti- 
tuents, 100 ;  reproductive  organs, 

131 

Ploughing,  282 

Ploughs,  30 

Pollen,  601 

Polyhalite,  93 

Ponies,  418 

Potash,  in  soils,  60 ;  manures,  appli- 
cation, 361  ;  composition,  93 

Potato  disease,  206 

Potatoes,  cultivation  of,  315,  328,  346 

Potato-planter,  38  ;  raiser,  45 

Poudrette,  application,  357 ;  com- 
position, 80 

Poultry,  581  J  house,  584 ;  killing  and 
dressing,  595 

Precipitated  phosphates,  93 

Prepotency  in  breeding,  459 

Prickly  comfrey,  334 


670 


INDEX. 


Primary  rocks,  13 

Propolis,  602 

Proteids,  animal,  115 

Protoplasm,  127 

Proximate  constituents  of  soils,  54 

Pulleys,  19 

Purgatives,  224 

Purity  test  of  seeds,  180 

Purpurea  hsemorrhagica,  239 

Pyrites,  2 


Quartz,  2 


R 


Rainfall,  651 

Rams,  management,   538  ;  selection, 

537       ,  ,      . 

Rape,  cultivation,  315,  327,  345  ; 
principles  of  cultivation,  175 

Reapers,  41 

Red  Polled  cattle,  446 

Red-water  in  cattle,  248 

Refuse  hair  and  wool,  84 

Renal  secretion,  122 

Respiration  of  animals,  124;  of  plants, 
109 

Respiratory  organs,  diseases  of,  233 

Rickets,  226 

Rick-lifters,  44 

Rinderpest,  238 

Rock,  definition,  I 

Rock-forming  minerals,  2 

Rocks,  metamorphic,  4 ;  plutonic, 
4 ;  stratified,  5  ;  unstratified,  4 

Rollers,  33 

Rolling,  286 

Romney  Marsh  sheep,  519 

Root  crops,  chemical  changes  during 
ripening,  138;  composition,  136; 
cultivation,  311,  322;  duration, 
132;  habits,  133,  134,  136;  influ- 
ence of  climate  on,  141  ;  modes  of 
using,  138 ;  nutritive  value,  137  ; 
principles  of  cultivation,  138,  141  ; 
requirements,  135,  136 

Roots,  functions  of,  129;  structure 
of,  128 

Root-washers,  53 

Rotations  of  crops,  advantages  of, 
297  ;  bad,  307  ;  conditions  modify- 
ing* 300 ;  construction  of,  jP99 ; 
examples  of,  303 


Rotations  of  crops  for  light  and  heavy 

soils,  306  ;  modifications  of,  305 
Rye,  cultivation  of,  310,  320,  34I 
Ryeland  sheep,  533 


S 


Sainfoin,  cultivation  of,  333 

Salt,  application  of,  362 

Sand,  55 

Scotch  Blackfaced  sheep,  528 

Scufflers,  40 

Seaweed,  application  of,  358  ;  com- 
position of,  86 

Seeds,  adulteration  and  doctoring, 
187;  change  of,  186;  character  of 
commercial,  1 78  ;  construction  and 
properties,  176 ;  effect  of  age  on, 
184,  185  ;  germinating,  178  ;  ger- 
mination of,  177  ;  immature,  179  ; 
impurities  of,  179  ;  old,  185  ;  pedi- 
gree, 182  ;  selection  of,  183  ;  test- 
ing, 180 ;  vital  power  of,  175  ; 
weights  of,  336 

Selection  in  breeding,  460 

Self-binders,  42 

Separators,  612 

Serpentine,  3 

Sesamoiditis,  233 

Sewage,  395 

Sheep,  ages  of,  536 ;  breeds  of,  513  ; 
cost  of  feeding,  554 ;  dipping,  559  ; 
management  of,  533  j  marking,  547  ; 
names  of,  534 ;  on  arable  land, 
563  ;  shearing,  556  ;  washing,  559 

Sheep-fold  manure,  application,  357  ; 
composition,  83 

Sheep-washing,  salts  from,  94 

Shell-sands,  95 

Shire  horses,  410 

Shorthorns,  437 

Shropshire  Down  sheep,  523 

Silica  as  a  manure,  97  ;  in  soils,  59 

Skin  diseases,  256 

Slate,  4 

Slaughter-house  refuse,  84 

Slugs,  279 

Smut  of  corn,  207 

Snow,  652 

Soda  in  soils,  60 

Sodic  manures,  application,  362 ; 
composition,  96 

Soils,  absorptive  and  retentive  power, 
62  ;  alluvial,  9,  10 ;  capacity  for 
heat,  16  ;  capillarity,  15  ;  chemistry 


INDEX. 


671 


of,  54  ;  composition  of,  54,  59,  62  ; 
distribution  of,  9,  13 ;  drift,  9 ; 
evaporative  power  of,  16  j  forma- 
tion of,  5,  56  ;  heavy,  10 ;  hygro- 
scopicity  of,  15  ;  light,  10 ;  poor, 
10 ;  porosity  of,  15  ;  proximate 
constituents  of,  54  ;  rich,  10 ; 
sedentary,  9  ;  texture  of,  15  » 
weight  of,  14  ;  wetness  of,  371 

Soot,  application,  360 ;  composition, 
89 

South  Down  sheep,  521 

South  Ham  sheep,  520 

Splenic  apoplexy,  247 

Sprains,  232 

Spring  rust  of  corn,  207 

Springs,  drainage  of,  381 

Stables,  433 

Stalls  for  horses,  435 

Starch,  100 

Steam,  cultivation,  287,  290  ;  cultiva- 
tors, 35  ;  diggers,  35  ;  discers,  35  ; 
engines,  23  ;  harrows,  35  ;  ploughs, 

34 
Stearin,  119 
Stem  eelworms,  278 
Stems,  forms  and  functions  of,  130 ; 

structure  of,  129 
Stockmen,  duties  of,  496 
Stomach,  diseases  of,  244 
Strawsonizer,  38 
Sturdy,  255 

Subsoil,  17 ;  ploughing,  290 
Suffolk  Down  sheep,  524 
Suffolk  pigs,  569  ;  Punches,  413 
Sulphates  in  soils,  61 
Summer  rust  of  com,  208 
Superphosphate  of  lime,  application, 

360  ;  composition,  89 
Sussex  cattle,  445 
Swarming  of  bees,  603 
Swartz  cans,  611 
Swedes,  composition  of,  69 
Syenite,  4 


Tamworth  pigs,  569 

Tannin,  105 

Tanyard  waste,  84 

Teazles,  cultivation  of,  336,  348 

Tedders,  43 

Temperature,  648 

Tertiary  formations,  10 

Tetanus,  254 


Thoroughbred  horses,  415 

Threshing,  341 

Threshing  machines,  48 

Tillage  operations,  chemical  action 
of,  66  ;  cost  of,  280 

Tillering  of  cereals,  160 

Timber,  634 

Toothed  wheels,  i8 

Trachite,  4 

Transporting  agencies,  7 

Trees,  classes  of,  622  ;  management 
of,  631  ;  planting,  628 ;  propaga- 
tion of,  627 

Trefoil,  cultivation  of,  332 

Trench-ploughing,  291 

Trifolium,  cultivation  of,  316,  332 

Tuber  crops,  composition  of,  144 ; 
duration  of,  142 ;  habits  of,  142- 
144  ;  multiplication  of,  143  ;  nutri- 
tive value  of,  145 ;  principles  of 
cultivation  of,  145,  146;  require- 
ments of,  144 ;  ripening  of,  145 

Turbines,  23 

Turkeys,  593 

Turnips,    cultivation    of,    314,    322, 

343 
Turnip  cutters,  52 
Turnip  fly,  270 


U 


Underwood  in  plantations,  634 
Urea,  123 
Urticaria,  240 


Vagina,  eversion  of,  265 

Vaginitis,  259 

Variation  in  breeding,  459 

Variation  of  seed,  183 

Vegetable  cell,  125 

Vessels  of  plants,  128 

Vetches,  cultivation  of,  315,  331 

Veterinary  science,  221 


W 


Waggons,  47 
Warbles,  257 
Warping,  396 

Water,  chemical  action  of,  6  ;  flow 
of,  21  ;  weight  of,  21  ;  wheels,  23 


6/2 


INDEX. 


Weaning  lambs,  548 

Weathering  of  soils,  5,  64 

Weeds,  189 ;  extirpation  of,  195 ; 
growth  of,  193 ;  harm  done  by, 
197  ;  list  of,  198 ;  multiplication 
of,  191 ;  soils  suitable  for,  189 

Welsh  cattle,  454 ;  mountain  sheep, 

531 
Wensleydale  sheep,  514 
West  Highland  cattle,  453 
Wheat,  cultivation  of,  308,  317,  339  ; 

composition  of,  69 
White  mustard,  175 
White  scour,  248 
Wind,  653 
Windgalls,  232 
Windmills,  20 
Wood  ashes,  93 


Woods  and  plantations,  621 
Woody  fibre  of  plants,  128 
Work,  19 
Wounds,  230 


Yards  for  cattle,  510 
Yearling  cattle,  management  of,  479 
Yorkshire  coach-horses,  418 
Yorkshire  pigs,  566 


Zeolites,  3 


reiNTBD   BY   WILLIAM   CLOWES   AND  SONS,    LIMITED,   LONDON    AND   BBwXLES. 


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